2.
Good and bad thermal conductors
TRANSFER OF THERMAL
ENERGY
Heat/thermal energy is always transferred from
place at a high temperature to place at a lower
temperature.
There are three common methods or ways by which
heat can be transferred:-
(i) conduction
(ii) Convection
(iii) radiation
CONDUCTION
This is flow of heat through a substance from places
of higher temperature to those of lower
temperature without any movement/flow of the
substance (matter) as a whole. It is a main method of
heat transfer in solids and heat can be conducted in
all directions.
NB: Conduction can take place in all the three states
of matter but at different rates.
1. Molecular explanation of conduction in a solid
When one end of a metal rod is heated, the particles
(atoms/molecules) in portion nearest to the source
of heat, gain more kinetic energy and start to
vibrate faster and more vigorously. These atoms
collide with the neighbours and pass on some of
their energy during those collisions. The neighbours
will also begin to vibrate faster and will in turn
transmit the energy to the surrounding atoms. The
chain process continues until all the particles are
affected and the whole substance is heated even the
farthest parts.
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Most solids are good conductors of heat. Liquids and
gases are bad conductors. Bad conductors of heat
are called thermal insulators.
Experiment #1: To demonstrate that different
metals conduct heat at different rates
Procedure:
i) Stick a pin to each piece of metal with
candle wax
ii) Pour boiling water into the pan.
Note: In the experiment the following should be
done
i) Length and thickness of all the metal
rods should be the same and Metals
should be placed into the hot water to
same length to ensure equal
distribution of heat to all the metals.
Observation:
The pin attached to the copper falls off first followed
by that attached to the aluminium, then zinc and
lastly iron.
Conclusion: copper conducts heat fastest and iron
slowest.
All four metals can be listed in order of the rate of
conduction as follows:- copper, aluminium, zinc,
iron.
Experiment #2: To show that wood is a poor
conductor of heat.
Apparatus are arranged as follows
Observation
When the rod is passed through the flame several
times, paper over the wood scorches (burns) but not
that over brass.
Explanation: The brass conducts heat away from the
paper very quickly, and prevents it from reaching the
temperature at which it can burn. But the wood
conducts heat away slowly and hence more heat
builds on the paper, enough to make it burn.
Note: Metal objects below body temperature feel
colder to touch than those made of non-metals
because metals conduct heat away from the hand
faster.
Experiment #3: To show that liquids are poor
conductors of heat.
Procedure:
i) Wrap an ice cube in a metal gauge and
place it at the bottom of a boiling tube
filled with water.
ii) Heat the water at the top using a low
Bunsen flame.
2
Observation: The water starts to boil at the top
before all the ice at the bottom could be melted.
Reason: Heat is slowly conducted from the top of
the boiling tube to the bottom of the tube.
Therefore the ice melts very slowly. This shows that
water is a poor conductor of heat.
3. Applications of conduction – uses of good and
bad conductors.
Good conductors of heat are mostly metals. They are
used where heat needs to be transferred very
quickly. Good conductors (metals) are often used to
make:-
i) Bases of cooking utensils (kettles,
saucepans, pots, etc)
ii) Base of laundry irons
iii) Bits of soldering irons
Poor conductors of heat are mostly non-metals (e.g.
air, wood, glass, water, etc). They are used where
heat is to be insulated. Poor conductors are used to
make:-
i) The handles of cooking utensils,
soldering, soldering iron, laundry iron
and many other heating
appliances
ii) Clothes – cloth is made up of fibres.
The fibres trap small pockets of air. The
trapped air helps to
reduce heat loss by conduction.
b). Other materials which trap air like fur,
polystyrene, fibre glass, foam/sponge are used for
lagging to insulate
water pipes, hot water cylinders, oven,
refrigerators and also used in house roof insulation
and cavity wall
insulation to prevent or reduce the rate of heat
flow in our house. And air trapped between two
window
panes is used in double glazing insulation method
in our homes.
 *This movement is represented by the arrows
CONVECTION
drawn on the diagrams above. The arrows also
show the direction of the convection current.
It is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and
Discussion
gases) from region of higher to lower temperature
The liquid nearest to the heat source expands. This
through the movement of particles.
lessens its density. The less dense liquid floats and
This movement is actually caused by the difference
rises up. More dense, cold liquid moves in to take its
in densities in different parts of the fluid.
place.
 When a fluid, (e.g. water or air) is heated, it
expands and becomes less dense than the
Experiment #2: To show convection in air
colder surrounding fluid. Therefore it floats
or rises upwards and is replaced by colder
dense fluid which sinks down to take its
place. That fluid will be heated too and in
turn rises upwards. At the top, the warm
fluid cools, becomes denser and begins to
sink down where it will be re-heated and
rises again. Thus, a circulating movement
sets up in the liquid until the whole fluid is
at the same temperature. These circulating
parts of the fluid are called CONVECTION
CURRENTS. The arrows on the diagram show the direction
*Convection can also be used to cool a substance. followed by the smoke.
When fluid is cooled, molecules contracts and Explanation:
becomes denser. The cool, dense fluid sinks and is The air around the candle flame becomes hot and
replaced by warmer fluid which will be cooled and expands. It becomes less dense and rises. Cool,
sinks as well. And this produces convection currents denser air moves over to the candle to take the
which cool the liquid. place of the air that has risen up. This causes cool air
from outside to enter the box carrying the smoke
Experiment #1: To demonstrate convection in with it.
liquids.
The two sets of apparatus can be used
APPLICATION OF CONVECTION
a. Water heating system (geyser)

Observation
Purplish stream of water is seen rising upwards to
the top. At the top the stream changes its direction
of motion and now sinks to the bottom. - The cold water comes into the system
at the bottom and is heated by the heat
element

3
 - Water expands, becomes less dense
and rises up
- It is replaced by more cold water to
heated and the convection current is
set to heat all the water in the tank.
- The hot water pipe is near the top
because hot water would always be at
the top.
- If the water cools whilst at the top, it
sinks to the bottom to be heated again.
- Overflow pipe is included to prevent
build up of vapour which will increase
pressure inside the tank and cause
some explosions or cause some airlocks
inside the water pipes.
water to be heated by convection or
convection currents. Also to allow for a
radiator or heater to warm up a house by
convection, it should be placed very low
near the floor.
d. But when an air conditioner is installed, it is
placed up near to the roof so that when
convection currents are set would move
down and cool the entire house and the
same principle is used in refrigerators so
that its inside could be cooled by
convection currents.

b. The car cooling system

The arrows on the diagram show the flow of

the water
- The petrol burns in the engine
cylinders.
- Water surrounding the engine cylinders
becomes hot.
- Hot water rises to the top of the
radiator by convection
- Heat is passed from the water to the
copper radiator by conduction.
- Heat is passed to the air from the
radiator by conduction, convection and
radiation.
- The cool water flows from the lower
end of the radiator back into the engine
and the whole re-start and thus the
convection currents are set.
c. In electrical kettles, heating elements are
placed at the bottom to allow for all the
RADIATION

4

It is the flow of heat energy from a region of
higher temperature to region of lower
temperature by means of electromagnetic
waves (infra-red).
This is a way of transferring heat in form of
invisible heat waves. This is how heat
travels from the sun to the Earth. The heat
waves (radiant heat) are called infrared
radiation (E.M WAVES)
Note:
 Heat can be transferred by
radiation through a vacuum or a
transparent medium
 All objects give out some infrared
radiation and the hot objects give
out more radiation compare to
cool ones.
 Warm or hot objects (at higher
temperature than the surrounding)
will emit the radiation whereas
cool objects (at lower
temperature) will usually absorb
the radiation from the
surrounding.
Experiment #1: Investigating good and bad
absorbers of radiant energy (infrared)
Observation:
The pin attached to the dark surface
fall off first showing that the dark or
black surface absorbs radiant heat
from the candle more quickly than the
bright surface.
Conclusion: Dark/black surfaces are
good absorbers of radiation whilst
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bright (shiny, white or silvery) surfaces
are bad absorbers.
In fact the dull black surface is the best
absorber while a white or silvery
polished surface is the worst absorber .
Experiment #2: Investigating good and
bad emitters of radiant heat.
The two flasks in the diagram
above filled with boiling water are
allowed to cool.
Observation:
- It is observed that temperature
falls more rapidly for the
thermometer in the flask with a
dark (black) surface and slower for
the thermometer in a flask with a
bright/shiny surface.
- This shows that blackened surface
loses heat more quickly than the
silvered or shiny one.
-
Conclusion: dark colours emit radiant heat
more quickly than bright colours, i.e. dark
surfaces are good emitters of radiant heat
whereas bright surface a bad emitters. *NB:
Dark surfaces are both good absorbers and
bad emitters of radiation.
 Generally good absorbers are also good
emitters whereas bad absorbers are also
bad emitters as well.
Applications of thermal Radiation
 - Pots and kettles have shiny outer
surfaces to prevent them from
emitting radiant heat quickly and
make their contents cold.
- Houses in hot climates and
petroleum tankers are often
painted with bright paint to reduce
absorption of radiant. For the same
reason white (or bright coloured)
clothes are cooler to wear in
summer because they reflect much
of the heat and dark coloured or
black clothes are ideal for cold
weather to keep you warm.
- Curved surfaces on electric are
made of shiny metal to reflect
heat
- The cooling fins on the back of a
refrigerator are black so that they
lose heat more readily
8.13.5 SOME CONSEQUENCES OF HEAT
TRANSFER IN NATURE
1. Land and Sea Breezes
Diagram 1
Diagram 2
During a daytime the land gets hotter
than the sea. The warm air rises
upwards and is replaced by cool air that
blows from the sea towards the land.
This sets up some convection currents
known as Sea Breezes (diagram 1).
But, at night the land loses heat faster
than sea. Now the warmer air over the
sea rises and then is replaced by cool
air that blows from the land to the sea
and sets up convection currents that
will be called Land Breezes (diagram 2).
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2. Cyclones
- Usually air above warm parts
of sea will be warmed as well.
- The warm air rises up carrying
moisture high into the
atmosphere.
- The rotation of Earth causes
the airflow to spin.
- This huge spinning mass of
moist air is called a cyclone.
- The cyclone causes wet cloudy
weather with strong winds.
- If the winds become very
strong (120 – 130 km/h) the
storm is called a hurricane or a
typhoon.
3. Greenhouse Effects
The Earth’s atmosphere contains a small
amount of carbon dioxide gas. This has
similar effect to the glass in a greenhouse
(read more on this), it allows short
wavelength infrared from the Sun to pass
through and get absorbed by the Earth. The
Earth becomes warm and now radiates long
wavelength infrared radiation. This
radiation is absorbed by carbon dioxide and
water vapour in the atmosphere and causes
the atmosphere to become warmer. The
atmosphere reflects some of the energy
back to the Earth. This process is called
greenhouse effect and it helps to keep the
Earth warmer.
But extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
as a result of burning of fossil fuels may add
to this effect and lead to global warming.
4. Global warming
It results in the temperature of the
atmosphere and sea (Earth). That increased
temperature causes melting of the polar
ice-caps. This melting results in the rise of
the seal level leading to flooding of coastal
areas. Global warming can also lead to
some changes in the Earth climate which
will cause the disappearance of some
species of plants and animals.
 Silvered radiation Silvered
5. Days and nights in a desert and desert inner and surfaces are
Breezes outer walls bad absorbers
During the day the bare land in the and emitters
desert absorbs much more heat and of radiated
faster. Therefore the desert sand heat
becomes hotter than areas covered by
vegetation. Then the wind (breeze) Vacuum Conduction Conduction
blows from the forest (area covered by between and and
the vegetation) to the desert. walls convection convection
But in nights in a desert are very cold cannot occur
because at night the desert loses heat through a
faster. The warmer air rises from the vacuum
forest and a breeze develops from
Stopper or Convection The stopper
desert to the forest.
lid and traps a layer of
evaporation air above the
8.13.6 A VACUUM (THERMOS) FLASK
liquid,
preventing
convection
and
evaporation

Glass walls conduction Glass is a poor

conductor of
heat

It is designed to keep liquids hot or cold by reducing

heat transfer to or from the liquid by the aid of the
following features:

Feature of Reduces Explanation

flask transfer of
heat by ...........