1 Soil Types Foundations Notes

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1 - Soil types foundations Notes
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SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

SPEED - HKPolyU Topic : Soil Types & Deep Foundations
Chapter 1 - Soil Types and Foundations
1.0 Introduction
The main focus of this chapter is to illustrate the construction and the functions of deep foundations
commonly used in Hong Kong. As you may be aware that in a building structure all the loadings
(vertical and lateral) must be safely transferred from the superstructure through its structural
elements (beams, slab, columns and walls etc) to the foundation. The foundation will then transmit
the loads to the supporting soils. The use of either shallow or deep foundations will be depended on
the properties and the available bearing capacity of the rocks and soils. Hence, various types of
commonly encountered rocks and soils in Hong Kong will be discussed in the following sections.
In general, 3 major factors affecting the selection of foundation are (1) Ground conditions (soil type
and properties; obstructions; groundwater condition, etc.); (2) Loading – magnitude and
distribution; (3) Effects of surrounding structures and environment e.g. vibration, noise,
groundwater movement. The first factor is usually regarded as the major variable affecting
foundation design. Soil investigation (to collect soil samples) must be conducted thoroughly in
order to know the soil properties before foundation design commences.
1.1 Typical Soil and Rocks Properties in Hong Kong

In engineering terms, a “soil” is any naturally formed earth material or fill which can be broken
down by hand into its constituent grains; on the other hand, a “rock” cannot be broken down, or
may only be broken down by hand, depending on its weathered condition (GEOGUIDE 3).
1.1.1 Rock
Generally speaking, two major rock types of igneous occur in Hong Kong, namely, granite
(intrusive igneous rock) and volcanic (extrusive igneous rock). Other rock types such as
sedimentary, pyroclastic and metamorphic are also found in Hong Kong. Coarse grained granite
rocks are located underneath in Kowloon, the central part of Hong Kong Island, the lower levels of
Victoria Peak, Sha Tin, Tsuen Wan and Castle Peak. However, some of these places may be
covered with colluvium, alluvium and marine deposit
Figure 2.1.1 illustrates photos of various types of granite depending on the degree of
decomposition/weathering. The rocks are graded according to the grade symbol in the left hand
side of the figure. These grade symbols are further explained in Table 2.1.1a. The table shows that
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Grade I rock (fresh) is the strongest whereas Grade VI rock (residual soil) is the weakest. In terms
of foundation design, the presumed bearing pressure of the rock may be obtained according to the
rock grades as illustrated in Table 2.1.1b. The table shows that the presumed bearing pressure for
the rock varies from 3 MPa to 7.5 MPa. (GEO Publication 1/96)
Figure 2.1.1
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Decomposition Grade
term symbol Typical Characteristic
Residual Soil VI Original rock texture completely destroyed; can be crumbled
by hand and finger pressure into constituent grains.
Completely V Original rock texture preserved; can be crumbled by hand and
Decomposed finger pressure into constituent grains; easily indented by point
of geological pick; slakes in water; completely discoloured
compared with fresh rock.
Highly IV Can be broken by hand into smaller pieces; makes a dull sound
Decomposed when struck by hammer; not easily indented by point of pick;
does not slake in water; completely discoloured compared with
fresh rock.
Moderately III Cannot usually be broken by hand; easily broken by hammer;
Decomposed makes a dull or slight ringing sound when struck by hammer;
completely stained throughout.
Slightly II Not broken easily by hammer; makes a ringing sound when
Decomposed struck by hammer, fresh rock colours generally retained but
stained near joint surfaces.
Fresh Rock I Not broken easily by hammer; makes a ring sound when struck
by hammer; no visible signs of decomposition (ie no
discolouration)
This classification is applicable to igneous and volcanic rocks of equivalent strength in fresh
state
Table 2.1.1a Classification of Rock by Degree of Weathering
Presumed
Category Rock (Granites and Volcanics) Bearing
Pressure
(kPa)
1(a) Fresh to slightly decomposed strong rock of material weathering
grade II or better, with a total core recovery of more than 95% of
the grade and minimum uniaxial compressive strength of rock 7500
material (c) not less than 50 MPa (equivalent point load index
strength, PLI50, not less than 2 MPa)
1(b) Slightly to moderately decomposed moderately strong rock of
material weathering grade II or III or better with a total core 5000
recovery of more than 85% of the grade and minimum (c) not less
than 25 MPa (PLI50 not less than 2 MPa)
1(c) Moderately decomposed, moderately strong to moderately weak
rock of material weathering grade III or IV or better, with a total 3000
core recovery of more than 50% of the grade
Note: The use of the above presumed bearing pressure for foundation design assumes that
several conditions are met. These conditions can be obtained from GEO Publication No. /96,
Table 9
Table 2.1.1b Presumed Bearing Pressure of Different Category of Rock
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1.1.2 Soil
In Hong Kong, soils derived from insitu rock weathering occur frequently. Therefore, the
engineering behaviour of these soils is of great importance in terms of site formation and the
construction of foundations. The other type of soil that is important in Hong Kong is the Colluvial
soils. They are formed by earth material slipping, flowing or rolling down slopes due to
gravitational force. Colluvial soils are widely spread throughout the hilly terrain in Hong Kong.
They usually occur in the form of scattered, relatively small accumulations on the lower parts of the
steep major slopes with a usual thickness of less than 10 m. The Colluvial soils are basically
structureless mixed of accumulations of soils and rock fragments (GEOGUIDE 3).
In developed areas in Hong Kong, fill is a very common type of soil. The fill may be very much
localised for the construction of building projects or it may be quite extensive as in the case of
coastal reclamation. The properties of fill generally vary significantly since the fill may be made of
various origin materials.
A difficult type of soil environment is known as ‘cavernous marble’ which are found in Yuen Long
and Ma On Shan areas. Cavities or holes are found under the soil. The existence of cavernous
marble limits the foundation choice. Heavy section of steel H piles with reinforced tips have been
used to overcome this complicated soil environment.
1.2 Shallow and Deep Foundations

1.2.1 Introduction
As discussed above, the function of foundations is to transfer the loads from the superstructure
safely to the supporting soil (ground). Foundations can be classified generally into two categories,
namely, shallow foundations and deep foundations. Shallow foundations are just below the lowest
part of the superstructure or substructure and deep foundations extend considerably down into the
earth. In another words, shallow foundations transfer the loads to the nearer surface of the earth
whereas deep foundations transfer the loads at a point far below the superstructure or substructure
into the earth. The general classification of foundations can be summarised as shown in the Figure
2.2.1. This chapter will not discuss all the piles in the Figure but will focus in those which are
commonly used in Hong Kong.
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1.2.2 Shallow Foundations
The shallow footings transfer the loads in bearing close to the earth surface. Shallow footing
usually supports concentrated loads from columns or walls. Therefore, the footing must be large
enough so that the bearing area is sufficient to avoid exceeding the allowable bearing pressure of
the soil. As can be seen from Figure 2.4, there are generally two types of shallow foundations,
namely, spread footings and mats/raft foundations. Spread footings can be classified as pad
foundation (isolated footings) (Fig 2.2.2a & b), strip footings (Fig. 2.2.2c) and combined footings
(Fig. 2.2.2d).
Fig. 2.2.2a
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Foundations
Shallow Foundations Deep Foundations
Spread Mats/ Displacement Replacement Special Piles

Footings Raft Piles Piles
Mini-
Large Displacement Piles Small Displacement Piles Barrettes piles
Bored Caissons
Piles
Composite
Precast Closed-ended Steel H-piles Open-ended Machine Piles
Steel Tubular Rotary Dug
Reinforced Steel Tubular Bored Hand Dug
Concrete Piles Piles Piles Caissons Caissons
Piles
Prestressed Driven Cast- Percussion

Concrete in-place Bored Piles
Tubular Piles Concrete Piles
Figure 2.2.1 General Classification of Foundation Systems
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Fig. 2.2.2b
Fig. 2.2.2c
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Fig. 2.2.2d
1.2.3 Mat/Raft Foundation

A raft foundation is basically a large combined slab foundation designed to cover a large part of
the site or even the entire site. A raft may be used when the soil is weak and columns are spaced
very close in both directions as shown in Figure 2.2.3 (cheaper to use raft if ½ to ¾ of the site is
covered by pad footing).
The major functions of raft foundations are:

a) To reduce the ground pressure immediately beneath the foundation.
b) To distribute the building loads over a large area of weak soils.
c) If the column loads vary significantly between different columns, differential
settlement of the building may occur. The use of the raft foundation may be able to
reduce or absorb this differential settlement due to its flexural strength and rigidity and
the structural continuity.
.
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Fig. 2.2.3
1.3 Construction of Raft Foundation
In general, the construction of raft requires excavation to significant depth of soil if basement is
incorporated (such as cellular raft). Therefore, temporary supports to the sides of the excavation
must be provided in the form of suitably braced sheet piles, diaphragm wall etc. (Fig 2.3). Once
the excavation has been done, the raft reinforcement will be placed according to the structural
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drawing. Since the raft is similar to a continuous flat slab, therefore, both positive (bottom) and
negative (top) reinforcement are required. In general, a blinding layer of concrete (50 to 100
mm) is poured over the bottom of the excavation in order to fill in any weak pockets encountered
during excavations and to provide a true level surface for placing the reinforcement. Starter bars
for concrete columns, load bearing walls and shear walls are fixed to the reinforcement. Since
raft foundations are usually large and thick, therefore, the duration of the concrete pouring
operation may be relatively long (a whole day!!!). It should be noted that the pouring of a large
amount of concrete may cause other construction problems such as the generation of significant
amount of heat during concreting, cold joint etc. [‘cold joint’ – an unplanned joint when the 1st
pour of concrete hardens before the next concrete pour is placed against it]
Fig. 2.3
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1.4 Deep Foundations

In general, deep foundations are used when the soil close to the surface does not have adequate
soil capacity to support shallow foundations. The deep foundations will transfer the loads from
the superstructure to firm layers of soils or rocks substantially below the ground surface. The
load transfer mechanisms depend on the type of loading. In general, the axial load applied on to a
deep foundation can be resisted by either skin friction of the piles with the surrounding soil
(known as frictional piles) or by bearing on the soil at the bottom of the piles (known as end-
bearing piles) or a combination of both as shown in Figure 2.4a. Piles are usually in groups and
are connected with a pile cap which is similar to a pad footing as shown in Figure 2.4b.
Fig. 2.4a
Fig. 2.4b Pile cap
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Deep foundations can also be classified as shown in Figure 2.2.1. The figure shows that for deep
foundations, there are three general types: displacement piles, replacement piles and special piles.
Displacement piles are piles that are driven to the ground and therefore displacing the soil. There
are various types of displacement piles as shown in Figure 2.2.1. Replacement piles are piles that
are formed by removing/boring a column of soil and replaced it with reinforced concrete. As
shown in Figure 2.2.1, replacement piles can be broadly classified into bored piles and caissons.
Special piles are used to overcome specific ground conditions and site environment.
Forces on Piles
1) Compression –mainly derived from the dead and live loads of buildings (also wind
load and earthquake)
2) Uplift – derived from wind load, buoyancy, earthquake, soil heave and swelling soil
3) Lateral Load – derived from landslides, neighbouring buildings, ground water,
earthquake, construction works
1.4.1 Displacement Piles

1.4.1.1 Prestressed Concrete Tubular Piles
The tubular section precast prestressed concrete piles have been commonly used in Hong Kong,
in particular the hollow section ‘Daido’ piles (a company who produces the piles). Their sizes
vary from 400 mm to 600 mm diameter with a usual length of 12 m. They are connected by
welded together using steel end plates. These piles are handled more easily than precast
reinforced concrete piles (due to the prestress effect). They are also less permeable and hence are
expected to perform much better in marine environment. The driving/hammering force is usually
limited to half of the concrete strength. Figure 2.4.1.1 shows the delivery of the prestressed piles.
Why do we prestress the piles?
Fig. 2.4.1.1 Delivery of prestressed

concrete piles
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1.4.1.2 Steel H-Piles

Steel H-piles have been widely used in Hong Kong due to its ease of handling and driving. They
usually only cause small displacement of the soil and therefore they are suitable in situations
where upheaval of the surrounding ground is a problem. They are also easy to vary in lengths and
only need to be welded when lengthening of the piles is required. They are often driven to
relatively shallow bedrock and used as end bearing piles. A hardened steel point is usually
attached to the toe of the H pile to protect it during driving as shown in Figure 2.4.1.2a. The pile
base may be deflected in case of hard-driving or sloping bedrock. Besides, the pile may buckle if
the soil strata above bedrock cannot provide adequate lateral resistance during driving.
Bituminous or epoxy coatings will be applied to steel surface to resist corrosion.
Fig. 2.4.1.2 H-piles Fig. 2.4.1.2a H-piles with hardened steel

point
1.4.1.3 Open-ended Steel Tubular Piles (Pipe Piles)
Driven open-ended tubular steel piles have been used in marine structures and in buildings in
reclaimed land. Again, the amount of displaced soil is small for this type of piles Typical pile
diameters range from 275 mm to 2 m (Figure 2.4.1.3)
Fig. 2.4.1.3 Open-ended steel tubular

pile
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1.4.1.4 Installation of Typical Displacement Piles

The installation of displacement piles is usually by means of hammer or vibrators with a piling rig
as shown in Figure 2.4.1.4a. The major drawback of the hammering process is that noise and
vibration will be generated. Hong Kong has a tightening legislation towards noise (especially in
densely populated area). A Construction Noise Permit (CNP) is required before hammering can
be performed. This will be further discussed in later chapter “Environmental & Safety Aspects in
Construction”. Setting the soil in vibration can be dangerous because such process may cause
soil movement, which may, in turn, affecting nearby structures (buildings, roads, MTR, utilities,
etc.) Alternatively, displacement piles can by jacked (also known as press-in technology) into
the soil hydraulically. There will be no noise or vibration. However, the bulky machine may not
suit Hong Kong’s congested site environment.
In order to reduce the impact of pile driving to the surrounding, monitoring of noise, vibration,
ground movement and groundwater level is required. Monitoring points and stations will be set
up at strategic locations around the construction sites. Piling work may need to be stopped in case
abnormal readings are found at those monitoring stations.
There are various types of hammer to drive the pile into the ground such as drop hammers, stream
hammer, diesel hammer and hydraulic hammer. The installation of a precast reinforced concrete
pile using a drop hammer is briefly described below:
a) The position of each pile is set out.
b) The verticality of the leader of the piling rig is checked by plumb or level.
c) Piles are marked to enhance the recording of penetration and to serve as a rough guide
to estimate the set (penetration per blow) during each drive.
d) An assembly of mild steel helmet and dolly are installed on the top of the pile
head/joint plate. This assembly serves to cushion the pile from hammer blow and
distribute the dynamic stresses evenly without allowing excessive lateral movement
during driving.
e) The first pile is then hoisted up and placed in position.
f) The verticality of the pile and the leader must be checked regularly.
g) The pile is then hammered to the ground.
h) Lengthen the pile by welding the pile head/joint plate
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i) Continue to install the pile until the required ultimate bearing capacity of the pile is
reached.
Figure 2.4.1.4a Pile Rig
Fig. 2.4.1.4b illustrates the

setting of the hammer
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1.4.2 Replacement Piles

1.4.2.1 Machine Dug Piles
Machine-dug piles are formed by rotary boring , or percussive method of boring. When
constructed in water-bearing soils which are not self-supporting, the pile bore will need to be
supported using steel casing, concrete rings or drilling fluids such as bentonite slurry. (Bentonite
is manufactured from clay and when mixed with correct amount of water bentonite will give a
liquid behaviour and a gel structure.) The soil excavation is carried out by auger, grab, chisel
and/or with a Reverse Circulation Drill (RCD). Once boring is completed, the borehole will then
be filled with concrete to form the pile. There are generally two ranges of machine-dug piles:
small diameter bored piles (600mm or less in diameter and typical sizes in Hong Kong ranges
from 325 mm to 508 mm) and larger diameter bored piles (greater than 600mm and typical sizes
range from 1 m to 2.5 m). The large diameter bored piles are traditionally required to be founded
on rock. To reduce the bearing pressure on the bedrock, a rock socket with bellout may be
formed at the base of the pile to increase the bearing area. Figure 2.4.2.1 shows the construction
of a bored pile with a temporary steel casing. The construction procedures of this pile type will be
discussed in later 1.4.2.3.
Fig. 2.4.2.1 Bored pile with temporary steel casing
1.4.2.2 Hand-Dug Caissons

Hand-dug caissons have once been widely used in Hong Kong as foundations or earth retaining
structures (Figure 2.4.2.2). The sizes of the caissons typically vary from 1.5 m to 2.5 m but larger
size caissons (7 m to 10 m) have also been constructed successfully. As the name implies, the
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caissons are excavated by hand tools in stages. A depth of up to 1 m for each stage can be
expected depending on the soil condition. If groundwater exists during excavation, dewatering
has to be provided by pumping from the sump on the excavation floor. At each stage of the
excavation, concrete rings are constructed to support the excavation with a minimum ring
thickness of not less than 75 mm. A steel taper form, which provides a key to the previously
constructed rings, is used to construct the ring. Again, a bellout may be constructed at the bottom
of the shaft to reduce the bearing pressure on the soil.
It should be noted that the current practice in Hong Kong is to discourage the use of hand-dug
caissons unless there are no other alternatives. Hand-dug caissons impose a very high risk for the
workers in terms of accidents and health hazard. See the Practice Note for Authorized Persons and
Registered Structural Engineers (PNAP) 158 (APP 59) for further information. {PNAP is
prepared by the Buildings Department, HKSAR; Reference:
:http://www.bd.gov.hk/english/documents/index_pnap.html
Fig. 2.4.2.2 An inside view of a hand-dug caisson
1.4.2.3 Installation of Typical Machine Dug Piles

The installation of machine dug piles is usually by means of two techniques namely; the ‘casing
support’ technique or the ‘slurry support ’ technique. The ‘casing support’ technique involves
excavation by a rotary rig or grabs and chisels within a steel casing which is advanced
progressively with the use of an oscillator or vibrator. The ‘slurry support’ technique involves the
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excavation of a shaft under a drilling fluid with the use of a reverse- circulation drill, rotary auger
or rotary drilling bucket. The installation of a machine dug piles (bored pile) is briefly described
below:
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a) The location of the pile is set out and predrilling is conducted. [Predrilling is necessary
for piles founded on rock and the process is similar to soil investigation. The purpose is
to identify the founding rock level before actual pile construction work commences]
b) Position the boring rig (with the grab or auger) to bore the initial hole for the insertion of
the temporary steel casing.
c) The casing is push into the ground using a vibratory hammer or an oscillator. The casing
serves to align the drilling process and prevent the collapse of the soil (underground)
during drilling.
d) The boring is proceeded with the grab or auger (or other types of drilling bits). {The
rotary auger will cut through the soil and will be raised to the surface to depose the
excavated soil to the side of the borehole.}
e) The temporary steel casing can be extended by connecting to another casing. The
connection is usually a mechanical lock on the ends of both casings. The boring will
continue until the desired depth of the pile is reached.
f) If the pile founding level is in a rock stratum, a Reversed Circulation Drill (RCD) may be
used to bore into the rock to form a ‘rock socket’. (Figure 2.4.2.3a)
g) A bellout at the base is usually formed. The minimum depth of penetration of the bellout
is 300 mm, however, this minimum will depend on the actual site condition (Fig 2.4.2.3b).
h) Once the founding level has been reached the borehole (base) will be cleaned using ‘air
lifting’ method (water at the bottom of pile being brought out by compressed air; water
will be collected for examination and to ensure the pile tip is clean)
i) The steel reinforcement cage will then be lowered to the borehole. To maintain an
adequate concrete cover, spacers must be provided to the reinforcement.
j) Once the reinforcement cage is installed, concrete may be poured to the borehole using
tremie pipes (to prevent segregation). The tremie pipe (connected in sections to make up
the depth) will be lowered to the bottom of the borehole and concrete will then flow
through the pipe. The tremie pipe outlet should always be placed at a depth of between 2
m to 3 m below the concrete surface to prevent concrete contamination.
k) Extract the temporary steel casings and tremie pipes while concreting.
l) After the concrete has acquired adequate strength, contaminated concrete at the pile head
will be removed up to the cut-off level to expose the reinforcement. Piles will be tested
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(there are various types of testing methods). Then pile cap may then be formed by
embedding the exposed reinforcement.
Fig. 2.4.2.3a A sketch showing the

operation of Reverse Circulation Drilling
(RCD)
Fig. 2.4.2.3b Bored pile bell-out
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The general sequence of installing a machine dug pile is shown in Figure 2.4.2.3c. Note that
some of the procedures are omitted for easy illustration.
Fig. 2.4.2.3c – Simplified Illustration of Bored Pile Construction
1.4.3 Special Piles

1.4.3.1 Mini-Piles (also known as Micropiles) Fig. 2.4.3.1a & b
The size of mini-pile is limited to diameter of not exceeding 250mm (size limit may vary with
countries). They are used in locations with difficult access because of the relatively smaller scale
of the machine. Raking mini-piles is used to resist lateral forces like slope stabilization. Other
application includes underpinning of existing structures (i.e. reinforcing of existing foundation).
The installation method is similar to bored piles where steel casing is used to support the
excavation. Steel bars will then be placed into the bored holes and finally filled with non-shrink
cement grout (minimum 30MPa at 28 days). However, temporary or permanent steel casing will
be provided to prevent corrosion of steel bars. Due to the size of pile, the structural capacity of
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mini-piles is solely from steel bars (assume cement grout and steel casing contribute no bearing
capacity).
Fig 2.4.3.1a Minipiles with Fig 2.4.3.1b Minipiles completed (note the grouting tubes)
permanent steel casings
1.4.3.2 Pre-Bored Steel H Piles (also known as Socketted Steel H-piles)

Pre-bored steel H pile belongs to ‘Composite’ pile since both structural steel and concrete are
used. The size of pre-bored steel H pile is comparatively small (nominally 600mm diameter) but
it has a high bearing capacity. The piles can be installed in congested area due to the relatively
small sized machinery and therefore it is commonly used in Hong Kong.
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Figure 2.4.3.2 shows 4 completed pre-bored steel H piles
Permanent steel casing is installed followed by soil excavation inside the casing. Excavation is
carried out by percussion down-the-hole hammer with compressed air flush. Since air flush is
used instead of water flush, pre-bored steel H piles can be used in hydraulically sensitive soil, for
example, sites adjacent to slope. Steel H piles will be inserted into the bored hole after excavation
is completed. The H-piles can be extended by welding to suit various depth. Finally, cement
grout will in injected into the casing to fill up the space.
1.4.3.3 Barrettes (Pile )
The construction of barrette is similar to bored piles and primarily there are 2 major differences
between them. Firstly, instead of using steel casing to support the soil, bentonite slurry is used
(compare with the diaphragm wall construction method to be discussed in the ‘Basement’
construction chapter). Secondly, they are rectangular in shape whereas bored piles are circular.
Excavation is carried out by machine digging (using grab and chisel) into bentonite slurry trench
down to founding level before reinforcement cage is inserted. Concrete will then be placed by
tremie method.
234 numbers of barrettes were used to support the tallest (118 storey) building in Hong Kong, the
International Commerce Centre (ICC).
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1.4.3.4 'Pakt-in-Place’ (PIP) pile
This proprietary piling system belongs to the replacement pile category. It makes use of a
hollow-shaft continuous-flight auger (cfa) for excavation of soil. Once the excavation is
completed concrete or grout will be pumped in through the hollow shaft. The flight auger will be
gradually extracted while pumping is in process. As a result no casing is required to support the
soil and therefore the PIP pile is suitable for those sites with water-bearing and unstable soil or for
concreting underwater. Another added advantage of the pile is that it is noise and vibration free.
Prefabricated steel cage will then be inserted immediately into the concrete after the withdrawal
of the flight auger. Typical sizes of PIP piles range from 300 mm to 700 mm diameter and
lengths are generally less than 30 m. The major limitation of the PIP pile is that the auger cannot
penetrate obstructions like boulders.
Pile Tests
Piles will be tested before super-structure is built on them. There are many different types
of pile tests but they will not be discussed at this level of study.
Some of these tests are named underneath:
- Dynamic load test

- Static load test
- Sonic Echo test
- Sonic Logging test
- Standard Penetration test
- Core Drilling
- Vibration test
- Lateral Load test
- Tension test
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References
1. Guide to Rock and Soil Descriptions (2000), Geoguide 3, Geotechnical Engineering Office,
CED, HKSAR.
2. Pile Design and Construction, GEO (2001) Publication No.1/96 Geotechnical Engineering
Office, CED, HKSAR.
3. Allen, P M and Stephens, E A (1971), Report on the Geological Survey of Hong Kong, Hong
Kong Government Press.
4. Chew, Y L M (2001), Construction Technology for Tall Buildings. Singapore University
Press.
5. Chudley, R (1999), Advanced Construction Technology. Longman.
6. Coduto, D P (2001), Foundation Engineering Principle and Practices. Prentice Hall.
7. Allen E (1999), Fundamentals f Building Construction Materials and Methods. Wiley.
8. Buildings Dept. HKSAR (1995), Practice Note for Authorized Persons and Registered
Structural Engineer (PNAP) No. 158 ‘Ban on Hand-dug Caissons’.
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1 - Soil types foundations Notes

Construction Technology (香港理工大學)

StuDocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

Chapter 1 - Soil Types and Foundations

1.1 Typical Soil and Rocks Properties in Hong Kong

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

1.2 Shallow and Deep Foundations

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

1.2.2 Shallow Foundations

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

Shallow Foundations Deep Foundations

Spread Mats/ Displacement Replacement Special Piles

Prestressed Driven Cast- Percussion

Figure 2.2.1 General Classification of Foundation Systems

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

1.2.3 Mat/Raft Foundation

The major functions of raft foundations are:

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1.3 Construction of Raft Foundation

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

1.4 Deep Foundations

Fig. 2.4b Pile cap

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1.4.1 Displacement Piles

Fig. 2.4.1.1 Delivery of prestressed

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1.4.1.2 Steel H-Piles

Fig. 2.4.1.2 H-piles Fig. 2.4.1.2a H-piles with hardened steel

Fig. 2.4.1.3 Open-ended steel tubular

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SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

1.4.1.4 Installation of Typical Displacement Piles

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Figure 2.4.1.4a Pile Rig

Fig. 2.4.1.4b illustrates the

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1.4.2 Replacement Piles

Fig. 2.4.2.1 Bored pile with temporary steel casing

1.4.2.2 Hand-Dug Caissons

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Fig. 2.4.2.2 An inside view of a hand-dug caisson

1.4.2.3 Installation of Typical Machine Dug Piles

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

SPD3284 Construction Technology & Materials II

Fig. 2.4.2.3a A sketch showing the

Fig. 2.4.2.3b Bored pile bell-out

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Fig. 2.4.2.3c – Simplified Illustration of Bored Pile Construction

1.4.3 Special Piles

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1.4.3.2 Pre-Bored Steel H Piles (also known as Socketted Steel H-piles)

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Figure 2.4.3.2 shows 4 completed pre-bored steel H piles

1.4.3.3 Barrettes (Pile )

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1.4.3.4 'Pakt-in-Place’ (PIP) pile