S-N Fatigue Curves

Fatigue
RICARDO BAPTISTA
References
Dowling, Norman E., 1945-. (2013). Mechanical behavior of materials:
engineering methods for deformation, fracture, and fatigue.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J. :Prentice Hall.
Cui, W. (2002). Review article A state-of-the-art review on fatigue life

prediction methods for, J. Mar. Sci. Technol., , pp. 43–56.
09/05/2023 RICARDO.BAPTISTA@ESTSETUBAL.IPS.PT 2
Loading Modes
Loading Modes
Loading Modes
Loading Modes
Loading Modes
Loading Modes
Models
◦ Hook’s Law (E = elastic modulus, also called Young’s modulus)
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀
𝜎
𝜂=
𝜀ሶ
Models
Models
(a) elastic, perfectly plastic

behavior and (b) elastic,
linear-hardening behavior
Ramberg–Osgood
Fatigue
Definition
In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by
cyclic loading that results in progressive and localized structural damage
and the growth of cracks. Once a fatigue crack has initiated, each
loading cycle will grow the crack a small amount, typically
producing striations on some parts of the fracture surface. The crack
will continue to grow until it reaches a critical size, which occurs when
the stress intensity factor of the crack exceeds the fracture toughness of
the material, producing rapid propagation and typically complete
fracture of the structure.
Wikipedia, adapted from ASTM definition

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_(material)
Fatigue in History
1837 – First paper on fatigue published by Wilhelm Albert
1842 – Fatigue caused Versailles railway accident
1854 – Braithwaite uses the term “Fatigue” in several case study analysis
1860 – Train axel tested by August Wöhler e William Fairbairn
1870 – First experimental results published by August Wöhler: Stress
amplitude and Fatigue limit defined
1910 – (log-log) S-N curves by Basquin
1945 – Variable amplitude and Miner’s Law
1954 – Plastic deformation introduced by Coffin-Mason
1961 – Fatigue crack propagation by Paris
1968 – Cycle counting using the Rain-Flow method by Endo e Matsuishi
Versailles railway accident
Fatigue in Aircraft Structural
Integrity
1930–1940: Commercial development of metal aircraft for public
transport. Design and analysis emphasized static strength, with little or
no consideration of airframe fatigue.
1940–1955: Increasing awareness of importance of fatigue for
airframe safety. Materials with higher static strengths were developed
without corresponding increases in fatigue strength. Design became
based on both static and fatigue strengths.
1955–present: Development of Fail-Safe and Damage Tolerant design
methods, which recognize that airframe structures must withstand
service loads even when damaged or cracked. Safety should be ensured
by fatigue and fracture testing and analysis of damaged structures,
pre-service and in-service inspections, and eventual repairs,
replacements or retirement.
R Wanhill, National Aerospace Laboratory, NLR, Emmeloord, the Netherlands
L Molent and S Barter, Defence Science and Technology Organisation, DSTO, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Famous Aircraft Failure
Comet
G-ALYU
Comet G-ALYU
Before and also during the Comet era, the fatigue design principles were
based on the so-called Safe-Life philosophy. This means that the entire
airframe was designed to achieve a satisfactory fatigue life with no
significant damage, i.e., cracking.
The Comet accidents, and other experiences, showed that cracks could
sometimes occur much earlier than anticipated, owing to limitations in the
fatigue analyses, and that safety could not be guaranteed on a Safe-Life
analysis basis without imposing uneconomically short service lives on major
components of the structure.
These problems were addressed by adoption of the Fail-Safe design
principles in the late 1950s. In Fail-Safe design, the structure is designed
first – as before – to achieve a satisfactory life with no significant damage.
However, the structure is also designed to be inspectable in service and
able to sustain significant and easily detectable damage before safety is
compromised.
F-111A
#67-0049
Manufacturing flaw in the
high-strength D6ac steel
lower plate of the left-
hand wing pivot fitting.
F-111A #67-0049
Damage Tolerance incorporated in Military Specification A-83444 (1974)
and Military Standard 1530A (11) (1975) vs Fail-Safe
1. The possibility of cracks or flaws in a new structure must be
considered. In fact, MIL SPEC A-83444 made it mandatory to assume
initial, possibly undetectable, damage as a design requirement
2. Structures may be inspectable or non-inspectable in service, i.e., there
is an option for designing structures that are not intended to be
inspected during the service life:
a. Inspectable structures can be qualified as Fail-Safe or slow flaw growth
structures, for which initial damage must grow slowly and not reach a size
large enough to cause failure within two inspection periods;
b. Non-inspectable structures may still be classified as damage tolerant
provided they can be qualified for slow flaw growth, which in this case
means that the assumed initial damage must not grow to a size that would
cause failure during a period equivalent to two design service lives.
Dan Air Boeing 707
Dan Air Boeing 707
A Fail-Safe design concept does not by itself constitute a Fail-Safe
design. Inspectability is equally important.
It is essential that load surveys be performed to develop accurate loads
and load spectra for use in damage tolerance analyses, fatigue
analyses and fail-safe residual strength and life analyses. These load
spectra are also very important for the full-scale fatigue test.
The manufacturer modified the horizontal stabilizer design for the
Boeing 707-300 series in order to increase the torsional stiffness. The
modification was a material change from an aluminum alloy to a
stainless steel. Unfortunately, this modification was not checked by a
full-scale fatigue test, which was not required by the contemporary
regulations.

Aloha
Airlines
Boeing
737
Aloha Airlines Boeing 737
Owing to the cold bonding problems, Boeing issued service bulletins in
1972, 1974, and 1987, and the Federal Aviation Administration issued
an Airworthiness Directive in 1987. These documents called for skin
splice inspections at regular intervals, and repairs if necessary. However,
there was a lack of proper maintenance by Aloha Airlines.
The Aloha Airlines Boeing 737-297 accident prompted worldwide
activities to ensure the safety and structural integrity of aging aircraft.
Manufacturers, operators, and airworthiness authorities have
collaborated to develop new regulations and advisory circulars, or
extend existing ones. The FAA joined with NASA in organizing several
aging aircraft conferences, and research funding was provided for
investigation of many aspects of the problem.

Cyclic
Loading
Constant Amplitude Cycling
Constant Amplitude Cycling
Variable Amplitude
Variable Amplitude
Initiation
Initiation
Propagation
Propagation
Fracture Surface
Fracture Surface
Fatigue Initiation
Fatigue Striations
V. Infante, J.M. Silva, M.A.R. Silvestre, R. Baptista, Failure
of a crankshaft of an aeroengine: A contribution for an
accident investigation, Engineering Failure Analysis
Aircraft Crankshaft
V. Infante, J.M. Silva, M.A.R. Silvestre, R. Baptista, Failure
of a crankshaft of an aeroengine: A contribution for an
accident investigation, Engineering Failure Analysis
Aircraft Crankshaft
Fatigue failure in aircraft structural components,
Selim Gürgen et al.
Aircraft propeller
Aircraft propeller
Aircraft propeller
Fracture Fatigue
Flap Actuator Rod
Flap Actuator Rod
Fracture Fatigue
V. Infante, L. Fernandes, M. Freitas, R. Baptista,
Failure analysis of a nose landing gear fork,
Engineering Failure Analysis,
Failure analysis
of a nose landing gear fork
The fracture surface shows beach marks

consistent with a fatigue process.
The stress intensity factors were
determine for straight cracks near the
holes.
The horizontal drag loads are
responsible for the fatigue crack
propagation.
V. Infante, L. Fernandes, M. Freitas, R. Baptista,
Failure analysis of a nose landing gear fork,
Engineering Failure Analysis,
Failure analysis
of a nose landing gear fork
A1 A2 A3
B2 C1 C2
Stress-Based
Approach to
Fatigue
RICARDO BAPTISTA
Fatigue Testing
Fatigue Testing
Fatigue Testing
S-N Curve
Log-Log Basquin Equation
S-N Curve
Fatigue Limit
In practice
Some values of stress amplitude and corresponding cycles to failure are
given in the following Table, from tests on the AISI 4340 steel. The tests
were done on unnotched, axially loaded specimens under zero mean
stress.
a) Plot these data on log–log coordinates. If this trend seems to
represent a straight line, obtain rough values for the constants for A and
B, from two widely separated points on a line drawn through the data.
b) Obtain refined values for A and B, using a linear
least-squares fit of log Nf versus log σa.
In practice
In practice
a)
b)
Mean Stress Effect
Mean Stress Effect
Notch Effect
Environmental Effect
Very High Cycle Fatigue (VHCF)
Volume Fatigue
Mean Stress Effect
Constant-
life
diagram
Constant-life
diagram
𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚𝑒𝑑
Goodman (England, 1899): + =1
𝜎𝑎𝑟 𝜎𝑢
𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚𝑒𝑑 2
Gerber (Germany, 1874): + =1
Morrow (USA, 1960): + =1
𝜎𝑎𝑟 𝜎′𝑓
SWT: 𝜎𝑎𝑟 = 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
Mean Stress Effect
𝝈𝒎 = 𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂
Case Study
S. Kovacs, T. Beck, L. Singheiser
Influence of mean stresses on fatigue life and damage of a turbine
blade steel in the VHCF-regime
International Journal of Fatigue, Volume 49, April 2013, Pages 90-99,
ISSN 0142-1123, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2012.12.012
09/05/2023 70
Case Study
09/05/2023 71
Case Study
Vidit Gaur, Véronique Doquet,
Emmanuel Persent, Charles Mareau,
Eléonore Roguet, Jean Kittel
Surface versus internal fatigue crack
initiation in steel: Influence of mean
stress
International Journal of Fatigue,
Volume 82, Part 3, January 2016,
Pages 437-448, ISSN 0142-1123,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2
015.08.028
09/05/2023 72
Case Study
09/05/2023 73
In practice
For axially loaded, unnotched specimens of titanium 6Al-4V, Table
P9.33 gives data at various nonzero mean stresses.
Combine the data from Tables P9.33 into a single data set and proceed
as follows:
(a) For the Goodman relationship, Eq. 9.15, calculate σar for each test,
and plot these versus Nf.
(b, c, d) Proceed as in (a) for the mean stress relationships of (b)
Morrow with σ ̃ fB, (c) Morrow with σ′f, and (d) SWT.
In practice
293/Sar + 592/1233 = 1 <=> Sar = 563.6 MPa (Goodman)
293/Sar + 592/2030 = 1 <=> Sar = 413.6 MPa (Morrow)
Sar = (293*(592+293))^0.5 = 509.2 MPa (SWT)
Sa -> Smed = 0 MPa -> Nf = 45000
Morrow (USA, 1960): + =1
In practice
778/Sar - 130/1233 = 1 <=> Sar = 703.8 MPa (Goodman)
778/Sar - 130/2030 = 1 <=> Sar = 731.2 MPa (Morrow)
Sar = (778*(-130+778))^0.5 = 710 MPa (SWT)
Sa -> Smed = 0 MPa -> Nf = 4500
Morrow (USA, 1960): + =1
1000
In practice
Stress Amplitude (MPa)

Sa (MPa) Sm (MPa) Nf Goodman Morrow SWT
293 592 45000 564 414 509
241 646 90000 506 353 462
207 668 160000 452 309 426
174 685 700000 392 263 387 Goodman
778 -130 4500 704 731 710 100
594 -312 132000 474 515 409 1000 10000 100000 1000000
529 -354 540000 411 450 304 Cycles
1000 1000
Morrow
100 100
1000 10000 100000 1000000 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Cycles Cycles
09/05/2023 77
In practice
A part made of Ti-6Al-4V (solution treated and aged) will be subjected
in service to a stress amplitude of σa = 500 MPa, and the desired service
life is 60,000 cycles.
(a) What are the safety factors in stress and in life? Do these seem
reasonable for an actual engineering application? Explain why or why
not.
(b) If a safety factor of 1.3 in stress is considered adequate, how many
cycles can be applied in service before the part is replaced?
In practice
a) 𝜎𝑎 = 𝜎′𝑓 2𝑁 𝑏 ; 𝜎𝑎 = 2030 2𝑁 −0,104
−0,104
500 = 2030 2𝑁
𝑁 = 354962
354962
𝑛= 60000
= 5,9
−0,104
𝜎𝑎 = 2030 2 ∙ 60000
601
𝑛 = 500 = 1,2
b) 𝑛 = 1,3; 𝜎𝑎 𝑎𝑑𝑚 = 650 𝑀𝑃𝑎
−0,104
650 = 2030 2𝑁
𝑁 = 28482
In practice
AISI 4340 steel is subjected to cyclic loading with a tensile mean stress
of σm = 200 MPa.
a) What life is expected if the stress amplitude is σa = 450 MPa?
b) Also estimate the σa versus Nf curve for this σm value
a)
In practice
b)
600 1000
508 MPa
500
450 MPa
508 MPa
400
450 MPa
σar [MPa]
σa [MPa]
300
200
100
1578 MPa 166000
0 100
0 500 1000 1500 2000 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
σm [MPa] Cycles
09/05/2023 82
In practice
An unnotched solid circular shaft of diameter 50 mm is made of the
alloy Ti-6Al-4V.
A zero-to-maximum (R=0) cyclic torque ofT=10 kN·m is applied, together
with a zero-to-maximum cyclic bending moment of M=7.5kN·m, with
the two cyclic loads being applied in phase at the same frequency.
How many load cycles can be applied before fatigue failure is expected?
In practice
𝑇𝑟
τ(max) = 𝐽
= 10000*0.025/(pi*0.025^4/2) = 407 MPa
𝑀𝑦
σ(max) = = 7500*0.025/(pi*0.025^4/4) = 611 MPa
𝐼
τ(a) = 203.5 MPa

σ(a) = 305.5 Mpa
1 2 2 2 2 2 2
von Mises = σeq = 2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 + 6 𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 + 𝜏𝑧𝑥
σeq(a) = (0.5*(2*305.5^2+6*203.5^2))^0.5 = 466.8 MPa

σmed = 466.8 MPa (porque R=0)
09/05/2023 84
In practice
σeq(a) = 466.8 MPa
σmed = 466.8 MPa (porque R=0)
466.8/Sar + 466.8/2030 = 1 <=> Sar = 606.2 MPa (Morrow)
606.2 = 2030*(2*Nf)^-0.104
Nf = 55 709 ciclos
09/05/2023 85
In practice
Fatigue data for unnotched, axially loaded specimens tested at various
mean stresses are given in the following Table for the same AISI 4340
steel. Plot σar versus N f for all data for the mean stress equations of a)
Goodman and b) Morrow with σ’f. On each plot, also show the stress–
life line. Then comment on the success of each equation in correlating
the data.
In practice
In practice
Morrow (USA, 1960): + =1
Variable Amplitude
Miner’s Rule
Variable Amplitude
x Bf
Case Study
Jin Gan, Kai Zhao, Zhou Wang, Xiaoli
Wang, Weiguo Wu
Fatigue damage of designed T-type
specimen under different proportion
repeating Two-Step variable
amplitude loads
Engineering Fracture Mechanics
Volume 221, November 2019, 106684
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmec
h.2019.106684
09/05/2023 91
Case Study
09/05/2023 92
Case Study
Constant Amplitude
Variable Amplitude
09/05/2023 93
In practice
The stress history shown in Fig. is repeatedly applied as a uniaxial stress
to an unnotched member made of the AISI 4340 steel. Estimate the
number of repetitions required to cause fatigue failure.
In practice
𝜎𝑎 = 400 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜎𝑎𝑟 = 517,8 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑎𝑟 = 408,5 𝑀𝑃𝑎 x10

𝜎𝑚 = 400 𝑀𝑃𝑎
517,8 = 1643 𝑁 −0,0977

𝜎𝑎 = 290 𝑀𝑃𝑎 408,5 = 1643 𝑁 −0,0977
𝜎𝑚 = 510 𝑀𝑃𝑎 x10

N = 135 771 ciclos
400 400 N = 1 537 270 ciclos x10

+ =1
𝜎𝑎𝑟 1758
290 510 D = (1/135771 + 10/1537270) = 1,39e-5
+ =1
𝜎𝑎𝑟 1758
1 = N*(1/135771 + 10/1537270)  N = 72 096
Rain-Flow
Notched
Components*
Notches (geometric
discontinuities) are
unavoidable in design,
such as holes, fillets,
grooves, and keyways,
cause the stress to be
locally elevated and so
are called stress raisers.
* strain-based approach to fatigue, which

treats notched members in a more
detailed and rigorous manner than does
any type of a stress-based approach
Notched Components
Notched Components
Dynamic
Major influence on
the fatigue limit
Notched Components

Other Factors

Surface
Factor

Size Factor

Reduction Factors for the
Fatigue Limit
Fatigue Limit
Correction
Factors
Ultimate Strength
A value around me = 0.5 is common for low- and intermediate-strength steels.
For aluminum alloys, a value of me = 0.4 applies for the lower strength levels.
Other typical me values are 0.4 for cast irons at Nf = 107 cycles, 0.35 for wrought
magnesium alloys at Nf = 108 cycles, and 0.5 for titanium alloys at Nf = 107 cycles.

Notched Components

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Fatigue

Cui, W. (2002). Review article A state-of-the-art review on fatigue life

(a) elastic, perfectly plastic

Wikipedia, adapted from ASTM definition

R Wanhill, National Aerospace Laboratory, NLR, Emmeloord, the Netherlands

R Wanhill, National Aerospace Laboratory, NLR, Emmeloord, the Netherlands

Flap Actuator Rod

Flap Actuator Rod

The fracture surface shows beach marks

Log-Log Basquin Equation

SWT: 𝜎𝑎𝑟 = 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥

SWT: 𝜎𝑎𝑟 = 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥

SWT: 𝜎𝑎𝑟 = 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥

Stress Amplitude (MPa)

Stress Amplitude (MPa)

τ(a) = 203.5 MPa

σeq(a) = (0.5*(2*305.5^2+6*203.5^2))^0.5 = 466.8 MPa

466.8/Sar + 466.8/2030 = 1 <=> Sar = 606.2 MPa (Morrow)

𝜎𝑎𝑟 = 408,5 𝑀𝑃𝑎 x10

517,8 = 1643 𝑁 −0,0977

𝜎𝑚 = 510 𝑀𝑃𝑎 x10

400 400 N = 1 537 270 ciclos x10

* strain-based approach to fatigue, which

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σeq(a) = (0.5(2305.5^2+6*203.5^2))^0.5 = 466.8 MPa