LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS

Introduction:

An experiment is a procedure used to test a hypothesis, either to prove or disprove it,

or to figure out how effective or likely something is that hasn't been tried before. By demonstrating
the outcome that occurs when a particular factor is manipulated, experiments provide insight into
cause and effect. The objectives and scale of experiments vary greatly, but they all rely on a method
that can be repeated and logical analysis of the results. Basically laboratory experiments and analysis
are a practical form of proving what you know or what you want others to know about. So, lab work,
its goals, reasons and its equipments with their uses are a wide field to explain and research on,.

Conducting scientific experiments is fun! But at the same time, it can be hazardous. There are
many ways to be mindful and cautious while dabbling with science. Of course, the most important
one is knowing the science equipment one is using as well the uses of this laboratory equipment.

Not knowing the laboratory equipment and their uses have proven to be fatal and will continue
being harmful. It is absolutely necessary to use the appropriate laboratory equipment for each and
every experiment. Before beginning an experiment, you should know the answers to the following
questions: whether to use a manual or an electronic pipette? What kind of scales should be used?
Before starting an experiment, it's important to be aware of how the equipment in the laboratory is
used. In addition to the aforementioned reasons, being familiar with one's science equipment will only
contribute to the success of an experiment and may aid in error correction.

Hofstein and Lunetta (1982) pointed out that many goals for the laboratory are almost same with
those defined for science courses in general. A good laboratory activity may have many objectives,
some aims and one or two goals.

Potential goals of laboratory classes:

 Develop intuition and deepen understanding of concepts.

 Apply concepts learned in class to new situations.
 Experience basic phenomena.
 Develop critical, quantitative thinking.
 Develop experimental and data analysis skills.
 Learn to use scientific apparatus.
 Learn to estimate statistical errors and recognize systematic errors.
 Develop reporting skills (written and oral).
 Practice collaborative problem solving.
 Exercise curiosity and creativity by designing a procedure to test a hypothesis.
 Better appreciate the role of experimentation in science.
 Test important laws and rules

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Safety Goggles and Safety Equipment:

Safety is the most important rule in any laboratory!

This may seem obvious, but for a variety of reasons, people frequently disregard safety procedures,
putting themselves and those around them in danger. The best thing you can do is to always adhere to
all safety procedures. All chemistry labs require employees to wear safety goggles. If you don't wear
them, you run the risk of getting eye irritation and, in the event of an accident, even going blind. The
container could leak a small amount of acid at any time. Better safe than blind forever! When there is
a possibility that corrosive chemicals will get on your hands, latex gloves should be used. In the event
of spills or splashes, a lab apron or coat can also protect workers from harm. In a lab, no sandals or
shoes with open toes are allowed.

Figure No.2: Safety Equipment

Beaker:

Most labs use beakers as their standard container. Chemicals can be mixed, stirred, and
heated with it. Spouts on the rims of the majority of beakers make pouring easier. Although they are
not a precise method for measuring liquids, they also frequently have markings and lips around their
rims to indicate the volume they contain. There are many different sizes of beakers.

A beaker does not have a lid because of the lip that wraps around the rim. However, the opening
can be covered with a watch glass (described below) to prevent splashing or contamination.

Figure No.1: Beakers

Erlenmeyer Flasks, AKA Conical Flasks:

In 1861, the Erlenmeyer flask, also known as a
conical flask, was invented. It expands toward its base and has a narrow neck. The flask can be easily
mixed and swirled like this without running the risk of spilling. Additionally, a rubber or glass stopper

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can be used because of the narrow opening. It can undoubtedly be clipped to a ring stand (examined
underneath) as well as warmed or shaken precisely.

Again, the side marks are primarily intended for estimation rather than precision. The fact that
this flask should never be heated while it is capped is an important safety tip. This could lead to a
buildup of pressure that could explode

Figure No.3: 250ml Erlenmeyer Flask

. Florence Flasks, AKA Boiling Flasks:

The Florence flask, also known as a boiling flask, has a

long neck and a round bottom. It can be heated and swirled easily, and it holds liquids. It can also be
easily capped with stoppers made of rubber or glass. This flask should never be heated when it is
capped because of safety concerns once more. Explosions and buildup of pressure are real
possibilities.

Figure No.4: Boiling Flask

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Test Tube:

A test tube, culture tube or sample tube, is a transparent cylindrical shape generally
open at one end and closed at the other, in the form of a finger. Are used, from the beginning of the
19th century, to contain and test various reactions on a small scale.

They have a wide range of practical uses in chemistry, bioscience, medicine, and more. The
spherical bottom prevents loss of mass, due to the absence of corners, when pouring the contents of
the test tube and makes cleaning easier. There are several types of test tube materials: glass, plastic,
metal, and ceramic. Glass and plastic are the most common, some are designed to be reused, while
others are disposable.

Figure No.5: Test Tube

Test Tube Holding racks:

A glass test tube has one end that is open and the other end that is closed.
It has a rounded closed end. Small samples are stored in test tubes. They are likewise handily covered
with an elastic or glass plug.

Most of the time, they are kept in a rack for test tubes made just for that. Test-tube tongs can be
used to move the test tubes if they become unsafe to touch with bare hands due to heat or another
factor.

Figure No.6: Test-Tube Rack

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Test Tube Holder:

Test tubes are held in place with a holder for them. When a test tube is hot or
should not be touched, it is used to keep it in place.

Figure No.7: Test-Tube Holder

Watch glasses:

A watch glass is only a round piece of glass that is marginally inward/raised

(consider a focal point). It can store a little liquid or solid. In addition to serving as a lid for a
beaker, they can also be used for evaporation.

Figure No.8: Watch Glass

Crucibles:

A small clay cup made of a material that can withstand high temperatures is known as a
crucible. They come with lids and are used for heating substances. A crucible is a container made of
ceramic or metal that can be used to melt or heat up metals or other materials.

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 Figure No.9: Crucible

Funnels:
Except for the fact that it was made to be used in a laboratory, a lab funnel is like any other
funnel. Depending on their purpose, they can be made of plastic or glass and come with a short or
long stem. Depending on how much liquid needs to pass through them quickly, there are several sizes
to choose from.

Figure No.10: Funnel

Graduated cylinders:
The primary instrument for determining a liquid's volume is this one. Along
the length of the container, there are a number of markings in specific increments. There are various
sizes of graduated cylinders. The volume measurements will be more precise the smaller their
diameter.

You will notice that the liquid appears to have an indentation when you read the volume from a
graduated cylinder. When someone is standing in the middle, the liquid will slope down like the sides
of a trampoline, with the liquid around the edges being higher than the liquid in the middle. The
meniscus is the name for this. Line the absolute bottom of the meniscus up with the closest checking,
keeping the chamber level to peruse the volume appropriately.

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 Figure No.11: Graduated Cyl9nder

Volumetric flasks:

A round volumetric flask has a flat bottom and a long neck. It is used to
precisely measure a liquid's volume. On the neck, there is a small line that tells you how far to fill the
bottle (use the meniscus's bottom). They come with special caps that prevent anything from entering
or leaving.

Figure No.12 Volumetric Flask

Droppers:

These are little glass tubes that have a rubber bulb on one end and narrow tips on the
other. They take in liquid that can be squeezed out in tiny drops after they suck it up. An indicator can
be added to a solution that is about to be titrated with these.

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 Figure No.13: Droppers

Pipettes:
There are a lot of different pipettes that are made to do specific things. However, they are
all used to transfer a precise volume of liquid to another container.

Figure No.14: Pipette

Burette:

A burette is a glass tube with a wide, pointed opening at the bottom and an open top. A
stopcock that can be turned to control the amount of liquid released is located right above the bottom
opening. The volume of the liquid that is present is indicated by markings that run the length of the
tube. For extremely precise liquid addition, a burette is used. The rate at which liquid is released can
be slowed to a drop every few seconds by adjusting the stopcock. Burette are one of the laboratory's
most accurate instruments.

Using a ring stand and a burette clamp, as described below, burets can be set up. Write down how
much liquid was initially present in the burette to determine how much liquid is added. The remaining

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amount should be written down after you have completed adding. The volume of the liquid that was
added is the result of subtracting the final amount from the initial amount. Remember to measure
again from the meniscus's bottom.

Figure No.15: Burette

Ring stands with rings attached:

Burette, flasks, crucibles, and other items can be suspended
using the ring stand. over additional containers or, in some instances, a heat source (a Bunsen burner,
which is discussed below). Always check to see that everything is securely fastened to the stand. Be
careful not to shatter the glass when clamping it. Adjust only until it is snug.

When using a ring on the stand, additional components are typically required to complete the task.
The ring is covered with wire mesh to support the beaker and distribute heat evenly. Crucibles are
suspended by means of a clay triangle with an open center. Check that everything is in balance! Keep
the entire setup from falling over.

Figure No.16: Ring stands with rings attached

Tongs and Forceps:

For grabbing things that shouldn't be touched by hand, tongs and forceps are
used. Some tongs are made specifically to hold test tubes, beakers, and so on. General tongs are also
available.

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 Forceps are used to grab small objects like chunks of solid chemicals so they can be handled
safely and added to containers.

Figure No.17: Tongs and Forceps

Spatulas and scoopulas:

Scooping solid chemicals is done with scoopulas and spoons. Typically,

they are used to transfer a chemical from its original container onto a weigh boat for balance
weighing.

Figure No,18: Spatulas and Scoopulas

Thermometers:

Liquid temperatures are measured with a laboratory thermometer. It could be a

thermocouple made of a variety of metals or glass.

Figure No.19: Thermometers

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Bunsen burner:

A mechanical device that is connected to a source of flammable gas is called a

Bunsen burner. The airflow is controlled by a rotating collar and a knob for the amount of gas flow.
To achieve the ideal flame for heating, these two must be adjusted. A striker is used to light the
burner. When using a Bunsen burner, extreme caution is required.

Figure No.20: Bunsen Burner

Weighing Balances:

Chemicals are weighed with a balance. Never directly on the balance, the
chemicals are stored in some container. Since a balance has been calibrated for the position it is in, it
is critical not to move it. In order to prevent air currents from affecting the measurement, some
balances have housings made of plastic with small doors. Whenever the balance is being used, close
these doors.

To use a balance to determine a chemical's weight, first place the chemical's empty container on
the balance. On the balance, press the "tare" or "zero" button once you have a reading. Eliminate the
compartment from the equilibrium and add the compound (never add synthetics to a holder while it is
on the equilibrium). Reweigh after adding the chemical to determine its individual weight.

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 Figure No.21: Weighing Balance

Microscope:

A microscope is an essential piece of biology laboratory equipment. Most schools and

colleges use a simple light microscope, also known as a compound microscope, which looks at tiny
objects through a series of magnifying lenses and either natural or artificial light. The components of a
compound microscope are detailed in the following schematic diagram:

A microscope makes use of the way convex lenses bend light to work on the principle of
refraction of light. The objective and the oculus are typically the two lenses. The objective creates a
virtual large image of the sample by remaining very close to it so that it can be observed. We can see
that the previous image is enlarged even further by the oculus remaining close to the eye

Figure No.22: Microscope

Brushes:

Relatively few individuals know it, however cleaning things are one of the greatest bits of
regular lab life. The first step toward precision and perfection is to clean equipment and glassware.
Because they are the only things that can fit inside the narrow-mouthed test tubes and other
cylindrical and narrow objects, brushes are used as the instrument for cleaning the test tubes.

Despite the fact that brushes are tools for cleaning, you should still remember to clean the
brushes themselves after you've finished cleaning! In any case, next time you attempt to clean
something with a similar brush it will get dirtier all things being equal. Even worse, if the substances
are reactive, you might end up in an accident. Therefore, it makes sense to clean your cleaning
equipment as well

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 Figure No.23: Brushes

Wash bottles:

The wash bottles are consumables for the laboratory that are used for cleaning and
sterilizing. These plastic bottles have a long nozzle and are used as squeezy containers. They typically
consist of ethanol, deionized water, or distilled water.

Figure No.24: Wash Bottles

Spring Balance:

Another tool for determining an object's weight is a spring balance, also known as
a Newton meter. Using Hooke's law, which states that the force applied to an object is directly
proportional to the extension provided that the elastic limit is not reached, this spring-and-hook device
works.

Figure No.25: Spring Balance

Litmus and Filter Papers:

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 Although these two cannot be properly referred to as apparatus, they
are one of the most essential items that will be required in any laboratory. The litmus paper changes
color to show the pH of any solution, while the filter paper is used to filter the solution.

Figure No.26: Nature of Litmus Paper in Diff. Mediums

Digital Colorimeter:

In a chemistry lab, a digital colorimeter measures the absorbance of a

specific wavelength of light by a solution to determine the concentration of a known solute. The
Digital Colorimeter is based on Beer-Lambart's law, which states that a solution's absorbance is
directly inversely proportional to its concentration. A photoresistor in this apparatus tracks the
sample's light transmittance or absorbance, which is used to calculate concentration.

Figure No.27: Digital Colorimeter

Melting Point Apparatus:

A tool for figuring out a chemical compound's melting point is called a
melting point apparatus. One of the melting point apparatuses is the thiele tube mentioned earlier. The
Fischer-Jhon apparatus, Gallenkamp (Electronic) melting-point apparatus, and automatic melting-
point apparatus are examples of additional types. These apparatus, in contrast to the thiele tube, do not
require oil or any other chemical to determine the substance's melting point; rather, the sample is
placed directly inside the apparatus using a capillary tube

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 Figure No.28: Melting-Point Apparatus

Kipp’s Apparatus:

In the chemistry lab, the Kipp's Apparatus, also known as the Kipp's generator,
is used to prepare gases like hydrogen gas, carbon dioxide gas, and hydrogen sulfide gas. Petrus
Jacobus Kipp, a Dutch pharmacist, created it around 1844. The device typically consists of three
chambers that are layered one on top of the other and are made of polyethylene or glass. The top
chamber is where the liquid reagent is poured, and a tube that goes through the middle chamber
connects it to the bottom chamber. The middle chamber's stopcock is briefly opened to release air
after the bottom chamber is completely filled. After that, the liquid reagent rises to the middle
chamber, where it reacts with the solid reagent to produce the required gas that can be drawn out
through the stopcock.

Figure No.27: Kipp’s Apparatus

Water Bath:
One of the most important pieces of equipment in a chemical laboratory is a water
bath. It is a tool for heating chemical samples that are flammable at a constant temperature. A heating
assembly, a stainless-steel chamber for the water and samples, and a user interface are typically the
components of a laboratory water bath. A shaking water bath or circulating water to keep the samples
moving while they are cooked are two additional features of some water baths.

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 Figure No.28: Water Bath

Petri Dish:
A petri dish is a shallow, transparent, cylinder-shaped container for general biochemical
reactions. The lid protects the sample from contamination and is typically made of heat-resistant
borosilicate glass.

Figure No.29: Petri Dish

Evaporating Dish:

An evaporating dish, also known as a China dish, is a crucible-like bowl-shaped

device used to evaporate liquids. It is used in experiments where a concentrated solution or solid
precipitate of the dissolved component must be obtained by removing excess solvent. The majority of
evaporating dishes are made of porcelain, and their volume can range anywhere from 3 mL to 10 mL.

Figure No.30: Evaporating Dish

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Wire Mesh:

Wire mesh, otherwise called wire gauze, is a metal wire joined sheet that sits between
the container and the mount stand. The use of a wire mesh to disperse the heat from the flames is
necessary because glassware cannot be heated directly. Because of its heat resistance, asbestos
ceramic layer is frequently incorporated into the center of wire mesh.

Figure No.31: Wire Gauze/Mesh

Tripod:

A three-legged platform called a laboratory tripod is used to support vessels while they are
heated on a bunsen burner. It is made of light metals like treated steel or aluminum and is intended to
be light and simple to convey.

Figure No.32: laboratory Tripod

Gas Syringe:

A piece of laboratory glassware known as a gas syringe is used to measure the volume
of gas produced by a chemical reaction and to inject or remove gas from a closed system. A gas
syringe looks just like a regular syringe; Ground glass, on the other hand, is used to construct the gas
syringe's interior chamber, which has a flat but rough (matte) surface. The barrel of the syringe also
has a surface made of ground glass. With minimal friction, the ground surface of the barrel slides

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effortlessly within the ground glass surface of the syringe chamber. A gas-tight seal is also provided
by these ground glass surfaces' close alignment.

Figure No.33: Gas Syringe with Capillary Stock

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