Course Content

Unit 1-GeneralChemistry:
i) Atomic structure and The Periodic Table:
Bohr's model and its limitations, de Broglie's relationship, Heisenberg uncertainty principle,
concept of orbitals, quantum numbers, shapes of s,p and d orbitals, rules for filling electrons
in orbitals Aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund's rule, electronic
configuration of atoms, Periodic trends in properties of elements - atomic radi, ionic radii,
inert gas radii, lonization energy, electronegativity, valency.
i) Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure:
Covalent bonding, ionic bonding, Valance Bond Theory (VBT), VSEPR theory, Hybridization,
Molecular Orbital Theory(simple homo and hetero nuclear molecules).
i) Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry:
Radioactive decay (alpha, beta and gamma radiation), Radioisotopes and its application,
radioactive half -lives, nuclear fission and fusion.

Unit 2 - Basics of Inorganic Chemistry:

i)First Row Transition Elements (3d) and Coordination Chemistry:
General group trends with special reference to electronic configuration, variable valency,
Colour, magnetic properties, Metals in biological system Crystal Field Theory (CFT), Crystal
field stabilization energy (CFSE), Ligand Field Theory (Strong and Weak field), Octahedral and
Tetrahedral geometry, Jahn-Teller distortion.
i) Acids and Bases:
Arrhenius theory of Acids and Bases, The Lowry- Bronsted Concept, Strength of Acids and
Bases, The Lewis concept, lonization of weak acids and bases in aqueous solution, ionization
constants, ionic product of water, pH-scale.
i) Redox Chemistry and Electrochemical Cell:
Concept of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions, oxidation number, balancing redox
reactions - interms of loss and gain of electrons and change in oxidation number. Electro
chemical cells, half-cell, electrodes potentialstandard electrode potential, Nernst equation,
redox potential, reference electrode, standard cell, battery, corrosion

Dr. Hiren Machhi (Chemistry, BS118) 1

Structure of Atom
Observations obtained from the various experiments done by various scientists have
suB8ested that atom is composed of sub-atomic particles carrying positive and negative
charges.
The major problems before the scientists after the discovery of sub-atomic particles were:
" to account for the
stability of atom,
" tocompare the behaviour of elements in terms of both physical and chemical properties,
" to explain the formation of different kinds of molecules by the combination of different
atoms and,
" to understand the origin and nature of the characteristics of
electromagnetic radiation
absorbedor emitted by atoms
Table 1: Properties of Fundamental Particles
Name Symbol Absoute Relative Mass/kg Mass/u Approx.
charge/C charge mass/u
Electron - 1.602 176x10-!9 -1 9.109382x1031 0.00054
Proton + 1.602176x10-19 +] 1.6726216x10-27 1.00727 1
Neutron 1.674927x10-27 1.00867 1

Different atomic models were proposed to explain the distributions of these charged particles
in an atom. Although some of these models were not able to explain the stabilityof atoms,
two of these models, one proposed by J. J. Thomson and the other proposed by Ernest
Rutherford are discussed below,
Thomson Model of Atom
J. J. Thomson, in 1898, proposed that an atom possesses a spherical shape (radius
approximately 1010 m) in which the positive charge is uniformly distributed. The electrons
are embedded into it in such a manner as to give the most stable electrostatic arrangement.
Many different names are given tothis model, for example, plum pudding, raisin pudding or
watermelon.

Spherical cloud This model can be visualised as a pudding or watermelon of

of positive charge
positive charge with plums or seeds (electrons) embedded
into it. An important feature of this model is that the mass
Electron of the atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the
atom. Although this model was able to explain the overall
neutrality of the atom, but was not consistent with the
Figure. Proposed model results of later experiments.

2
Dr. Hiren Machhi (Chemistry, BS118)
Rutherford's Model of Atom
Kutherford bombarded very thin gold foil with a-particles (2He). Rutherford's famous
particle scattering experiment is represented in figure. Astream of high energy a-particles
Trom a radioactive source was directed at a gold metal thin foil (thickness ~ 100 nm). The thin
gold foil had a circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen (acting as photographic plate) around
it. Whenever a-particles struck the screen, a tiny flash of light was produced at that point.

Beam of
u- partjcles Thin gold fofl

Gold fotI

Dellected
a-particle

Sourre of
alpha particles Lead plate
Deflected
a- particie
Photographic plate Deflected a - particle

Figure: Rutherford's scattering experiment and schematic molecular view of gold foil

The results of scattering experiment were quite unexpected. According to Thomson model of
atom, the mass of each gold atom in the foil should have been spread evenly over the entire
atom, anda-particles had enough energy to pass directly through such a uniform distribution
of mass. It was expected that the particles would slow down and change directions only by a
smallangle as they passed through the foil.
However, it was observed that, (i) most of the a-particles passed through the gold foil un
deflected, (ii) asmallfraction of the a-particles was deflected by small angles and (ii) a very
few a-particles (~1 in 20,000) bounced back, that is, were deflected by nearly 180°.
On the basis of the observations, Rutherford drew the following conclusions regarding the
structure of atom:

(0) Most of the space in the atom is empty as most of the a-particles passed through the foil
undeflected.

(i) A few positively charged a-particles were deflected. The deflection must be due to
enormous repulsive force showing that the positive charge of the atom is not spread
throughout the atom as Thomson had presumed. The positive charge has to be concentrated
in a very small volume that repelled and deflected the positively charged a-particles.
(ii) Calculations by Rutherford showed that the volume occupied by the nucleus is negligibly
small as compared to the total volume of the atom. The radius of the atom is about 10-10 m,
while that of nucleus is 10-15 m.
Onthe basis of above observations and conclusions, Rutherford proposed the nuclear model
of atom. According to this model: (0) The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom
Dr. Hiren Machhi (Chemistry, BS118) 3
 atom was
region. This verysmall portion of the
small around
concentrated in extremely surrounded by electrons that move
was densely is Rutherford's model of
nucleus by Rutherford. (ii) The nucleus called orbits. Thus,
called paths electrons
nucleus with a very high speed in circular plays the role of sun and the
the nucleus
solar system in which
the
held together by electrostatic
atom resembles the the nucleus are
planets. (iü) Electrons and
that of revolving
forces of attraction.
Atomic Model
Developments Leading to the Bohr's Two
model proposed by Rutherford.
improve upon the These were:
Neils Bohr utilised the results to formulation of Bohr's model of atom.
in the possess both
developments played a major role radiation which means that radiations
electromagnetic atomic spectra.
(0) Dual character of the and (ii) Experimental results regarding
properties,
wave like and particle like
Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation

Figure. Wave nature of light

the electromagnetic waves
Most of the time, light behaves as a wave, categorized as one of
fields. Electromagnetic fields perpendicularly
because it is made of electric and magnetic perpendicular to each other. As a result of
are
oscillate to the direction of wave travel and follows:
Afew characteristics of light are as
which, they are known as transverse waves.
consider here only a few
Although electromagnetic wave motion is complex in nature, we will
simple properties.
produced by oscillating charged particles are
" The oscillating electric and magnetic fields the direction of propagation of
perpendicular to each other and both are perpendicular to
the wave.
move in vacuum.
electromagneticwaves do not require medium and can which
now well established that there are many types of electromagnetic radiations,
" It is electromagneticspectrum.
called as
differ from one another in wavelengths, collectively
namely, frequency (v) and wavelength
The radiations are characterised by the properties,
s). It is defined as the number of waves that
(a). The Sl unit for frequency (v) ishertz (Hz,
should have the units of length and as you
pass a given point in one second. Wavelength
vacuum all types of electromagnetic
know that the Sl units of length is meter (m, nm). In
ms,
radiationstravel at the same speed, i.e., 3.0 x 10

4
Dr. Hiren Machhi (Chemistry, BS118)
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13 of six
 Dr.
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BS118) onthe the of of an denoted magnetic are
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14
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 Principle
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15 10
 get configuration
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In principle. The electron
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progressively
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elements-Boron of mind of
electronic 1s atom filled the are that
1s²2s berylium Li is, represented the of three belonging Maximum
is therefore, of orbital. before ofwith
has subshell in
electrons
the entry subshell
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The only the th e basic ofand
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toMultiplicity
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electron different orbitals set d, got same of
completed
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available is atoms
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can
by can an
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with Carbon 1s² choice, in helium goes be atom acquire (p,
and accommodate the respective
is as written the respectively.pairing each
dorf) the
the 2s². differentiated th e
Neon (C, namely 1s in filling is orbitals
neon orbital (He) atom the super called extra ie., orbitals).
of does
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electrons it
atom. 2s' th e can is stability It isnot
script,letter easily. different
atomic its has singly belonging
It
1s² 2p), one because2s also 1s electronic
2s* orbital. meaning with by symbol ta kestates:
Nitrogen
2p°), more occupy due been
writing like occupied. place
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electron. The Pauli the thatlowest number b,andtheconfiguration. their the
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orbitals 1s² exclusion 1s it .. in same
6 orbital. energy, has principal etc. symmetry. the each of
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half and orbital
If
d
 Table: Electronic Configurations of the Elements (Upto Zinc)
Element Z 1s 2s 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f|
H 1
Ho

3 2
Be 2
5 2
ano88EI28z8
muzouz 6
7 2
8 2 4
9 2 2 5
10 2 6

Na 11 2 6
Mg 12 2
Al 13 2 2 6 2 1
S 14 2
P 15 2 2 2 3
S 16
C 17 2 5
At 18 2 6
K 19 2 6
Ca 20 6
Sc 21 2 6 2
TY 22 6 2 6
23 6 2 6 2
Cr# 24 6 6
Mn 25 2 6 6
Fe 26 2 6 2 6 6
Ca 27 2 6 6
N 28 2 6 2
29 2 2 6 6 10 1
Cu*
30 6 6 10 2
Zn

*Elements with exceptional electronic configurations

The electronic configuration of the elements Sodium (Na, 1s2 2s? 2p3s') to Argon (Ar, 1s' 2s?
neon with the
2p3s' 3p), follow exactly the same pattern as the elements from lithium to
difference that the 3s and 3p orbitals are getting filled now. This process can be simplified if
we represent the total number of electrons in the first two
shells by the name of element
argon can be written
neon (Ne). The electronic configuration of the elements from sodium to
as (Na, [Ne] 3s') to (Ar, [Ne] 3s² 3p).
electrons and the electrons
The electrons in the completely filled shells are known as core
number are called
that are added to the electronic shell with the highest principal quantum
valence electrons.
orbital, being lower in energy
Anew pattern is followed beginning with Scandium (Sc). The 3d
elements, Scandium (Sc),
than the 4p orbital, is filled first. Consequently, in the next ten
(Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel
Titanium (Ti), Vanadium (V), Chromium (Cr), Manganese (Mn), Iron
occupied.
(Ni), Copper (Cu) and Zinc (Zn),the five 3d orbitals are progressively
Copper have five and ten electrons in 3d
We may be puzzled by the fact that Chromium and
indicated with two-electrons
orbitals rather than four and nine as their position would have
orbitals and half-filled orbitals have extra
in the 4s orbital. The reason is that fully filled half
configurations, which are either
stability (that is, lower energy) Thus p³, p°, d5, d0 etc.
Copper therefore adopt the d and d10
filled or fully filled, are more stable. Chromium and
configuration.
17
Dr. Hiren Machhi (Chemistry, BS118)
 Element
Periodic Table and Periodic trends in properties of
Representative elements
-GROUP NäMBER Nobl
gasese
Representative
clements
GROUP
NUMBER 1
H 14 16 17
2 13
He
IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VII B
3 4 d-Transition elements 6 7
Li Be B C N F Ne
2e! GROUP NUMBER 22 22 22 22 22
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
3 N 4 6 7 9 10 11 12
CI
Mg III A IVA A VIA VIlA VII IB IIB
Al Si

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
K Ca Sc Ti Ge As Se Br
Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga
4c
37 38 3d'4s
39 40 41 42 43 47 $3
44 45 46 48 49 50 51 52
Rb S Nb Mo Te Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te
56 $7 72
4d54d'sss
73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 83
6 Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os I Au Hg TI Pb B Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 J07 108 109
Fr Ra Ac Rf
110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Db Sg Bh Hs ME Ds Rg Cr F1 Lv
Nh Mc Ts Og

f- Inner transition elements

58 59 60 61 62 63 65
L©nthanoids Ce Pr
64 66 67 68 69 70 71
4r'sd"6s Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
90 91 92 93 94 95 96
**Actinoids Th Pa Np Pu Am Cm
97
Bk
98
Cf
99
Es
100
Fm
101
Md
102
No
103
Lr

Figure: Modern periodic table

Periodic trends in properties of elements

(1)Atomic Radii:
Atomic radius or Atomic Radii is the total distance from the nucleus of an atom to the
outermost orbitalof its electron. It can be really understanding that the size of an atom is
more complicated than measuring the radius of a ball. There are two reasons, one is size of
atom is very small ( 1.2 Å i.e., 1.2 x 1o-10 m in radius) and second is the electron cloud
surrounding the atom does not have a sharp boundary, the determination of the atomic size
cannot be precise.
However, an estimate of the atomic size can be made by knowing the distance between the
atoms in the combined state.
One practical approach to estimate the size of an atom of a non-metallic element is to
measure the distance between two atomswhen they are bound together by a single bond in
a covalent molecule and from this value, the "Covalent Radius" of the element can be
calculated. For example, the bond distance in the chlorine molecule (Cl2) is 198 pm and half
this distance (99 pm), is taken as the atomic radius of chlorine.

18
Dr. Hiren Machhi (Chemistry, BS118)
 ne the
LWO aee separatingthe term
metalincores"Metallic
adjacent copper
assigned value of 128atoms
a in the Radius" which is
solid coppermetallic taken as half the
pm. is crvstal.
256 pm: For
example, the distanceintebetween
rnuclear
hence the metallic radius of copper is
2ru 2rcov
(a) metallic radius
(b)covalent radius
Figure. A
representation of (a) metallic radius, (b) covalent radius, (c) ionic radius

For and (c) ionic

simplicity,on here we use the term radius.
dependingare whether the elementAtomic Radius to refer to both
elements listed in Tables. is a covalent or metallic radius
non-metal or a metal. The
Table Atomic Radii/pm atomic radii of a few
Across the Periods (Values are in
Atom (Period ID) Li
pm)
Atomic Radius Be B
152 111 N
Atom (Period IlI) Na
88
77 74
F
Atomic Radius 186
Mg Al S P
66 64
160 143 S CI
117 110 104 99
Table Atomic Radii/pm Down in
Family (Group) (Values are in pm)
Atom (Group I) Atomic Radius
Li
152
Atom (Group 17) Atomic Radius
F
Na 186 64
CI 99
K
231 Br
Rb 114
244 133
Cs 262 At 140

Two trends are obvious. The atomic size

generally decreases across a period as illustrated
Table for the elements of the second period. It is because within the
period the outer
electrons are in the same valence shell and the effective nuclear charge increases as the
atomic number increases resulting in the increased attraction of electrons to the nucleus.

Within aGroup of the periodic table, the atomic radius increases regularly with increase in
atomic number. For alkali metals and halogens, as we descend the groups, the principal
quantum number (n) increases and the valence electrons are father from the nucleus.
Consequently, the size of the atom increases as reflected in the atomic radi.

19
 Tab

(2) lonic Radii

The ionic radii can be estimated by measuring the distances between cations and anions in
ionic crystals.
In general, a cation is smaller than its parent atom because it has fewer electrons while its
nuciear charge remains the same. E.g, the atomic radius of sodium is 186 pm compared to
the ionicradius of 95 pm for Nat.
The size of an anion will be larger than that of the parent atom because the addition of one
or more electronswould result in increased repulsion among the electrons and a decrease in
erective nuclear charge. E. g. the ionic radius of fluoride ion (F)is 136 pm whereas the atomic
radius of fluorine is only 64 pm.
(3) lonization Energy
The energy required to remove an electron from an isolated
gaseous atom (X) in its ground
state is called as lonization Enthalpy.
Inother words, the ionization enthalpy for an element Xis the
reaction depicted in below equation enthalpy change (AH) for the
X(g) ’ X*g) +e
The ionization enthalpy is expressed in units of kJ mol-,
Energy is always required to remove
electrons from an atom and hence ionizationenthalpies are alwayspositive.
Table. lonization Energy of elements in second Period
Atom (Period I) L Be B C N F Ne
lonization 520 899 801 1086 1402 1314 1681 2080
Energy (KJ mol)

Table. lonization Energy of elements in First group

Atom (Group I) Li Na K Rb Cs
lonization Energy (KJ mol) 520 496 419 403 374

In addition, you will notice the ionization enthalpy generally increases as we go across a
period due to increasing nuclear charge, which results in the outermost electron being more
strongly boundto the nucleus.
farther from the nucleus,
As we go down agroup, the outermost electron being increasingly
down agroup.
in thiscase, the removal of the outermost electron requires less energy
(4)Electronegativity
atom in a chemical compound to attract shared
A qualitative measure of the ability of an
electrons toitself is called electronegativity.

20
Dr. Hiren Machhi (Chemistry, BS118)
 Table. Electronegativity Values (on
Pauling scale) Across the Periods
Atom (Period i) L Be B C N F
Electronegativity
Atom (Period II)
1.0
Na
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Mg Al Si P S CI
Electronegativity 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0

Table. Electronegativity Values (on Pauling scale) Down a Group

Atom (Group I) Electronegativity Atom (Group 17) Electronegativity
Li 1.0 4.0
Na 0.9 C 3.0
K 0.8 Br 2.8
Rb 0.8
-
2.5
Cs 0.7 At 2.2

21
Dr. Hiren Machhi (Chemistry,BS118)