Five-Tone Scales and Civilization

Five-Tone Scales and Civilization
Author(s): Bence Szabolcsi

Source: Acta Musicologica , Jan. - Dec., 1943, Vol. 15, Fasc. 1/4 (Jan. - Dec., 1943), pp.
24-34
Published by: International Musicological Society
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/932058
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24 Five-Tone Scales and Civilization
Five-Tone Scales and Civilization
by Bence Szabolcsi (Budapest)

I.
The five-tone system - apparently a juvenile heritage of mankind, early

divided among the different communities and zones of civilization - has
excited for many decades the increased attention of folklorists and music
scholars. English, German, French, Russian, Polish, Finnish and Turkish
scholars occupied themselves with it more or less thoroughly, and since the
recent researches have brought to light an explicit pentatonic style in
Hungarian, Roumanian and Cheremis (Middle-Volga) territories, also some
Hungarian searchers examined the problem in several treatises.')
The point of view from which the scholars of different nationality looked
at the problem differs curiously according to their nationalities. German
scholars were almost unanimously of the opinion that five-tone system was
a general primitive symptom of musical evolution (Riemann, Lach, Horn-
bostel, Lachmann and others). Russian, Polish and Finnish musicologues
examined the question between certain national limits (Tolstoj, Kwitka,
Windakiewiczowa, Launis); the Turkish searchers were rather inclined to take
it for the characteristic of a certain ancient Middle-Asiatic civilization (Raghib
Kiisemihal, Adnan, Ferruh Arsunar); and meanwhile French scholars (like
d'Harcourt and Touze) took a middle course, the English and Dutch musi-
cologues (Ellis, Kunst) seeing a mere acoustic problem in the five-tone
scales.
But what about the problem of the "general primitive symptom?" If we sup-
pose - on the ground of the abundant material hitherto accessible - the
five-tone system to be really ubiquitous, a musical "primary thought" (Ele-
mentargedanke) of mankind, there would he neither a commensurability nor
a gradual evolution possible between the different five-tone styles. The five-
tone system would accordingly be a primitive uniform symptom,-a consensus
gentium, without any connection, any regard as to the form of its appearance,
its maturity, its spreading and its local situation. It would be the same in
Scotland and in Peru as well as in China, Congo or Hungary, a universal
basis of the entire musical evolution.
Now it can be objected that this opinion may stand only in a merel
theoretical point of view and it leaves entirely inexplicated why the pentaton
system exists as an autonomous mode of musical thinking in its full ripeness
within some zones of civilization, while in others it is entirely missing an
not even its former existence seems probable.
Are we obliged to presuppose here the process of historical displacemen
1) See hereover the account of D. v. Bartha: Neue ungarische Literatur zur vergleichenden
Melodieforschung, Acta Mus. VIII. 1936. I--II.

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Five-Tone Scales and Civilization 25
and covering? or should'nt we rather assume t

a necessary stage in musical evolution, that t
is not accidental, but that it has rather a positive significance in social
history? We incline to the latter view and will approach the problem in
this sense.
If we consider the pentatonic system in connection with the principles

melodic structure, i. e. with the form in which it manifests itself, we must
before all come to the result that there can be no question of a general
pentatonic style but rather of several entirely different pentatonic styles.
It seems necessary therefore to examine and to compare these styles and
to search after a possible coherence between them.
Some scholars, like Schiinemann und Kodily, have already examined the
pentatonic system (Tartar and Cheremis melodies) in this sense, i. e. con-
nected with formal principles. These as well as other recent results may
serve us as guides to further researches.
II.
First of all we must divide the pentatonic material into two groupes: into
the so-called anhemitonic (i. e. without semi-tones) and into the hemitonic
five-tone system (constructed with semi-tone intervals); the latter is mostly
characterized also by the major third-interval (ditonia). E. g.
anhemitonic type: g - b - c - d - f
ditonic or hemitonic type: ges - b - c - des - f
Hornbostel calls the attention to the common permanent fourths (Geriist-
quarten) of these two systems (g - c - f);2) they also play an important
part in the recent theory of Marius Schneider.3)
The first system is characteristic of every kind of pentatonic melody-style,
the latter - as Riemann has already recognized it (Folkloristische Tonali-
tiitsstudien 1916) - is typical for the late, mixed stages of certain civili-
zations; thus for the late Hellenistic and for the actual Japanese music.
Besides we know also a third kind of pentatonia, that which devides the
octave - as a tempered "distance-scale" - into five equal parts (Javanese
slkndro-system). Its origin is uncertain, several scholars, like J. P. N. Land,
trace it back to Chinese, some others (J. Kunst) to Hindoo sources. Our
investigations are restrained to the anhemitonic form.
It is also but in a limited measure that we may take in those pentatonic
formations which are of a mixed, derivative, rudimentary or unmature
2) Zeitschr. f. Musikwiss. XIV. 1932. 236. R. Lachmann (Musik des Orients 1929. 41.)
deducts the anhemitonic form from the pure fifth-tuning of stringed instruments, the hemitonic
form from >blow-fifth<< tuning (Blasquintenstimmung). The same scholar sees the difference
between these two types in the two sorts of division of the fourth-interval: with minor third
or major third (Die Musik der aussereurop. Natur- und Kulturviilker 1929. 20, 22.).
3) Geschichte der Mehrstimmigkeit I. 1934. 18.

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character, e. g. that of Northern Europe which

form of the major scale. We will try to restrain
most developed forms and examine the six preva
within these limits we have to overlook vast ter
civilizations as well as nomad cultures, flourish
stages. But the common feature of all these sphe
comparatively highly developed; each of them h
ancient phases of evolution. Accordingly they a
sense - the old "high-cultures" and so they refe
earliest human civilization. Was there a connection between these centres
or have they gone through an isolated course of evolution? That is a pr
which - in a great part - may be solved by musical science one day
There now follow 12 melodies, representatives of 6 different pent
styles. We will give each of them transposed into a common pen
system (g - b - c - d - f).
1)
2A-A - A-m- --L
L_ I I Ii1II i FOII1 1 Fl1 !1 F
2)
1V-17147I , "In!/ 1 I i liANIi , - ow
A& -AS -AhL---- AL -?

I l , -
,lIff II /-- A& I--- AIrIL'-

________________ -'-1,
0rO 1 1 i ERF ?
- ~ am 1 L7J
g;5)? u ,F
rrVi,'. 1 I ' I i I 1 I i I I i .| / l ii 1 1 ' ~ ~', iI- IJ J''

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Ari-_1L "F F( r' ' i l lr I- F I Ir- r- 0-O f,... . . ..0m" . . . .
a AV Iv r
irr-lv I1ml I i-?RE
t ltmI II
I I IIN
I Im-| I1
miI
8)
P 1 ? 1 I F- 11,!j IN S [ . 1 / I
rrrI liftl A& A.
_i i-.. Ira, ,, W m i I.J .J * I i, i J1 ( I L. L.J We J .llz ~ z I
ci ;J
. L m
j l I I " ! I I " - l !iIJ 1 1 " l v 1 I - -

dow-I . Fi ? rrI
9)
10)M, I n II" I l I I - I ,
RrEin
AM I IaI And
II I I -
" __
I -A Im
]. fapo al f.
. _-E[i rm ! m i m, 1 I [

190.145.240.49 on Mon, 17 Apr 2023 01:08:38 UTC
Sources: 1) Gregorian melody: Liber Usualis Missae et Offic

p. 12. - 2) Indochinese melody, publ. by Knosp, Lavignac, Encycl. V. 1922. p. 3104. -
3) Chinese melody, recorded by the author 1934. - 4) Turkestan melody, publ. by Nurullah
Sevket, Miizik ve Sanat Hareketleri, Istanbul 1934. No. 3. p. 14. - 5) Hungarian melody,
publ. by Bart6k, Hungarian Folk Music, London 1931. No. 71a. - 6) Cheremis melody, publ.
by Wassilyew, Marij Muro, Kazan 1919-20. No. 32. - 7) Negro melody from Dahomy,
publ. by Tiersot, Lavignac 1. c. 3206. - 8) Yuma-melody, publ. by G. Herzog, Journal of
American Folk-lore XLI. 1928 p. 212. - 9) Peruvian melody, publ. by d'Harcourt, Lavignac
1.c. 3355. - 10) Negro-Spiritual, publ. in Riemann-Einstein, Musiklexikon 1929. I. 188. -
11) Scotch melody, publ. by Moffat, The Minstrelsy of Scotland 1896 p. 10. - 12) German
melody, publ. by J. Meier, Deutsche Volkslieder mit ihren Melodien I. 1935. 79.
Let us see what these examples show to us.
III.
Firstly we observe as many musical principles as there are melodies. U

examination, however, we may discover some groups which appear to
in a closer connection with one another.
We perceive before all the Asian, more strictly the Middle-Asian type wh
we see in five examples (No. 2-6): in the Indochinese, the Chinese, th
Turkestan, the Hungarian and the Cheremis melody. The first was rec
in Annam, the second after the song of a Chinese in Budapest, the th
Middle-Asia (Turkestan), the fourth in a Hungarian village, the fifth
Volga-region. The characteristic of this pattern is a melodic phrase appear
higher at first, and afterwards lower: in this way the strophic form
built up. Thus the strophe is divided into two symmetrical halves; two m
lines sound high, two low, - always a fifth or a fourth lower. Accord
it is here the double-line that seems to be the fundament of the form, wh
the form-building principle is the transposition. Similar principles gli
through the more complicated Chinese and Indonesian forms, while, o
other hand we see simpler forms, built up out of a single melody-line, am
the Buryats of Middle-Asia. (B. Baskuyew: Sbornik buryat-mongolskich pj
Moscow 1935.) Cheremis melodies from the Volga-region may serve as rem
able examples for the process of a longer strophic form arising by w
putting one single melody-phrase lower and lower (Ex. 6.). In the "low
itself - as Z. Kodaily has shown it lately - some characteristic
principles are manifesting themselves: the transposition is often quite ex
but frequently it performs, in the interest of the tonal unity, such alterati
the melody, by the aid of surrogative tones, which remind us of the
comes relation in the classical fugue-literature. In the former case the me
is placed into two five-tone systems (bi-pentatonic), in the latter in a
one. All these peculiarities can be followed in the Turkish, Tartaric,
golian, Indochinese folk-music.
More "primitive" seems the Gregorian melody (Ex. 1.). The ancestor
this type we find in the old Oriental Hebrew psalmody; according t
collections of Idelsohn and Saminsky it is the prevalent form of the a

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Jewish songs in Yemen and the Caucasus. Therefore

Asiatic type. It is based upon a three-tonic, graduall
characteristic is the declamatory repetition of the h
a gradual descent. So we have before us a three-to
step by step - widens to a five-tonic system. The
not every pentatonia its origin in such trichords
be answered; but that the Western Asian type ha
three-tonic motive is proved among others by th
of this very thrichordal beginning-motive through
periphery of Western Asiatic civilizations, from Ar
dies to Transsylvanian Szekler, Roumanian and ev
Regarding the formal development, the construc
melody (Ex. 7.) is rather advanced in comparison
It is based upon a short rhythmical, tone-repeati
- occasionally rondo-like - into a chain of variations. This rondo-form is,
of course with capricious and casual alterations, a characteristic pattern of
the music of some Negro regions. Several interesting examples of this kind
came to light from Western Africa and the Congo district; it is not impossible
that its zone of divulgation even reaches over into the Sudan. If we may
conclude on the ground of these comparatively developed examples as to
the formal tendencies of the Negro pentatonic system, we could say that
its fundamental element is always a small rhythmical motive built up of a
few tones; its prevalent developing principle is the variation. For the Middle-
Asian transposing principle and the Western-Asian psalmodising litany-
principle we know of exceedingly few examples from Africa.
On the other hand we find ourselves in a much more manifold, com-
plicated and developed world while examining the pentatonic music of Amer-
ica (Ex. 8-10). It is remarkable above all that there are three melodic
traditions which meet here, the Indian, the Negro and that of the Anglo-
Saxon settlers of North-America. These three styles might have influenced
each other by this time, but it seems that - at their meeting - it was the
Indian which was the most developed among them. This style is far from
being uniform; beside the most developed dialects (Arizona, New-Mexico,
Peru) we find the most primitive ones (California in North- and the Tierra
del Fuego in South-America). But it seems probable however that all of them
go back to common, indigenous American sources, to a refined, ancient Indian
melodic culture. Where the origin of this culture is to be found is uncertain;
perhaps it came from Mexico, maybe that it developed on parallel lines in
ancient Middle- and South-America, in the two or three foci of the earliest
American civilization; it is also possible that it was connected with Northern
Asia and perhaps with Polynesia. For this Asian contact would speak the
fact that it is particularly in this continent that the Middle-Asian form-
principle: the descent, the bipartiteness, the transposition is to be found out-
side of Asia. There are South-American melodies; a Bellakula melody, publ-

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ished by Stumpf (Sammelb. fiir vergl. Musikwiss. I. 9

(M. Beclard-d'Harcourt: Melodies populaires indi
Bolivie. Milano 1928, p. 17-18.) remind us of Chere
are, to our present knowledge, but exceptions wh
because these principles appear here rather separat
pentatonia prevailing to-day, its most remarkable c
for the construction of song-forms, four-partite or th
this developed form-principle which influenced the o
Negro melodies in such a degree that there is, at pres
resemblance between American and African Negro
the old European settlers who brought with them
saxon tradition of their own, which we can study
lachian melodies published by C. Sharp. Most chara
inclination of these melodies towards a harmonic construction and a modern
rhythm. America is, accordingly, a crucible of civilizations where the modern
element has influenced and altered the older melody-styles, without effacing
their pentatonic character.
And if it were the natural terminus of our course, the last end of evolution,
the pentatonic style of Western Europe leads us among still more develop
forms. This five-tone style is probably of Celtic origin; its most importa
documents came from Ireland, Scotland, Wales, more sporadically from th
Brittany and Normandy, whereas its Pyrenean traces may perhaps be regarde
as a heritage of the Celtiberians. An interesting side-branch can be observed a
the Baltic coast-line too: 3---4 tonic song-stories and ditties from Eastern-Pru
sia (ed. by Grudde and Miiller-Blattau 1931) seem to be the previous formulas
of a "Baltic five-tone system"). The main characteristic of this melody-sty
is the modern European period, the three-partite, motivically homogenou
song-form or the symmetrical, modulating and returning small Lied-construc
tion, the modern rhythm, the harmonic conception (i. e. the functional pre-
domination of keynote and dominant) and the accordant composition: o
the whole the organic acclimatisation to the European musical thinking (E
11-12).
Here it becomes more and more evident how every continent creates a quite
individual language out of the ancient, common heritage of the five-tone
scale, - if we have to look upon it really as a common heritage of mankind.
Now let us see what has to mean such a divergence and connection of the
different continents.
IV.
During the course of our examinations we met among the pentatonic styles
two "primitive" and three developed dialects. We must call primitive the
Western-Asiatic and the African type, whereas the Middle-Asiatic (which
through the Magyars reaches over to Eastern Middle-Europe and therefore

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may be also called Eurasian), the American and the Western-European

styles might be called developed. To imagine a coherence between these types
would be only possible by supposing a connection between the Western-
Asiatic and the African, as well as between the American and the European
types, while the Middle-Asiatic type stands by itself and may be connected
at most with certain early American forms.
The principal formal schemes which we met within these spheres were the
following:
A B (Middle-Asia)
AB
A A1 A2 A3 (Western-Asia)
A B C B1 C, and rondo-like variation (Africa)
A B C B, A B A B A, A A B B, A B A C and quasi-threepartite form (Am
A B A in a strict motivic unity (Western-Europe)
The most important form-building principles are as follows: transpositio

through it a symmetrical bipartite strophe (Middle Asia), repetition (We
Asia), variation (Africa), centrally composed song-form (America, Eur
May we suppose an evolutional graduality between these forms? If w
the order would be as follows: Western Asia - Africa - America - Western
Europe. At the same time there might arise some uncertain hyphotese
common source for Western Asia and Africa, for America and Europe, f
Middle Asia and America, etc. We might seek a unique origin for every
kind of five-tone system in Middle Asia, or we might - following Hor
bostel - imagine how pentatonia, together with the tuning of the arch
Middle Asian syrinx, wanders to Africa and South America etc. We kn
the reminiscence of the syrinx haunts nearly everywhere where the earl
civilizations of our world were flourishing. If the conclusions of C. Sac
(Geist und Werden der Musikinstrumente 1929) are valid, the syrinx is
oldest instrument which intones a fixed height of tones. It is imaginable tha
the syrinx of five pipes and five-tone system were divulgating in connection
with one another across the ancient world. According to the statements
Hornbostel they play in Melanesia upon the syrinx of 5-8 pipes equally b
pentatonic music; of a similar phenomenon reported lately C. Vega con
cerning the Peruvian instruments (Acta Mus. 1937 IX. 50). We may
the statement of P. Berlinsky (Mongolsky pjevec i muzykant Uldzuy-Lub
Churtshi, Moscow 1933) according to which it was likewise pure pentato
music which resounded upon the Mongolian diatonically tempered wind
instruments. In the close connection of the gender and the marimba wh
was lately cleared up by J. Kunst (Anthropos 1936, 131.) we may also s
an evidence for some sort of coherence between the mode of tuning, i. e. the

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absolute height and the pentatonic melodics. Tha

origin as to their divulgation. In that case, however,
tone scale to instruments and loosened at the same time its connection with
the melodic forms. If the oldest pentatonia had spread throughout the wo
as a mere tonal system, apart from formal construction, then we may th
of two possibilities concerning its present forms:
1) either we must say that the oldest primitive period (that of the di
tion of the tonal system) was everywhere followed later on by a more de
oped period (that of the building of the different forms). Consequent
five-tone system is a heritage of the oldest degree of civilization, the pen
tonic melody-forms presently known those of a much later development
of the high-civilizations. The former sprang from general, the latter spe
local tendencies.
2) or we must suppose that a musical influence which radiated out of
a common centre,4) has reached Western Asia and Africa yet undeveloped
(at a earlier period), respectively it has stopped there on a more primitive
degree; whereas it arrived to America and Western Europe more developed
(at a later period), respectively it evolved there to a higher degree.
But let us see what of these hypotheses will become verified by the concrete
reality of facts.
V.
We have observed that pentatonia appears everywhere in certain melodic

forms, but these forms develop and transform themselves. Five-tone system
had perhaps not preceded the forms, but it might be older than the forms
which are connected with it to-day.
4) Such diffusion is supposed, among others, by the Turkish folklorist Ahmed Adnan
(Tiirk halk musikisinde pentatonism, Istanbul 1936) according to whom the five-tone system
is of Middle Asian origin and from there it came through Eastern Europe to Scandinavia,
through Middle Europe to Scotland, through Hungary to the Balkan, Asia Minor and Northern
Africa, through Arabia to Middle Africa, through Indonesia and Australia to South America,
through China to Japan and through Siberia to Northern America. In this theory there may
be much valid, but it leaves wholly inexplicated, why we do find along the mentioned route-
lines pentatonias quite differently developed and connected with different melody-forms.
Better founded and richer in material are the studies of M. Raghib Kiisemihal: Tiirk Halk
Musikilerinin Tonal Hususiyetleri Meselesi (Istanbul 1936) and Ferruh Arsunar: Anadolunun
Pentatonik Melodileri Hakkinda Birka? Not (Istanbul 1937). Some examples of these studies
let arise the thought that chromatic maqam-melodies can also have a pentatonic ground-model,
even in regions where the old Turkish pentatonic tradition was covered by the Perso-Arabian
maqam-style of the Islam. - C. Sachs explains the early origin of the European five-tone
dialects with the principle of peripheric preservation: Scotch and Lappish music guard in
the north, Hungarian, Gregorian, old Mediterranean and Spanish music in the south the
archaic pentatonia, whereas the newer cultural sphere of the major- and minor-music showed
itself between these two archaic zones (Prol6gomhnes a une prbhistoire musicale de 1'Europe,
Revue de Musicologie 1936 febr.).

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For this we have several evidences. First that every pen

we met, showed back to a less developed, earlier ground
or a simple melodic phrase. Transposition was preceded by
line, variation by repetition, the regular threepartite f
polypartite form. Pentatonia appears to-day nowhere in pr
its present forms represent nowhere the primary degree
each of them is in a certain sense the incarnation of h
result of evolutions. This is also proved by the fact tha
forms of common origin, like the Chinese and the Hu
develop into contrary directions. One proves conservat
of view, the other from another one. From the commo
the Hungarian evolution keeps the strophes of transpos
the five-tone scale, in such a degree that it employs these
merely in connection with one another but also separately
strange melodies. The Chinese preserves the musical sys
- at least in theory - the pien-tones and inclines towa
forms. Consequently the pentatonic melody-forms, like ev
forms, may transform themselves; on the whole we se
formal tendencies in the different parts of the world
divergent.
Now it is that faculty of development and transformation which we must
never lose sight of. Obviously the process was always decided by the fact:
with what sort of form-building tendencies did meet in the different con-
tinents that pentatonic ground-principle which radiated out, perhaps from
Inner Asia, or perhaps from the primary centres of civilization simultaneously.
Common musical system did not mean a common style yet; the different
archaic styles of the continents seem to have been gradually embroidered
upon the tissue of the more ancient common (or commonly accepted) tonal
system. The pentatonic musics of to-day show but in their material back to an
unknown primeval time; their forms reflect the life of the ancient high-
civilizations. (Perhaps it is not by chance that their finding-places, their source-
regions are coinciding everywhere with the original homes of the ancient
cultivated plants. Musical history and natural science are circumscribing here
the same state of social history: that of the earliest developed civilizations.)
Thus pentatonia can be no more regarded as an omnipresent, parallel and
casual phenomenon, than ancient human civilization might be regarded for it.
Postscript.
1) To the scholars, regarding pentatonia as closely corresponding with a certain phase of
culture, belongs lately W. Danckert, who describes it as >ein Vermiichtnis pflanzerischer
Vorgeschichtskultur >?ein Klangstil von ausgesprochen mutterrechtlicher Priigung<<. (Das
europiiische Volkslied. 1939, p. 298. Grundriss der Volksliedkunde. 1939, p. 80).
Acta Musicologica, XV I-IV 3

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2) As a principal possibility of origin of fivetone scales the th

considered (d - c - a - - g - f - d or c - b - g - - g- f - d - descending,
this being the direction of archaic oriental perception of music). Reflex and developm
at a time - a form to which as well Eastern-Europe, Middle- and Eastern-Africa
America incline to the same extent.
3) Pentatonia as a foundation of chromatic development: in a great deal of arabic m
just the same degrees are fluctuating or without temperament, which supply the
mental pentatonic model into heptatonic system.
4) Differences of interpretation: Yet the Oriental understand to day pentatonic
adjustment and selection (i. e., as a more or less conscious phenomenon of cultur
Occidental more as a symbol of nature or a prototype, impersonal and alien to h
feeling.
Musikethnographische Bibliographie der

nichtslavischen V6lker in Russland
Zusammengestellt von Ernst Emsheimer (Stockholm)
V o r b e m e r k u n g. Die europaischen und asiatischen Gebiete Russlands

werden bekanntlich von einer grossen Anzahl nichtslavischer Vilkerschaften
bewohnt, die sich hinsichtlich ihrer ethnischen, sprachlichen und kulturellen
Zugeharigkeit nicht unwesentlich voneinander unterscheiden. Mit ihrer Musik
und ihrem Instrumentarium hat sich die westeuropiiische Forschung bisher
nur verhiiltnismiissig wenig bekannt gemacht. Die Griinde hierfiir liegen nahe
an der Hand. Die Sammlung und Bearbeitung des iiberaus reichhaltigen Mate-
rials blieb zunaichst einmal vorwiegend russischen Forschern vorbehalten,
deren Beitriige jedoch dem westeuropiiischen Wissenschaftler infolge mangeln-
der Kenntnis der russischen Sprache nicht ohne weiteres zuglinglich sind.
Dariiber hinaus ist bis auf den heutigen Tag eine Vbersicht iiber das auf
diesem Gebiet bisher Geleistete noch nicht gegeben worden. In dem nach-
folgend veroiffentlichten bibliographischen Verzeichnis soil versucht werden,
diesem Mangel abzuhelfen.
Die Zusammenstellung der Titel ist im Laufe der Jahre aus meiner Beschiif-
tigung mit der Musik der turkotatarischen, mongolischen und kaukasischen
Voilker hervorgegangen. Es kann in diesem Zusammenhang jedoch nicht nach-
driicklich genug darauf hingewiesen werden, dass sie keinesfalls den Anspruch
auf Vollstiindigkeit erhebt. So war mir z. B. ein Teil der einschlaigigen russi-
schen Bibliographien nicht zugiinglich. Auch konnten die Titel vieler Biicher
und Zeitschriftenaufsaitze nur in der Form wiedergegeben werden, wie sie
in den von mir benutzten Quellen vorlagen. Fernerhin war es nicht moiglich

190.145.240.49 on Mon, 17 Apr 2023 01:08:38 UTC

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