Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381

Thermal regime, groundwater flow and petroleum

occurrences in the Cap Bon region,
northeastern Tunisia
Salem Bouri a,∗ , Ines Ben Abdallah a ,
Yassine Zarhloule b , Hamed Ben Dhia a
a Laboratoire ‘Eau-Energie-Environnement’, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax, P.B. ‘W’, 3038 Sfax, Tunisia
bLaboratoire de Géologie Appliquée, Environnement et Hydrogéologie, Faculté des Sciences, Oujda, Morocco
Received 30 May 2006; accepted 11 May 2007
Available online 5 July 2007

Abstract
The Cap Bon region of northeastern Tunisia is part of a young continental margin that presents a thick
column of sediments deposited mainly during Cretaceous and Miocene extended tectonic episodes. This
sedimentary package is characterised by broad synclines alternating with NE–SW trending anticlines, and
is affected by numerous NE–SW, NW–SE and E–W striking faults. Oligo-Miocene sandstones constitute
the most important potential reservoir rocks in the region.
The distribution of subsurface temperatures in the Cap Bon basin reflects local groundwater circulation
patterns and correlates with the location of known oil and gas fields. The results of geothermal studies could
therefore prove useful in the search for new hydrocarbon resources in the region. Subsurface temperatures
were measured in deep oil exploration and shallow water wells. Local geothermal gradients range from
25 to 35 ◦ C/km, showing higher values in the Korbous and Zennia areas, which correspond to zones of
groundwater discharge and convergence in the Oligo-Miocene aquifer system, respectively.
Analysis of thermo-hydraulic and geochemical data relative to the thermal springs in the Korbous region
along the Mediterranean coast has made a useful contribution to geothermal prospecting for potential deep
reservoirs. Positive geothermal gradient anomalies correspond to areas of ascending thermal waters (i.e.
discharge areas), whereas negative anomalies indicate areas of infiltrating colder meteoric waters (i.e.
recharge areas). The zones of convergence of upward-moving water and groundwater may be associated
with petroleum occurrences.
© 2007 CNR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Geothermal gradient; Groundwater circulation; Petroleum accumulations; Cap Bon; Tunisia

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +216 74 27 40 88; fax: +216 74 27 55 95.

E-mail address: salem bouri@yahoo.fr (S. Bouri).

0375-6505/$30.00 © 2007 CNR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.geothermics.2007.05.002
 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381 363

1. Introduction

Although a number of oil and gas fields have been discovered in Tunisia and subsequently
exploited over the last 40 years, total production is currently still far below what could be achieved
according to an estimate of the country’s hydrocarbon potential (AGIP-ETAP, 1986).
Considerable resources have been invested in exploration and drilling, but little attention has
been paid to regional hydrodynamic studies in the successful petroleum exploration program.
Generally, deep reservoirs tend to be considered as static, closed systems and the few regional
studies of aquifers associated with hydrocarbon accumulations have tended to focus on chemical
aspects. However, recent studies in Tunisia (Kouas and Ben Dhia, 1990; Yangui et al., 1990;
Ben Dhia and Meddeb, 1991; Ben Dhia et al., 1992; Bouri, 1994; Bouri et al., 1998, 2003; Ben
Abdallah, 2004; Limayem, 2004) have revealed significant correlations between aquifer hydro-
dynamics, geothermal patterns, and major conventional petroleum accumulations (Schmoker and
Klett, 2005). Over the last 25 years, several authors (e.g. Neglia, 1979; Toth, 1980; Bishop, 1988;
Anderson et al., 1991; Ben Dhia et al., 1992; Bouri, 1994; Bouri et al., 1998, 2003; Limayem,
2004) have presented convincing evidence that the integration of geological, geophysical, hydro-
dynamic, and geothermal data can be a powerful tool for understanding the relationships between
groundwater, temperature, and oil movement in sedimentary basins.
Numerous geological studies of the Cap Bon area have contributed greatly to defining the
regional and local geological framework, and thus to establishing the possible geometry and
boundaries of the potential reservoirs (Ben Salem, 1992; Adouani and Aissaoui, 2003). Seis-
mic investigations within petroleum exploration programs have, to a large extent, delineated the
configuration of the subsurface strata and structures. These studies identified promising areas for
geothermal energy development, and gave additional leads for petroleum exploration, particularly
in synclinal and graben structures.
The objectives of this paper are to analyse the relationships between the hydrogeological and
geothermal characteristics and the location of known oil fields in the Cap Bon basin, and to
propose a synthetic approach to the search for new oil reservoirs.

2. Geological setting

The Cap Bon basin is situated between the Zaghouan Overthrust to the west, the North–South
Axis to the southwest, and the Pelagean Platform to the east (Fig. 1). Because of its location,
the area is of a remarkable structural complexity that resulted from the interaction between the
African and European Plates. Structurally, the region represents a transition from the Saharan
Platform of southern Tunisia to Alpine fold structures (Atlasic and Tellian Domains) in the north,
and is characterized by numerous faults and folds.
Eastern Tunisia, including the Cap Bon region, belongs to a young continental margin – the
Pelagian Platform – that was formed during the Cretaceous and Miocene (Burollet and Ellouz,
1986) (Fig. 2). The platform is characterized by a succession of NE-SW trending synclines and
anticlines that are locally affected by NE–SW, NW–SE and E–W striking normal faults. These
faults were active during the deposition of the sediments, and effectively subdivided the basin
(both on and offshore) into several fairly distinct sedimentary basins with different evolutionary
histories (Figs. 3 and 4). Structural studies of the Cap Bon region itself also show a complicated
pattern, with the main normal faults striking in different directions (NW–SE and NE–SW; Fig. 3).
These faults isolate several local horsts and structural domes, thus forming potential petroleum
traps.
364 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381

Fig. 1. Schematic geologic structure of Tunisia (Bouaziz et al., 2002).

 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381 365

Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of the Cap Bon region.

The lithological sequence of northeastern Tunisia ranges from Jurassic to Quaternary (Fig. 4)
(Ben Abdallah, 2004); outcrops of Mesozoic strata are rare in the Cap Bon region (Ben Salem,
1992). Information from numerous geological and geophysical studies, and from deep petroleum
exploration wells, has led to the identification of several permeable units in the Triassic to Pliocene-
Quaternary sedimentary column. These units should be the main targets of future geothermal and
petroleum exploration studies.
The hydro-stratigraphic column indicates that the Oligo-Miocene sandstones are the most likely
to host important reservoirs. These rocks outcrop in the areas of the J. Abderrahmen anticline,
the Korbous monocline, and the Korba, Grombalia and Kelibia structures (Figs. 2 and 3). The
366 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381

Fig. 3. Structural features of the Cap Bon region (Adouani and Aissaoui, 2003).

regional hydrogeological structure of the Cap Bon basin is characterized by recharge areas along
its elevated margins and a thick, extensive aquitard overlying regionally confined aquifers in
its centre. The Tertiary and Cretaceous strata could also be prospective reservoirs, as could the
Jurassic and Triassic strata locally.
Structural traps are present at drillable depths and an excellent assemblage of source facies
and potential reservoir caprocks are present in the region (Ben Abdallah, 2004; Limayem, 2004).
Potential source rocks in northeast Tunisia range in age from Jurassic to Eocene, with the most sig-
nificant in the Fahdene, Bahloul and Bou Dabbous formations. Rocks in the Birsa (Mid Miocene),
Ain Ghrab (Langhian) and Abiod (Campanian-Maastrichtian) formations could host geothermal
and petroleum reservoirs.

3. Geothermal framework

Maturation of petroleum source rocks and the generation rate of oil and gas are determined by a
number of factors, including temperature, time of burial, and type of organic matter. The chemical
reaction rates in the maturation process increase 2–3-fold for each 10 ◦ C rise in temperature,
whereas the amount of oil generated increases only linearly with time, but by orders of magnitude
with temperature (Khan and Raza, 1986).
Because of their importance for organic matter maturation, subsurface temperatures are always
measured during the drilling of oil and gas wells. Geothermal studies in different countries (e.g.
Hitchon, 1984; Bachu et al., 1987; McGee et al., 1989; Ben Dhia et al., 1992; Bouri, 1994; Bouri
 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381 367

Fig. 4. Lithostratigraphic column of NE Tunisia. 1: Gypsum; 2: dolomite; 3: limestone; 4: marl; 5: clay; 6: conglomerate;
7: sandstone; 8: sandy clay; 9: sand.
368 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381

Fig. 5. Deep (between 500 and 3500 m depth) inferred geothermal gradient map for the Cap Bon region (◦ C/km).

et al., 2003; Ben Abdallah, 2004; Limayem, 2004) have shown that the temperature distribution in
a given sedimentary basin is strongly affected by faults, groundwater circulation, the location of
groundwater recharge and discharge areas and the strength of their recharge and discharge rates.
Two main sources of subsurface temperature information are available for Tunisia: deep tem-
perature data from oil exploration wells and shallower data from water and mining exploration
wells (Ben Dhia, 1988; Lucazeau and Ben Dhia, 1989; Ben Dhia et al., 1992; Bouri, 1994; Bouri
et al., 1998). The presence of numerous thermal springs along the coast of the Korbous region
(Fig. 5) has provided additional information when exploring for geothermal reservoirs, particu-
larly in synclinal and graben structures. These springs occur in Oligocene outcrops, discharging
37–59.5 ◦ C waters with total dissolved solids (TDS) in the 11,500–12,300 mg/L range (Table 1);
the spring flow rates vary between 0.7 and 39 L/s.

3.1. Oil well temperature data

A significant number of petroleum exploration wells has been drilled in northeast Tunisia,
particularly in the Cap Bon basin (both on and offshore). The location of these wells and of
 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381 369

Table 1
Physical and chemical characteristics of thermal springs in the Korbous area
Thermal spring Physical parameters Major elements (mg/L)

TDS (mg/L) pH T (◦ C) Q (L/s) Ca Mg Na K SO4 Cl HCO3

Ain Sbia 12,036 7.18 50 0.7 820 145.92 3500 91 1601.5 5669 500.2
Ain Echfa 12,096 7.58 59.5 22 840 304 3230 96 1618 5505 512.4
Ain Fakroun 12,010 6.60 37 1 830 299.13 3250 100 1625 5502 573.4
Ain Atrous 12,262 6.78 58.6 39 880 284.54 3495 95 1587.5 5680 549
Ain Kalassira 11,524 6.57 46 1.4 874 140 2640 80 1376 4900 546

Spring locations are given in Fig. 9.

the main oil- and gas-producing fields is shown in Fig. 5. Seventeen of the 30 petroleum wells
were selected for this study. The rest were rejected because temperature data were lacking, or
because we wanted to ensure a uniform distribution of information across the region. The selected
wells provided downhole temperature values (DTV) between 500 and 3500 m depth, either as
bottomhole temperatures (BHT) or from drill stem tests (DST). The BHTs, measured in drilling
mud during logging operations, generally underestimate equilibrium temperatures because mud
circulation was carried out before the logging operations began. The BHT data have therefore to
be corrected in order to estimate equilibrium rock temperature (e.g. Ben Dhia, 1987; Ascencio et
al., 2006).
No other accurate measurements of formation temperatures being available, the DST values
were assumed to give true formation temperatures (Ben Dhia, 1983; Maget and Housse, 1985),
although relatively few DSTs have been performed in the region and not over a sufficiently wide
depth range. There are, on the other hand, numerous BHTs, which were corrected using a baseline
developed on the basis of 100 selected DST values (Ben Dhia, 1983). The DST and corrected
BHT values were used either to study temperature distribution at different depths (Table 2 and
Fig. 6) or to calculate local geothermal gradients. Fig. 5 presents the inferred deep geothermal
gradient (DGG) map of the Cap Bon area (i.e. between 500 and 3500 m depth). The DGG values

Table 2
Temperature (in ◦ C) at different depths in oil wells of the Cap Bon area
Well Temperature at 1000 m depth Temperature at 1500 m depth Temperature at 2000 m depth

NEA 61 85 103
HAMW 53 70 87
EF1 46.9 60.85 74.8
CAR1 59.7 70.05 100.4
KA1 45.6 58.9 72.2
KO1 47.9 62.35 76.8
CB1 53 70 n.a.
CB7 40.6 51.4 62.2
CB101 55.1 73.15 91.15
MGT1 56.8 75.7 94.6
JRI1 51.7 n.a. 86
SMA1 n.a. 70.1 87
SDM1 n.a. n.a. 82
SOL1 52.5 67.5 81

Well locations are given in Fig. 5 and/or Fig. 6. n.a.: data not available.
370 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381

Fig. 6. Deep temperature distribution at 2000 m depth, Cap Bon region.

vary between 25 and 35 ◦ C/km, and generally increase toward the Korbous and Zennia regions,
which correspond to discharge and hydrodynamic convergence areas in the predominantly Oligo-
Miocene aquifers.
Fig. 5 shows that the Zennia oil field is characterized by a relatively high geothermal gradient
(above 34 ◦ C/km), which is interpreted to be the result of regional hydrodynamic conditions.
The figure also indicates that the Korbous and El Ouhichi regions, which have distinctly higher
geothermal gradients, correspond to discharge areas of the deep regional aquifers, whereas the
negative anomalies are related to recharge areas (J. Abderrahmen and Kelibia regions) (Ben
Abdallah, 2004). On the basis of isotopic analyses, the results fit this model since they indicated
the presence of older waters in the discharge zones and younger ones in the recharge areas
(Trabelsi, 2004). The studies by Ben Abdallah (2004) and Limayem (2004) on the Cap Bon area
confirm the regional influence of deep groundwater circulation on the geothermal regime of a
given region, as depicted for a generic case in Fig. 7.
The age of Tunisian oil and gas fields varies (i.e. the petroleum was generated during different
geologic times), ranging from Paleozoic in the south to late Tertiary in the Pelagian Platform in the
 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381 371

Fig. 7. Schematic hydrogeological cross-section showing the relationship between temperature, groundwater flow and
petroleum accumulations (Ben Dhia et al., 1992).

east. Field ages plotted against DGG values show a strong negative correlation (Fig. 8). Older fields
have lower DGG values (25–30 ◦ C/km), while younger fields have higher ones (45–52 ◦ C/km)
(Ben Dhia et al., 1992; Bouri, 1994; Bouri et al., 2003).
The correlation between geothermal gradients and field ages could prove an important
tool in petroleum exploration (Neglia, 1979; McGee et al., 1989). At Cap Bon, as in other
Tunisian sedimentary basins, this relationship may imply that secondary migration has not car-
ried the oil far from its source, probably because of the small size of the basins (Limayem,
2004).

Fig. 8. Correlation between age of oil fields and geothermal gradients in Tunisia (Bouri et al., 2003).
372 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381

3.2. Shallow well temperature data

Oil wells are unevenly spaced across the Cap Bon basin and, as might be expected, are gen-
erally located in zones with specific geological and structural characteristics. As a result, their
data cannot be considered representative of the entire region. Moreover, in complex geother-
mal domains, inter-well interpolation and/or extrapolation can, in some cases, lead to erroneous
interpretation of their overall geothermal structure (i.e. their subsurface “plumbing”). In order to
improve the geothermal data coverage, especially when exploring for oil and gas in northeastern
Tunisia in general, and in Cap Bon in particular, temperatures were measured in existing shallow
wells.
All the studied shallow wells (Fig. 9) were assumed to be in thermal equilibrium. Well
depths range from 50 to 500 m. Indeed, of the 38 wells investigated, the 12 selected had
been drilled at least 1 month before the measurements were taken, and had not been under
production.
Downhole temperatures were measured at 5-m depth intervals using a portable thermistor
probe with a 0.01 ◦ C resolution. Temperatures were only read after the apparatus had stabilized,
which could take 5–10 min. Temperature data are plotted as profiles of temperature versus depth
to determine shallow thermal gradients (SG) and correlation coefficients (r). These profiles are
given in Fig. 10. Shallow gradient data are summarized in this figure and in Table 3; they range
from 8.6 to 53.1 ◦ C/km.
As can be seen, the shallow gradients vary significantly from one well to another. Considerable
differences exist even within the same well. In contrast to the deep boreholes, shallow borehole
temperatures seem to be affected by several factors, including:

(1) Climate and seasonal influences. Measured surface air temperatures ranged from 12 ◦ C to
more than 35 ◦ C, depending on the season, time of day, and the elevation. Statistically, these
surface air temperatures affect temperatures down to about 15 m depth.
(2) Lithologic variability. In Tunisia, the effects of changes in subsurface lithology (i.e. changes
in thermal properties) on downhole temperature, especially under unsaturated conditions,
have been reported by Ben Dhia et al. (1992), Meddeb (1993) and Bouri (1994).

Table 3
Shallow geothermal gradients in Cap Bon area
Well Ts (◦ C) SG (◦ C/km) r Depth (m)

Bou Shem 29 12.2 0.95 265

El Oudiane 35 29.3 0.99 195
Oued Souhil 29.5 53.1 0.99 245
El Halfa 21 10.1 0.65 75
El Itha 37 8.6 0.91 70
Kelibia 34.5 15.6 0.89 100
Mraissa 29.5 28.7 0.99 200
Combar 12 31.2 0.99 195
CC Hammamet 33 14.2 0.98 120
Intilaka 17.5 34.5 0.99 195
Bir Dressen 30.5 45.1 0.87 205
Maissra 29 18.5 0.99 280

Ts : surface air temperature; SG: average shallow geothermal gradient; r: correlation coefficient. Well locations are given
in Fig. 9.
 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381 373

Fig. 9. Location of shallow wells and springs where temperatures were measured in the Cap Bon region.
374 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381

Fig. 10. Temperature profiles in Cap Bon area wells (well locations are given in Fig. 9).

(3) Water table depths. Hydraulic heads are considered to be the most important factor influenc-
ing temperature distributions since they reflect the location of areas of water recharge and
discharge within a basin. Subsurface temperatures in discharge areas are affected by rising
thermal waters, and recharge areas by the infiltration of colder meteoric waters (Ben Dhia et
al., 1992).
 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381 375

Fig. 11. Change of temperature with depth (D, in m) in shallow boreholes of the Cap Bon area.

Furthermore, temperatures measured at the bottom of shallow wells, considered as undisturbed

values, when plotted against depth show either positive or negative anomalous values. Assum-
ing that a normal temperature at a given depth is that which is in agreement with the regional
geothermal gradient (i.e. the average geothermal gradient of the region), then all departures from
this value should be considered abnormal. The general trend of the shallow borehole data shows
a mean shallow geothermal gradient (SGG) of 31 ◦ C/km with a relatively poor correlation (coef-
ficient of about 74%) (Fig. 11). This may be due to thermal convection effects (i.e. groundwater
circulation effects) and/or changes in subsurface lithology (i.e. in thermal conductivities). The
SGG is relatively close to the mean DGG (30 ◦ C/km) despite the numerous factors that could
disturb shallow subsurface conditions. The intercept temperature is about 19 ◦ C (Fig. 11), which
is close to the mean annual surface air temperature at Cap Bon.
Because of a number of possible perturbations, local shallow temperatures may not reflect
the regional thermal gradient. Although the general trend of the shallow borehole temperatures
may provide a plausible picture of the regional gradient, the data should ideally cover the entire
basin under study, including its recharge and discharge zones. The accuracy of the results will
depend on the quantity and, more importantly, the density and distribution of the information.
It is also of crucial importance that we characterize the groundwater movement in a basin when
using subsurface temperatures to determine geothermal gradients (e.g. Brott et al., 1981; Grant
et al., 1982; Goldstein, 1988; Gosnold, 1990; Ben Dhia et al., 1992; Bouri, 1994; Reiter, 2001).

3.3. Integration of shallow and deep temperature data

Using deep and shallow borehole temperature data, it is possible to estimate the regional
geothermal gradient for the Cap Bon basin. Studies carried out in different parts of Tunisia (Ben
Dhia et al., 1992; Bouri, 1994; Bouri et al., 2003) have indicated that, in regions with numerous
well-distributed data, good correlations exist between shallow and regional geothermal gradients.
Temperature data from the deep and shallow boreholes (Fig. 12) show that the regional geother-
mal gradient at Cap Bon is 33.5 ◦ C/km, with a correlation coefficient of about 94%. The intercept
376 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381

Fig. 12. Change of temperature with depth (D, in m) in deep and shallow boreholes of the Cap Bon region. The O. Souhil
(a) and NEA (c) wells are located in the fluid discharge areas, whereas the Bou Shem (b) and CB7 (d) wells are in the
recharge areas. Well locations are given in Figs. 6 and/or 9.

temperature (19 ◦ C) is very close to the mean annual surface air temperature. Two distinct zones
with the most significant thermal perturbations occur at about 250 and 1500 m depth, and are
considered to be where the influence of groundwater temperature on subsurface temperatures was
highest at shallow and great depth, respectively.
The temperatures at 265 m depth are 6 ◦ C below estimates based on the regional gradient,
reflecting the effects of the circulation of colder infiltrated meteoric water (i.e. in the Bou Shem
well; “b” in Fig. 12). The higher values measured at 245 m depth (5 ◦ C above the normal tem-
perature in the O. Souhil well; “a” in Fig. 12) are the result of upwelling hot water in discharge
areas that are also characterized by the presence of hot springs and possible areas of surface oil
seepage.
The perturbation at 1500 m depth, with values as much as 18 ◦ C lower than the “normal”
temperatures (measured in the CB7 well; “d” in Fig. 12), is the result of deep infiltration of
meteoric water, whereas the highest value, approximately 15 ◦ C above the normal temperature
(measured in the NEA well; “c” in Fig. 12), may reflect the effects of hot water movement and
may indicate the presence of conventional petroleum accumulations (Ben Dhia et al., 1992).

4. Hydrogeological regime

Several geologic formations in Tunisia, ranging in age from Triassic to late Tertiary and having
different characteristics, host good groundwater aquifers and/or promising oil reservoirs (Tletli,
1985; Ben Dhia, 1987; Neglia, 1979; Ben Dhia and Chiarelli, 1990). Surprisingly, over the last
30 years attention has been paid only to the hydrocarbon aspects of these formations, whereas
their hydrogeological features have been largely ignored. The few deep aquifer investigations that
have been undertaken (Ben Dhia, 1983; Kouas and Ben Dhia, 1990; Yangui et al., 1990; Ben Dhia
et al., 1992) were generally aimed at identifying geothermal reservoirs or any relations between
groundwater movement and hydrocarbon accumulations.
The Oligo-Miocene aquifers have been studied in some detail since these are hydrocarbon-
bearing formations. The accuracy of the water data in the oil exploration wells, however, varies
 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381 377

widely because these data were gathered only incidentally during drilling operations. The best
known is the Mid-Miocene Birsa Formation, composed mainly of sandstones, since it is one of
the most important petroleum targets in northeastern Tunisia. Several major oil fields occur in
this formation in the Gulf of Hammamet and Cap Bon areas (Limayem, 2004).
The upper part of the Birsa Formation (Fig. 4) consists largely of clays, which form the caprock
for the petroleum reservoirs; the latter are compartmentalized by a system of normal faults. The
source rocks for the oil in the Birsa reservoirs are assumed to be those of the Albo-Cenomanian
Fahdene Formation, which has been exposed to optimal thermal conditions for hydrocarbon
maturation (Ben Abdallah, 2004).
Although early estimates of petroleum reserves in the Cap Bon region were promising, pro-
duction data later revealed that the hydrocarbon reserves in some of the fields were limited
(AGIP-ETAP, 1986), indicating that the oil generated had not accumulated, but had rather migrated
upwards through fractures and normal faults. A similar phenomenon has been observed in the
Zennia oil field (Fig. 5), which is affected by numerous NW–SE faults. In that field, the 719-m
deep El Ouhichi well, drilled in 1998 to explore the Oligocene aquifer system, exhibited oil traces
mixed with warm (about 40 ◦ C) water between 430 and 530 m depth. The water from this poor
producer (i.e. specific discharge rate of about 0.48 L/s per metre of drawdown) showed traces
of hydrocarbons and H2 S; this suggests that the oil was being transported by the warm water to
shallower depths, confirming the influence of groundwater circulation on conventional petroleum
accumulations (Schmoker and Klett, 2005).
The chalky limestones of the Campanian-Maastrichtian Abiod Formation (Fig. 4) have recently
been found to contain several interesting structural and reef traps that extend over the entire eastern
part of Tunisia (Ben Abdallah, 2004). New oil discoveries (e.g. Zennia and Maamoura; Fig. 5) have
stimulated great interest in this formation, although exploration has been confined to the north-
eastern part of the country (Cap Bon) and concentrated on the Oligo-Miocene units. Only a few
exploratory oil boreholes provided water level data, which were used to draw the first piezometric
map of the Upper Oligocene aquifer (Fig. 13). The main directions of groundwater flow radiate
outwards from the J. Adberrahmen anticline, a positive topographic feature (Figs. 9 and 13). These
data reinforce the hypothesis of meteoric recharge of the groundwater aquifer. The piezometric
map clearly shows a groundwater flow convergence zone at El Ouhichi, where the Zennia oil field
is located, which gives evidence to the relation between groundwater circulation and petroleum
accumulation.

5. Synthesis and discussion

The hydrogeological and geothermal studies of the Cap Bon basin have provided informa-
tion on the main geological characteristics, subsurface temperature distribution, and groundwater
circulation in northeastern Tunisia and have explored the relationship between these features
and the known hydrocarbon accumulations. The geological context reveals a clear correspon-
dence between groundwater circulation, local heat flux, and oil field locations. Both heat
and hydrocarbons are transported by deep waters whose flow patterns are controlled by the
hydrodynamic characteristics of the reservoirs, particularly their geologic structure and perme-
ability. The northeastern part of Tunisia, where Cap Bon basin is located, is characterized by
geologic faults with different thermal and hydraulic signatures. Temperatures from petroleum
and water wells indicate that geothermal gradients in all the wells range between 8.6 and
53.1 ◦ C/km; the average value for the Cap Bon region is about 33.5 ◦ C/km. Because of the large
number of data available and the good coverage, we have been able to estimate by interpola-
378 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381

Fig. 13. Piezometric map of the Upper Oligocene aquifer (September 2002), Cap Bon region.

tion the geothermal gradients and deep temperatures in areas of Cap Bon that have no deep
wells.
The analysis of information on selected aquifers reinforces the hypothesis of a link between
the oil fields and the pattern of heat transport and groundwater circulation at Cap Bon. The
 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381 379

southwestern part of the basin, in the general area of the El Ouhichi well (Fig. 13), appears to be
a groundwater flow convergence zone with high geothermal gradient and significant petroleum
occurrences.
The Cap Bon basin acts as a hydrodynamic open system, with meteoric waters recharging
the system along its elevated margins and thermal waters discharging where the deep aquifers
outcrop (i.e. at the thermal springs of the Korbous region). The upwelling thermal waters trans-
port oil along their migration paths, as shown by the hydrocarbon traces found in shallow
wells (e.g. the El Ouhichi well). In some places, these hotter fluids encounter cooler infil-
trated meteoric waters, thus trapping the migrating oil. This mechanism is thought to occur
in some fields in Tunisia (Neglia, 1979; Ben Dhia et al., 1992; Bouri et al., 2003), as well
as in other parts of the world (McGee et al., 1989). This “thermal boundary” is characterized
by high geothermal gradients and should be detected using surface geophysical exploration
methods.
Identification of hot water upflow zones, one of the goals of geothermal exploration, could
help in delimiting the downstream side of a hydrocarbon accumulation (or pool). Temperature
measurements in shallow wells, coupled with piezometric data, can therefore contribute not only
to geothermal but also to petroleum exploration.
Several authors have provided empirical evidence of frequent association between positive
shallow geothermal gradient anomalies and oil and gas fields (e.g. McGee et al., 1989), but in
Tunisia this relationship has been established only for deep geothermal anomalies. In the Tunisian
groundwater systems that have been studied, the oil fields are generally located at the centres of the
basins, at depths greater than 1500 m. The overlying layers are Tertiary continental units that have
low shallow geothermal gradients because they are saturated with cold meteoric waters (e.g. in
the Bou Shem and El Halfa wells; locations shown in Fig. 9). Under such geologic conditions, we
can assume that groundwater flow convergence areas are associated with conventional petroleum
accumulations and deep geothermal anomalies.
The very low thermal conductivity of oil, two or three times lower than that of the reservoir
matrix and formation waters, may also partly explain the higher geothermal gradient associated
with oil fields, assuming that heat flux is constant and uniform over a given sedimentary basin.
However, shallow circulating groundwater can largely eliminate the surface evidence of such
thermal anomalies.

6. Conclusions

The importance of hydrogeological and geothermal investigations in northeastern Tunisia is

evident, particularly for the known oil fields of Cap Bon, as they lend support to the hypoth-
esis of a relationship between subsurface temperatures, groundwater circulation and petroleum
accumulations.
A more detailed study of the dynamic conditions governing fluid movement and heat
transport in the basins and of the thermo-hydraulic parameters (e.g. thermal conductivity, per-
meability and porosity) of the geologic formations is required to more fully understand the
thermal and hydrodynamic evolution of the geothermal/oil and gas system that led to the for-
mation and geographical distribution of hydrocarbons in northeastern Tunisia. By developing
heat and fluid flow models of these systems it might be possible to identify new areas with
promising hot water and hydrocarbon resources in the Cap Bon area and in other Tunisian
basins.
380 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr. W.F. Jones of the University of Alberta, Canada, who
greatly improved the English of the manuscript. Many thanks to Dr. Philip H. Messer and Dr.
Patrick Browne for their very useful comments and suggestions.

References

Adouani, F., Aissaoui, S., 2003. Chronologie des évènements tectoniques et implications pétrolières dans la région
Cap Bon-Grombalia. In: Proceedings of the 1ère Journée des Jeunes Géologues, Association Tunisienne des Etudes
Internationales de Géologie (ATEIG), Tunis, Tunisia, May 7, pp. 48–51.
AGIP-ETAP, 1986. Etude d’évaluation du potentiel géothermique tunisien basse enthalpie. Entreprise Tunisienne des
Activités Pétrolières (ETAP) internal report, Tunis, Tunisia, 152 pp.
Anderson, N.R., Wei, H., Hobart, M.A., Wilkinson, C.R., 1991. Active fluid flow in the Engerie Island area, offshore
Louisiana. Geophys.: Lead. Edge Explor. 10, 12–17.
Ascencio, F., Samaniego, F., Rivera, J., 2006. Application of a spherical-radial heat transfer model to calculate geothermal
gradients from measurements in deep boreholes. Geothermics 35, 70–78.
Bachu, S., Sauveplane, C.M., Lytriac, A.T., Hitchon, B., 1987. Analysis of fluid and heat regime in sedimentary basins.
AAPG Bull. 71, 822–843.
Ben Abdallah, I., 2004. Etude du potentiel hydrogéothermal du Cap Bon: Traitement intégré des données de surface et
de subsurface. Mémoire de Master. Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax (ENIS), Sfax, Tunisia, 130 pp.
Ben Dhia, H., 1983. Le gradient géothermique dans le Sud tunisien. Rev. Géol. Dyn. Géogr. Phys. 24, 351–361.
Ben Dhia, H., 1987. The geothermal gradient map of central Tunisia, comparison with structural, gravimetric and petroleum
data. Tectonophysics 142, 99–109.
Ben Dhia, H., 1988. Tunisian geothermal data from oil wells. Geophysics 53, 1479–1487.
Ben Dhia, H., Chiarelli, A., 1990. Hydrodynamic framework of Saharan Triassic aquifers in South Tunisia and Algeria.
J. Afr. Earth Sci. 10, 585–589.
Ben Dhia, H., Jones, F.W., Meddeb, M.N., Bouri, S., 1992. Shallow geothermal studies in Tunisia: comparison with deep
subsurface information. Geothermics 21, 503–517.
Ben Dhia, H., Meddeb, M.N., 1991. Thermal regime and hydrodynamics in Tunisia and Algeria. Geophysics 56,
1093–1102.
Ben Salem, H., 1992. Contribution à la connaissance de la géologie du Cap Bon: stratigraphie, tectonique et sédimentologie.
Thèse de 3ème Cycle. Fac. Sc. Tunis., Univ. Tunis II, Tunisia, 144 pp.
Bishop, W., 1988. Petroleum geology of East-Central Tunisia. AAPG Bull. 72, 1033–1058.
Bouaziz, S., Barrier, E., Soussi, M., Turki, M.M., Zouari, H., 2002. Tectonic evolution of the northern African margin in
Tunisia from paleostress data and sedimentary records. Tectonophysics 357, 227–253.
Bouri, S., 1994. Hydrothermie de surface et potentialités hydrothermales du Nord Tunisien- Identification des principales
unités hydrogéothermiques. Thèse de 3ème Cycle. Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax (ENIS), Sfax, Tunisia, 262
pp.
Bouri, S., Gasmi, M., Zarhloule, Y., Limayem, A., Ben Dhia, H., 2003. Traitement intégré des données de température:
outil pour la recherche des hydrocarbures. Afr. Geosci. Rev. (AGR) 10, 259–265.
Bouri, S., Lahlou Mimi, A., Beni Akhy, R., Tajina, S., Bellouti, F., Ben Dhia, H., 1998. Les potentialités
hydrogéothermiques de la Tunisie Centre-Nord. Afr. Geosci. Rev. (AGR) 5, 339–355.
Brott, C.A., Blackwell, D.D., Ziagos, J.P., 1981. Thermal and tectonic implications of heat flow in the eastern Snake River
Plain. J. Geophys. Res. 86, 11709–11734.
Burollet, P.F., Ellouz, N., 1986. L’évolution des bassins sédimentaires de la Tunisie centrale et orientale. Bull. Elf-Aquitaine
10, 49–68.
Goldstein, N.E., 1988. Subregional and detailed exploration for geothermal-hydrothermal resources. Geotherm. Sci.
Technol. 1, 303–431.
Gosnold, W.D., 1990. Heat flow in the Great Plains of the United States. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 353–374.
Grant, M.A., Donaldson, I.G., Bixley, P.F., 1982. Geothermal Reservoir Engineering. Academic Press, New York, NY,
USA, 369 pp.
Hitchon, B., 1984. Geothermal gradients, hydrodynamics and hydrocarbon occurrences, Alberta, Canada. AAPG Bull.
68, 713–743.
 S. Bouri et al. / Geothermics 36 (2007) 362–381 381

Khan, M.A., Raza, H.A., 1986. The role of geothermal gradient in hydrocarbon exploration in Pakistan. J. Petrol. Geol.
9, 245–258.
Kouas, H., Ben Dhia, H., 1990. Hdrogéologie pétrolière en Tunisie Centrale: réservoirs du Serdj, Abiod et El Garia. In:
Proceedings of the 2ème Cong. Nat. Sc. Terre, Tunis, Tunisia, September 24–30, 13 pp.
Limayem, A., 2004. Modélisation de bassins sédimentaires pour l’évaluation du potentiel pétrolier: Application au Golfe
de Hammamet. Thèse de Doctorat, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax (ENIS), Sfax, Tunisia, 204 pp.
Lucazeau, F., Ben Dhia, H., 1989. Preliminary heat-flow density data from Tunisia and the Pelagian Sea. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 26, 993–1000.
Maget, Ph., Housse, B.A., 1985. Geological parameters used to determine the low enthalpy geothermal potential of
sedimentary formations in France. Geothermics 14, 207–212.
McGee, H.W., Meyer, H.J., Pringle, J.R., 1989. Shallow geothermal anomalies overlying deeper oil and gas deposits in
Rocky Mountain region. AAPG Bull. 73, 576–597.
Meddeb, M. N., 1993. Géothermométrie chimique de la Tunisie septentrionale. Thèse de doctorat de spécialité. Fac. Sc.,
Univ. Tunis II, Tunis, Tunisia, 193 pp.
Neglia, S., 1979. Migration of fluids in sedimentary basins. AAPG Bull. 63, 573–579.
Reiter, M., 2001. Using precision temperature logs to estimate horizontal and vertical groundwater flow components.
Water Resour. Res. 37, 663–674.
Schmoker, James, W., Klett, T.R., 2005. U.S. Geological Survey assessment concepts for conventional petroleum accu-
mulations. Chapter 19 of Petroleum Systems and Geologic Assessment of Oil and Gas in the Southwestern Wyoming
Province, Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah. USGS, Southwestern Wyoming Province Assessment Team, U.S. Geological
Survey Digital Data Series DDS–69–D U.S., U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado, Version 1, 2005.
Tletli, M., 1985. Recherche et objectifs pétroliers en Tunisie. Rev. Tun. Energie 1, 6–12.
Toth, J., 1980. Cross-formational gravity flow of groundwater: a mechanism of transport and accumulation of petroleum.
AAPG Stud. Geol. 10, 121–167.
Trabelsi, R., 2004. Contribution à l’étude hydrogéologique, hydrochimique et isotopique du système aquifère de Takelsa
(Cap Bon). Mémoire de Master. Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax (ENIS), Sfax, Tunisia, 114 pp.
Yangui, I., Ben Gacha, A., Kouas, H., Ben Dhia, H., 1990. Hydrodynamisme et accumulations d’hydrocarbures en Tunisie
Centrale. Rev. Tun. Energie 1, 15–23.