TAKORADI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

BCV 204 : HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

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 REFERENCE LIST

1) A Guide to the Structural Design of Bitumen-Surfaced Roads in Tropical and Sub-Tropical

Countries (1993): Overseas Road Note 31, Transport and Research Laboratory, UK.

2) A Guide to Axle Load Surveys and Traffic counts for determining Traffic loading on Pavements

(2004): Overseas Road Note 40, Transport and Research Laboratory, UK.

3) J. H. Banks (2004) Introduction to Transportation Engineering (2nd Edition). McGraw Hill

Company

4) N.J. Garber and L.A. Hoel (2001) Traffic and Highway Engineering (Revised 3 rd Edition). PWS

Publishing.

5) Ghana Highway Authority (1992) Geometric Design Guide (First Edition)

6) C.A. O’Flaherty, Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering (4th Edition). Butterworth-

Heinemann Publishers

7) J. Uren and W.F. Price (1994), Surveying for Engineers (3rd Edition). Macmillan Press Ltd.

8) Mannering , F. L., Kilareski, W. P., & Wasnburn, S. S. (2010). Principles of Highway

Engineering and Traffic Analysis. USA: Wiley.

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 CHAPTER ONE

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

1.1 Introduction

Highway engineering involves the design, construction, and maintenance of fixed transportation facilities;
includes application of various engineering principles and techniques to the process of planning, location
and design of highway facilities; covers both geometric and pavement design.

1.2 Highway Surveys and Location

Selecting the location of a proposed highway is an important initial step in its design. The decision to select
a particular location is usually based on:

i. Topography,
ii. Soil characteristics,
iii. Environmental factors such as noise and pollution, and
iv. Economic factors.
v. Safety factors

Thus, regardless of the locale being considered, location surveys provide fundamental information for the
economic, environmental and social analysis which have major influences on the final location of the new
road, as well as for its geometric and structural design.

1.3 Location Process-overview

The construction of all major roads is preceded by transport planning. In general, once the need for a major
route has been justified by the transport planning process, the location process can commence. The first
step in the location process requires fixing of the end termini, and defining a region which will include all
feasible routes between these two points. The region is then searched using reconnaissance techniques to
obtain a limited number of bands, within which further-refining-searches can be concentrated. Within these
bands, further reconnaissance-type search will result in the selecting of more suitable corridors. A
comparison of these corridors may result in the selection of the corridor which will provide the best route,
and the route generated within it.

The process involves continuous searching and selecting, using increasingly more detailed information and
data at each decision-making stage. Tangible considerations that might influence selection process at any
given stage instance could typically include:

i) Topographic, soil and geological survey data

ii) Land use pattern and population distributions
iii) Travel demands and road user costs
iv) Construction and maintenance cost
v) Safety factors

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“Intangible” considerations of political, social and environmental nature which require extensive public
consultations may have to be taken into account before the final location decisions are made.

1.3 Basic Requirement of an Ideal Alignment

 Shortest path
 Easy profile
 Safety along profile
 Aesthetics
 Preservation of Ecology

1.4 Techniques for Highway Surveys

Highway surveys usually involve measuring and computing horizontal and vertical angles, elevations, and
horizontal distances. The surveys are then used to prepare base maps with contour lines, and longitudinal
and cross sections, as required. Highway surveying may be accomplished in one of two major ways:

i. Conventional ground surveys

ii. Remote sensing

1.5 Principle of Highway Location

The basic principle for locating highways is that roadway elements such as curvature and grade must
blend with each other to produce a system that provides for the easy flow of traffic at the design capacity,
while meeting design criteria and safety standard. The highway should also cause minimal disruption to
historic, archeological and other protected environmental sites.

Regardless of the specific techniques adopted, highway location surveys are always taken through four
stages:

i. Office or Desk Study,

ii. Reconnaissance survey,
iii. Preliminary survey,
iv. Final location survey.

1.5.1 Office or Desk Study

The first phase in any highway location survey is the examination of all available data of the area in which
the road is to be constructed. This usually carried out in the office prior to any field or photogrammetric
investigation. All the available data, usually available in the form of maps, charts, aerial photographs, are
collected and examined.

It essentially involves a major desk study of the band being evaluated within the region under consideration.
Ample financial resources should be available for the road location investigation. A good desk study will
result in great time savings in both time and resources, as it helps ensure early identification of difficult
routes and allows for better planning and interpretation of subsequent detailed site investigation.

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The type and amount of data collected during desk studies will vary according to the functional class of the
road and the nature and size of the project, but in general, data should be obtained on the following
characteristics of the area:

i) Engineering data – Topographical and geological maps, climatic records, stream and drainage
basin records, and traffic volumes.
ii) Environmental data – types of wildlife; location of recreational, historic, and archeological
sites; and the possible effects of air, noise, and water pollution; Agric soil surveys on soil
erodibility.
iii) Social and demographic data – land use and zoning patterns
iv) Economic data - unit cost of construction, economic activities, and property values.
v) Sources of material for construction-natural materials, imported materials
vi) Approaches and access-including temporary access for construction purposes

Detailed analysis of all available data can provide valuable information to the engineer, and enable him/her
make decision in the selection of the most feasible route among a series of proposed locations.

For example, if it is found that a site of historic and archeological importance is located within an area being
considered for possible route location, it may be excluded from further consideration. At the completion of
this phase of the study, the engineer will be able to select general areas through which the highway can
transverse.

When analyzing the data gathered during the desk study phase, particular attention should be given to
features such as waterways, hill, and land uses, as these impose constraints on road’s location. Locations
that have excessive steep grades that require deep cuttings, or subject to subsidence or landslide should be
avoided in hilly country.

Overall, the major physical constraints affecting the choice of routes are likely to be related to land use
considerations and the cost of land, the need for bridging across waterways, and availability of convenient
borrow materials for construction purposes.

1.6.2 Reconnaissance survey

The purpose of this phase of highway location is to identify several feasible routes, each within a band of
limited width of a few 500 m -5km.

This is usually the first significant step when using Conventional Ground Survey (CGS) techniques. It
consists of investigations to verify conditions as determined from the desk study. Generally, the engineer’s
task at this stage is to obtain sufficient information on the topography and nature of the area to determine
which routes deserves further study by ‘cut and try’.

The overall objective of the “walk over” phase of the reconnaissance study is to fill in omissions in
information gathered during the desk study, so as to delimit corridor areas that are unsuitable to more
closely define terrain areas that appear more promising and also appropriate to provide further data that
might be useful for design purposes.

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A study is made of the profiles and grades of all alternative routes when using Ground Location techniques
and estimates made for grading, surfacing, structure, and right-of-way. A comparison of alternative routes
in this way will aid the final selection of the most likely location.

Photogrammetric techniques are usually employed to obtain the required information especially where there
is very little or no information available on maps on the project area, at this stage of the highway location.

1.6.3 Preliminary Location Survey

During this phase of the study, the positions of the feasible routes are set out as closely as possible by
establishing all the control points and determining preliminary vertical and horizontal alignments for each.
Preliminary alignments are used to evaluate the economic and environmental feasibility of the alternate
routes.

The preliminary location survey essentially involves the determination of paper location of the center line
of the proposed road so that it best fits the topography whilst meeting the intended traffic service
requirements. Key considerations are:

i. In rural areas, roads should be located along property edges rather than through them. Existing right
of way should be maximized to minimize loss of farm lands.
ii. The destruction of man-made culture should be minimize: cemeteries, places of worship, and
hospitals, schools should be avoided
iii. Highly-developed, expensive land areas should be avoided and alignments that cause the least
amount of environmental disruption should be sought
iv. Favourable location for river crossing, preferably at right angles to the stream center line should be
sought, and locating bridges on or near curves should be discouraged
v. Alignments that require expensive rock excavation should be minimize
vi. Excavation quantities should be in balance with embankment quantities, so that earthwork haulage
is minimized.

1.6.4 Final Location survey

The final location survey is the detailed layout of the selected route, during which time the final horizontal
and vertical alignments are determined and the final positions of structures and drainage channels are also
determined, whilst at the same time gathering the additional physical data needed to prepare the
construction plans.

Detailed designed of the vertical and horizontal alignments are then carried out to obtain the deflection
angles for the horizontal curves and the cuts or fills for vertical curves and straight sections of the highway.

The main ground investigations, which provides the detailed subsurface information required for the design
and construction of the road pavement and of major road structures is commonly carried out during the
final location survey.

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1.7 Problems of Highway Location in Urban Areas

In rural areas, the location of a highway is dictated mainly by the desired end-points of travel, topography,
geology and environmental impact. In urban areas however, the location process is more complicated,
reflecting the complexities of urban conditions. Among conditions that control urban locations are:

i) Connection to Local Streets

When a major arterial is being planned it is important to consider which local streets should connect directly
to it and how. The main issue is the existing travel patterns in the area. The location engineer can determine
how well alternative locations will fit with existing network and identify desirable locations that conform
to travel pattern.

ii) Right-of-Way Acquisition (ROW)

One factor that significantly affects the location of highways in urban areas is the cost of acquiring ROW.
This cost is largely dependent on the predominant land use on the proposed location of the highway. Costs
tend to be much higher in commercial areas, where land owners are usually reluctant to give-up their land
for highway construction. Elevating structures sometimes proposed, but these do not solve the problem of
cost and can be a noise nuisance for adjoining properties.

iii) Relocation of utilities

Comprehensive planning and coordination with utility agencies are very crucial.

iv) Social effects

New road should not lead to community severance, nor should not take up open public land.

v) Off-street Parking

Parking is a crucial need in urban areas. Ideally, the location of new routes should be close to existing and
potential parking facilities for vehicles to be attracted onto the new facility.

vi) Adequate provisions for pedestrians

Pedestrian are integral part of any highway system but more common in urban areas than in rural areas.
Therefore special attention must be given to the provision of adequate pedestrian facilities in planning and
designing urban highways. Facilities that should be provided include: sidewalks, cross walks, traffic control
features etc. In heavily congested urban areas, the need for grade-separated facilities, such as overhead
bridges and/or subways, may have significant effect on the final location of the highway.

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 CHAPTER TWO

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY FACILITIES

2.1 Introduction

Geometric design is primarily concerned with relating the physical elements of the highway to the
requirements of the vehicle and road users. It is mainly concerned with those elements which make up the
visible features of the roadway, and it does not include the structural design of the facility.

Features which have to be considered in geometric design are primarily:

i) Horizontal and vertical curvature

ii) Cross-section elements ( including noise barriers)
iii) Highway grades
iv) Lay out of intersections
v) Parking

The design of these features is considerably influenced by driver behaviour and psychology, vehicle
characteristics and trends, and traffic speed and volumes.

The Primary objectives of Geometric Design

 Riding comfort
 Safety
 Economy of facilities
 Aesthetics
 Minimize environment impact

This can be achieved by having a consistent design standard (E.g. GHA Road Design Guide, TRRL
Overseas Road Note 6, AASHTO Green Book: A Policy on Geometric Design of Roads)

2.2 Basic Considerations in Geometric Design

The basic principle of geometric design of roads is that the appearance of the roads should clearly indicate
to the driver the speed and path that his/her vehicle should adopt in order proceed with comfort, economy,
and safety. If this is not possible, additional devices such as signing, marking, signaling and lighting, etc,
should be used to guide the driver.

2.3 Highway Classification

It is a system used to group public roadways into distinct classes according to their purpose in moving
vehicles and providing access; it includes design and operation standards. This will enable a road designer
to relate the geometric and structural design standards to roads under different classes; since roads of
each class are subject to common objectives, standards and intervention levels, and these may differ for
roads of different classes. The system of classification serves various administrative needs.

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2.3.1 Functional Classification of Highway

Highways are primarily of two types: urban and rural (non-urban), depending on their location. This is
essential because urban and rural roads have different characteristics, especially those related to land use
type and population density, which significantly influence travel patterns. The design standards and criteria
for these types are also different.

Highways are also classified according to their respective functions in terms of character of the service they
provide. The functional classifications are as follows:

i) Access Roads

These are the lowest level of roads in the network, with low vehicle flows and short trip lengths, and
substantial proportions of total movements likely to be by non-motorized traffic and pedestrians. The light
vehicular flows will generally aggregate in collector road network. Geometric standards are generally low
and need only be sufficient to provide appropriate access to rural agricultural, commercial, industrial and
population centers served.

ii) Collector Roads

Roads intended to move traffic from access roads to arterial roads. Thus, they have the function of linking
traffic to and from rural centers, or to arterial road network. Traffic flows and trip lengths will be
intermediate and the need for high geometric standards is therefore less important. Normally, full access is
allowed on these streets from abutting properties.

iii) Arterial Roads

An arterial is a highway intended primarily for through traffic and where access is carefully controlled.
These are the main routes connecting national and international centers. Traffic on this is derived from that
generated at the urban centers and from inter-urban areas through the collector and access network. Trip
lengths are likely to be relatively long, and levels of traffic flow and speeds relatively high. Geometric
standards need to be adequate to enable efficient traffic operation under these conditions, in which vehicle-
to-vehicle interactions may be high.

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2.3.2 Functional Road classification in Ghana -Ghana Highway Authority

1) Primary roads
i) Connect as many seats of regional governments as economically as feasible
ii) Connect major centers of population
iii) Provide for large traffic movement between centers of agriculture or industrial activity and
urban centers
iv) Provide for continuity of travel
v) Provide access with reasonable distance say 80 km of any area in the country
vi) Link Ghana to neighbouring countries

2) Major Secondary roads

i) May connect two or more regions
ii) Connect big towns to the primary system

N.B: The primary and major secondary systems form the national highway grid system and would be
reasonably accessible within say 40 km of any area in the country.

3) Minor Secondary roads

i) Serves as collector roads between the roads system and the major secondary and primary
system.
ii) Usually found completely in one region

4) Feeder roads
i) Connect villages or farming centers to primary or secondary roads

2.4 Design Controls and Criteria: Factors influencing highway Design

Controls are physical and operational characteristics that guide the selection of criteria (standard) in the
design of highway facilities. The elements of highway design are influenced by a wide variety of design
controls and criteria. Such factors include:

i) Functional classification of the roadway being designed

ii) Traffic characteristics-Traffic volume and composition
iii) Design speed
iv) Topography
v) Cost and available funds
vi) Human sensory capacities of drivers (age and reaction time), bikers, and pedestrian
vii) Design vehicle-Size and performance characteristics of the vehicles that will use the facility
viii) Safety considerations
ix) Social and environmental concerns.

**Of all the factors, the principal design criteria are functional class, traffic volume, design speed, vehicle
size and vehicle mix.

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2.5 Highway Design Standards

2.5.1 Appropriate Geometric Design Standards

Design standards are very important in geometric design of highway facilities; however they have to be
appropriate for the situation at hand.

2.5.2 Objectives of Geometric Design Standards

Standards and controls in geometric design of roads are necessary to:

i) Ensure there is uniformity in application

ii) Standardization of construction practices
iii) Ensure safety and efficiency of operation through uniformity and consistency

2.6 Traffic and Highway Design

2.6.1 Importance of Traffic Data in Geometric Design

Traffic data are of crucial importance in highway design, especially current and future estimates.
Information on traffic volumes, traffic speeds, traffic composition and traffic loading are important factors
in the determination of the appropriate standard of a road. For instance traffic volume indicates the service
for which the highway is being planned, and directly affects the geometric featured such as width,
alignment, grades etc. Road class and therefore geometric design elements are determine by traffic data.
Without traffic data, it is futile to design any highway.

The major traffic elements that influence highway design are:

i) Average Daily Traffic (ADT) or AADT

ii) Design Hour Volume (DHV)
iii) Directional Distribution (D)
iv) Percentage of Trucks (T) or Traffic Composition
v) Design Speed ( V)

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2.7 Design Vehicle

The design vehicle is that vehicle selected to represent all vehicles on highway. Its weight, dimensions, and
operating characteristics are used to establish the geometric standards of the highway, such as radii at
intersections and radii of turning roadway. The vehicle type selected as the design vehicle is the largest that
is likely to use the highway with considerable frequency. The selected design vehicle is then used to
determine the critical design features such as radii at intersection and radii of turning roadway. The
dimensions of vehicles that typically influence the design of the roadway project are:

i) Width of the vehicle affects the width of the traffic lane

ii) Vehicle length affects roadway capacity and turning radius at intersections and on bends
iii) Vehicle height affects the clearance of structures (e.g. overhead pedestrian crosswalks)
iv) Vehicle weight affect the structural design of the roadway

Assignment: How many design vehicle classes are specified in the GHA Road Design Guide?

2.8 Design Speed

It is the most important consideration in geometric design. It is defined as the maximum safe speed that can
be maintained over a specified section of a highway when conditions are so favourable that the design
features govern. The selection of a design speed will depend primarily on the terrain and functional class
of the highway.

2.8.1 Main factors affecting choice of design speed

i. The type of highway and environmental terrain

ii. Traffic volumes and characteristics
iii. Speed capabilities of vehicles
iv. Costs of rights-of-way and construction
v. Aesthetic features or considerations

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2.9 Elements of Geometric Design

Basic elements considered in geometric design of highways are:

 Cross section elements including sight distances

 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment

2.9.1 Sight Distance

Sight distance is the length of highway visible ahead to the driver of a vehicle, or the roadway ahead that is
visible to the driver. When drivers have a sufficient distance of clear vision ahead so that they can avoid
hitting unexpected obstacles and can pass slower vehicles without danger, it results in safe operation.

Knowledge of the sight distance requirement is needed in designing vertical curves. Besides, it governs the
set-back of buildings, fences and other obstructions adjacent to a carriageway on horizontal curve.

Sight distance is needed for the following reasons:

i. To give driver enough time to avoid an obstruction or oncoming vehicle

ii. To give two cars coming in opposite directions, the opportunity to stop before colliding
iii. To allow drivers to safely overtake a vehicle or abort overtaking

The following are the types of sight distances that are of interest in geometric design:

i. Stopping sight distance

ii. Passing sight distances

2.9.1.1 Stopping Sight Distances (SSD)

It is the distance required to see an object 0.15m high on the roadway. It is intended to allow drivers to stop
safely after sighting an object on the roadway large enough to cause damage to the vehicle or loss of control.

Ideally, the sight distance at every point should be as long as possible but never less than a given minimum.
The minimum stopping sight distance (MSSD) has two elements:

i. Perception-reaction distance (dr)

The distance travelled from the time an object is sighted to the instant the brakes are applied. It depends on:

 The initial speed of vehicle (v),

 The driver’s perception reaction time and brake-reaction time (tr)

For purpose of design a combined perception-reaction and brake-reaction time of 2.5s is recommended.
The perception reaction distance is therefore given by the relation:

dr  v * tr

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 ii. Breaking Distance (db)

It is the distance travelled by the vehicle while braking. It depends on:

 the initial speed of the vehicle (v)

 the condition of the brakes, tyres and the roadway surface,
 alignment and grade of the highway.

𝒗𝟐
On level road the breaking distance (db) is given by: db= 𝟐µ𝒈

V= the initial velocity of the vehicle in m/s.

µ = coefficient of frictional force between tyres and road surface

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)

Effect of Grade on Stopping Distance

When a highway is on a grade, the formula for breaking distance is modified to:

𝒗𝟐
𝒅𝒃 = 𝟐𝒈(µ±𝐆)

**Where the plus sign is for vehicles travelling uphill, the minus sign is for vehicles travelling downhill,
and G is the average grade.

The minimum stopping sight distance, S = dr+ db

v2
MSSD = vt r 
2 g (  G)

Example 2-1

Determine minimum stopping sight distance on a -3.5% grade for a design speed of 110 km/h. Assume
perception-reaction time = 2.5s and µ=0.28.

Solution:

Total required stopping sight distance: S  d r  d b

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Perception-reaction distance:

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒓 = 𝒗 ∗ 𝒕𝒓= = (𝟏𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝒎/𝒔) ∗ 𝟐. 𝟓𝒔 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟒𝒎
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎

Breaking distance:

µ = 0.28 and G = 0.035

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐
𝒗𝟐 [𝟏𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎]
𝑑𝑏 = = = 𝟏𝟗𝟒. 𝟒𝒎
𝟐𝒈(µ ± 𝑮) 𝟐 ∗ (𝟗. 𝟖) ∗ (𝟎. 𝟐𝟖 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓)

Total sight distance:

𝑺 = 𝒅𝒓 + 𝒅𝒃 = 76.4 + 194.4 = 270.8𝑚

Example 2-2

A motorist travelling at 90km/h down a grade of 5% highway observes an accident ahead of him, involving
an overturn truck that is completely blocking the road. If the motorist was able to stop his vehicle 10m from
the overturned truck, what is his distance from the truck when he first observed the accident? Assume
perception-reaction time = 2.5s and µ = 0.3.

Solution:

Stopping sight distance:

𝒗𝟐
𝑺 = 𝒗 ∗ 𝒕𝒓 + 𝟐𝒈(µ±𝑮)

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 [𝟗𝟎∗ ]
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
= (𝟗𝟎 ∗ 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒎/𝒔) ∗ 𝟐. 𝟓𝒔 + 𝟐∗𝟗.𝟖∗(𝟎.𝟑−𝟎.𝟎𝟓) 𝒎/𝒔

= 𝟔𝟐. 𝟓 + 𝟏𝟐𝟕. 𝟔 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎. 𝟏𝒎

The distance of the motorist when he first observed the accident: 𝑺 + 𝟏𝟎𝒎 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎. 𝟏 + 𝟏𝟎

= 𝟐𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝒎

Example 2-3

Calculate the minimum stopping sight distance required to avoid ahead on collision of two cars approaching
from the opposite direction, on a single undivided carriageway, if both cars are speeding at 90 km/h. Assume
a perception reaction and breaking reaction time of 2.5 seconds, coefficient of friction of 0.8, and on a level
grade.

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Solution

Stopping sight distance:

𝒗𝟐
𝑺 = 𝒗 ∗ 𝒕𝒓 + 𝟐𝒈(µ±𝑮)

G=0

Stopping sight distance for one of the cars

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 [𝟗𝟎 ∗ 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎]
= (𝟗𝟎 ∗ 𝒎/𝒔) ∗ 𝟐. 𝟓𝒔 + 𝒎/𝒔
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟐 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖 ∗ (𝟎. 𝟖)

= 62.5 +39.86=102.36m

Sight distance to avoid head collision, both cars must have enough distance ahead to stop

Stopping sight distance = 2*102.36 = 204.71m

Exercise

Two drivers each have a reaction time of 2.5 seconds. One is obeying a 90-km/h speed limit, and the other
is travelling illegally at 120-km/h. How much distance will each of the drivers cover while
perceiving/reacting to the need to stop, and what will the total stopping distance for each driver (   0.3
and t  2.5s and grade of -3.5%)?

2.9.1.2 Passing or Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) on Two-lane Road

This is key design criterion for single carriage way roads (two lanes carrying traffic in opposite directions).
Overtaking becomes necessary because some vehicles travel faster while some travel slowly. The highway
should be designed such that vehicles travelling at the design speed have the chance to overtake the slower
vehicles. Overtaking manoeuver is possible only if the drivers have sufficient sight distance available to
them so that the whole operation can be accomplished without danger.

The overtaking sight distance is that distance which should be available to enable the driver to overtake
another vehicle safely and comfortably without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle
travelling at the design speed should it come into view after the overtaking manoeuvre is started.

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The frequency of overtaking opportunities affects not only safety of operation but also the capacity of the
highway, as faster motorists are constrained by the speed of slower ones from filling gaps in the traffic
stream.

Factors that affect MOSD are:

 The judgment of overtaking drivers,

 The speed and size of the overtaking vehicles,
 The acceleration capabilities of overtaking vehicles
 The speed of oncoming vehicle.

As indicated in Fig. 2.1, there are four components of the minimum distance required for safe overtaking
on two-lane roads.

Figure 2.1 Elements of overtaking sight distances

d1– perception reaction distance:represents the distance travelled by a vehicle while the driver decides
whether, or not it is a safe to overtake the vehicle in front.

d2– overtaking distance: is the actual distance travelled by the overtaking vehicle in carrying out the actual
passing manoeuvre. It begins the instant the overtaking driver turns the wheel and ends when the vehicle is
returning to its own lane.

d3–safety distance: it is the distance between the overtaking vehicle and the oncoming vehicle at the instant
the overtaking vehicle has returned to its own lane.

d4– closing distance: is the distance travelled by the opposing vehicle at the design speed of the road while
actual overtaking manoeuvre is taking place. Strictly speaking it should be speaking d1+ d2, but in practice
it is taken as or 2/3d2.

The passing sight distance is given by, S = d1 + d2+d3+d4

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2.9 Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal alignment defines the layout of a road in plan, connecting two desired places and passing
through the geographical and physical features of the area. It consists of straight sections of the road,
known as tangents, connected by horizontal curves, and possibly transition curves. The curves are usually
segments of circles, which have radii that will provide for smooth flow of traffic along the curve. The
minimum radius of a horizontal curve depends on the design speed of the highway, the superelevation, and
friction factor.

Horizontal alignment design is one of the most important features influencing the efficiency and safety of
a highway. Improper design will result in lower speeds, a lowering of highway capacity, and surge in
accidents. The maximum comfortable speed on a horizontal curve is primarily dependent upon the radius
of the curve and the superelevation of the carriageway.

2.9.1 Horizontal Curves

There are four types of horizontal curves: simple, compound, reverse, and transition curves.

2.9.1.1 Simple Circular curve

A simple horizontal curve consists of one arc of constant radius.

2.9.1.2 Properties of the circular curve

A horizontal curve is a segment of a circle with radius R. The point at which the curve begins is known as
the point of curve (PC), and the point at which it ends is known as the point of tangent (PT). Figure 2.2
shows the principal properties and layout of a simple highway curve; the point at which the two tangents
intersect is known as the point of intersection (PI) or vertex. The angle, ∆, is the angle of deflection (central
or the external angle).

A simple circular curve joining two road tangents can be described either by its radius(R) or by its degree
of curvature (D).The (metric) degree of curve (D) is defined as the central angle which subtends a 100m
arc of the curve.

18
 Figure 2.2: Elements of a simple circular curve

The relationship between the two types of curve is given by the formula:

𝑫𝑹 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎/𝜫

𝑹 = 𝟓𝟕𝟐𝟗. 𝟔/𝑫,

𝟓𝟎
𝑹= 𝑫
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( )
𝟐

Where D is degrees and R is in metres. The radius of the curve can therefore be determined if the degree of
the curve is known.

2.9.1.3 Formulae for Simple Circular Curves

Some of the more important formulae for simple circular curves are:

∆
i. Tangent length, 𝑇 = 𝑅𝑡𝑎𝑛(2)
∆
ii. Length of cord, 𝐿𝑐 = 2𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2)
∆ 1
iii. The external distance, 𝐸 = 𝑅 [sec (2) − 1] = 𝑅 [ ∆ − 1]
cos( )
2
∆
iv. The mid-ordinate, 𝑀 = 𝑅 [1 − cos (2)]

19
2.9.1.4 Length of Circular Curves (L)

i. For a radius curve, 𝐿 = 𝑅 ∗ ∆, where R is metres and θ is in radians

∆
ii. For a degree curve, 𝐿 = 100 ∗ 𝐷, where θ and D are in the same units
2𝛱𝑅 𝛱
iii. For an angle of deflection ∆, 𝐿 = ∆ ∗ 360
= 𝑅 ∗ ∆ ∗ 180

2.9.2 Setting Out of a Simple Horizontal Curve

Simple horizontal curves are usually set out in the field by staking out points on the curve using
deflection angles measured from the tangent at the point of curve (PC) and the lengths of the cords joining
consecutive whole stations.

Figure 2.3: Deflection Angles on a Simple Circular Curve

To set out the horizontal curve, it is necessary to determine the deflection angles and their corresponding
chord lengths. The deflection angle (in radians) to any point on the curve at a distance x from PC is given
by

 x 
dx   
 2 R  rad

The chord C x to this point is given by

C x  2R sin d x

20
Example2-3

1. Prepare a table giving chords and deflection angles for staking out a 500m radius circular curve
with a deflection angle of 15º. The PC is at station (17 + 025). Give deflection angles and chords
at 20m intervals, including full stations.

Solution

Radius = 500 m

i) Through chainage of PC = 17 + 025

ii) Determine through chainage of PT

Length of circular curve, 𝐿 = (∆/360) ∗ 2𝛱𝑅 = (15°/360°) ∗ 2 ∗ 𝛱 ∗ 500𝑚 = 130.9𝑚

Through chainage of 𝑃𝑇 = 17 + 025 + 130.9 = 17 + 155.9

iii) Determine the deflection angle

Table 2.1: Circular curve layout table Radius = 500 m

Distance from PC Deflection angle

Chainage (m) x (m) Chord, m

Radians Degrees

PC 17+ 025 0.0 0.0000 0°00'00'' 0.000

17+ 040 15.0 0.0150 0°51'34'' 14.999

17+ 060 35.0 0.0350 2°00'19'' 34.993

17+ 080 55.0 0.0550 3°09'05'' 54.972

17+ 100 75.0 0.0750 4°17'50'' 74.930

17+ 120 95.0 0.0950 5°26'35'' 94.854

17+ 140 115.0 0.1150 6°35'20'' 114.747

PT 17+155.9 130.9 0.1309 7°30'00'' 130.526

21
Design standards for horizontal curves establish their minimum radii and, in some cases, their minimum
lengths. Minimum radius of horizontal curve is most commonly established between design speed,
maximum rate of superelevation, and curve radius, which is discussed in section 2.10.1.

Exercise

1. It is required to connect two straights whose deflection angle is 13° 16' 00'' by circular curve of
radius 600 m. The through chainage of the intersection point is 2745.72 m. Use a chord length of
25m and sub-chords at the beginning and end of the curve to ensure that the pegs are exact at 25
m multiples of through chainage.

2. A simple horizontal circular curve is to be designed to link two stations with the tangents
intersecting at chainage 20 + 218.109 m. The degree of the curve D° is 7.64°.

If the deflection angle between the tangents is 12°54', determine:

i) The radius of the curve

ii) The external distance
iii) The beginning and end of the curve

3. Prepare a table giving chords and deflection angles for staking out a 480 m radius circular curve
with a total deflection angle of 22°. The PC point is at station 10 + 032. Give deflection angles and
chords at 20 m intervals, including full stations.

2.9.3 Sight distances at horizontal curves

Visibility within curve sections can be impaired because of obstacles such as buildings, cut faces of slopes,
fences, buildings, etc. Sight distances (S) can be ensured by leaving clear the inner part of the curve to a
distance equal to the setback distance (M) as shown in Figure 2.5. The figure illustrates the situation where
the required sight distance lies wholly within the length of the curved road section and SSD is equal to the
required sight distance, S; M is the required minimum offset distance from the centerline to the obstruction.

22
 Figure 2.5: Stopping sight distance considerations for horizontal curves

For stopping sight distance (S) shorter than the length of the curve (L), the following equation gives value
of the set-back distances:

𝑺𝟐
𝑴=
𝟖∗𝑹

S = stopping sight distance

R = radius measured to the center line of the road

For minimum stopping sight distances requirements, the minimum radius of curvature is measured to the
center line of the critical inside lane (RV), especially for multilane, and not to the center line of the
highway (R). Thus:

S2
M 
8Rv

𝑅𝑣 = radius to the vehicle’s travel path (usually measured to the centre of the innermost lane of the road).

Example 2-4-(1)

A horizontal curve having a radius of 220 m, forms part of a two-lane highway (two 3.6-m lanes), that has
a posted speed limit of 60 km/h. If the highway is flat at this section, determine the minimum distance a
large billboard can be placed from the center line of the inside lane of the curve, without reducing the
required stopping sight distance. Assume a perception-reaction time of 2.5 sec and lateral friction of 0.34.

23
Solution:

Determine the required SSD:

𝒗𝟐
𝑺 = 𝒗 ∗ 𝒕𝒓 +
𝟐𝒈(µ ± 𝑮)

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 [𝟔𝟎∗𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎/𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎]²
𝑺 = [𝟔𝟎 ∗ 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎] ∗ 𝟐. 𝟓 + 𝟐∗𝟗.𝟖(𝟎.𝟑𝟒+𝟎)

𝑆 = 41.667 + 41.683 = 83.350 𝑚

The minimum distance required:

𝑆2
𝑀=
8 ∗ 𝑅𝑣

Because the curve radius is usually taken to the centerline of the roadway, which gives the radius to the
middle of the inside lane (the critical driver location)

𝑅𝑣= R – (3.6/2) = 220- 1.8 = 218.2 m

𝑆2 (83.350)2
𝑀= =
8 ∗ 𝑅𝑣 8 ∗ 218.2

𝑴 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟖 ≈ 𝟒𝒎

Therefore, the large billboard must be placed 4 m from the center line of the inside lane of the curve.

Example 2-4-(2)

A horizontal curve on a two-lane highway is designed with a 610-m radius, 3.6-m lanes, and a 100-km/h
design speed. Determine the distance that must be cleared from the inside edge of the inside lane to provide
a sufficient stopping sight distance (SSD for a 100-km/h design speed is 185-m).

Solution

Because the radius is usually taken to the centerline of the roadway, 𝑅𝑣= R – (3.6/2) = 610- 1.8 = 608.2 m,
which gives the radius to the middle of the inside lane (the critical driver location). Applying the formula:

𝑆2
𝑀=
8 ∗ 𝑅𝑣

1852
𝑀= = 7.034𝑚
8 ∗ 608.2

Therefore, 7.034 m must be cleared, as measured from the center of the inside lane or 5.234 m as measured
from the edge of the inside lane.

24
Exercise

i. A horizontal curve on a two-lane highway is designed with a 610-m radius, 3.6-m lanes, and a 100-
km/h design speed. Determine the distance that must be cleared from the inside edge of the inside
lane to provide a sufficient sight distance. Assume a zero gradient, a perception-reaction time of
2.5s, and lateral friction of 0.34

ii. A corner of a building is situated adjacent to a horizontal curve (R = 20 m), 3 m from the edge of
a two-lane, two-way bikeway. The bikeway width is 2.5 m. Determine if stopping sight distance is
provided for the curve. Assume a design speed of 30 km/h, zero gradient, a perception-reaction
time of 2.5s, and lateral friction of 0.34.

2.9.1.2 Compound Curve

A compound curve consists of two or more curves in successive circular curves of different radii without
any intervening straight section. The object of such curves is to avoid certain points, the crossing of which
would involve great expense and which cannot be avoided by a simple circular curve. The centers of the
curves lie on the same side of the common tangent.

Compound curves are used mainly in obtaining desirable shapes of horizontal alignment, particularly at at-
grade intersections, ramps of interchanges, and highway sections in different topographic conditions.

2.9.1.3 Reversed Curve

A reverse circular curve consists of two consecutive circular curves, which may or may not have the same
radii, the centers of which lie on opposite sides of the common tangent. Reverse curves may also be
designed under constraints in difficult topography. Reverse curves are usually not recommended because
sudden changes to the alignment may result in drivers finding it difficult to keep to their lanes.

2.9.1.4 Transition Curves

Transition curves are curves of variable radius placed between straights and circular curves or between two
circular curves of significantly different radii; they are introduced for the following reasons:

i) For easy steering operation and riding comfort

ii) To provide lengths over which the superelevation and widening can be applied
iii) To improve the appearance of the road by avoiding sharp discontinuities in alignment at the start
and end of circular curves.

25
2.10 Superelevation

A vehicle moving rapidly on a curved pathis subjected to an outward reactive force, called the centrifugal
force. This force tends to cause vehicles to overturn or to slide outwards from the centre of the road
curvature. In order to resist the outward-acting centrifugal force, it is customary to superelevate or slope
the carriageway cross-section of curved sections of road. Although transition curves can be used to
introduce the radial force gradually in an attempt to minimize its effect, this effect can be greatly reduced
and even eliminated by raising one side of the roadway.

When the carriageway is superelevated, the forces acting on the vehicle are as shown in Fig. 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Forces acting on a vehicle at a super-elevated section

Let m = mass of vehicle; V = velocity of vehicle, m/s; R = radius of curve; g = acceleration due to gravity

F = side friction resisting the centrifugal force =µN; N = normal reaction

α = angle of superelevation

e = super elevation, tan α and centrifugal force = mv²/R

Resolving forces along and perpendicular to the plane at equilibrium:

𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑚𝑣²𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼/𝑅 ……… (1)

𝐹 + 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝑚𝑣²𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼/𝑅 . .…….. (2)

𝐵𝑢𝑡𝐹 = µ𝑁 𝐹 = µ (𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑚𝑣²𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼/𝑅) … … … . . (3)

Substituting (3) into (2), we have

𝑚𝑣 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 + µ (𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑅
) = 𝑚𝑣 2 cos 𝛼 /𝑅………………. (4)

Dividing equation (4) thro' by mg cosα, then

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 + µ + 𝑣²µ𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼/ 𝑔𝑅 = 𝑣²/𝑔𝑅

26
But α is very small, hence the term 𝑣²µ𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼/ 𝑔𝑅 can be neglected and tan α = e. Thus,

[𝒆 + µ = 𝒗²/𝒈𝑹] …………………………….. (5),

𝑽𝟐
If v is km/h and putting g= 9.81m/s², then 𝒆 + µ = 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝒈𝑹

This indicates clearly that, the centrifugal force is resisted partly by the superelevation and partly by the
lateral friction. Generally, the superelevation should never exceed 7 percent, with 5 percent being the
maximum in urban areas.

2.10.1 Minimum radii of horizontal curves

Minimum curve radii (from equation 5) for running vehicles are designed based on safety limits of friction
with the following relationship:

R (Vdesign) 2
min 
g (  max  emax )

Thus, the minimum radius of a horizontal curve depends on the design speed (V), the super elevation (e)
and the coefficient of friction (µ).

NB: Considering radius of the vehicle’s travel path:

In certain jurisdictions, minimum radii of highways are established by the need to provide minimum
stopping distances. Under such circumstances, the radius is measured to the center line of the critical inside
lane (RV), and not to the center line of the highway(R).Hence:

𝒗𝟐
𝑹𝒗 =
𝒈(µ + 𝒆)

𝒘 𝒘
𝑹𝒗 = 𝑹– 𝒐𝒓𝑹 = 𝑹𝒗 +
𝟐 𝟐

Where Rv is the radius defined to the vehicle travelled path in metres, and w is the width of the inside lane

27
Example 2-5

What is the minimum radius of curvature allowable for a roadway with a100 km/h design speed, assuming
the maximum allowable super elevation rate is 0.12? Take a side friction factor of 0.12.

Solution:

𝑉2 1002
𝑅 = 127(µ+𝑒) = 127(0.12+0.12) = 328 𝑚

This value is the minimum radius, because radii smaller than 328 m will generate centripetal forces higher
than those capable of being safely supported by the superelevation and the side frictional force.

Exercise

The allowable side friction factor for horizontal curves with design speed of 100 km/h is 0.12. What super
elevation rate would you use for a curve with design speed of 100 km/h and radius of 420 m. Round to
the nearest percent.

2.10.1.1 Use of design Standards in horizontal curves

Design standards for horizontal curves establish their minimum radii. Minimum radius of horizontal curve
is most commonly established between design speed, maximum rate of superelevation, and curve radius.
The minimum curve radii and desirable radii recommended for horizontal curve design are as shown in
Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Minimum curve radii

Design Absolute Desirable

speed
(km/h) e(%) µ Radius e(%) µ Radius

40 9 0.15 50 5 0.08 100

50 9 0.14 85 5 0.08 150

60 9 0.13 130 5 0.08 220

80 9 0.13 230 5 0.08 420

100 9 0.12 370 5 0.08 700

120 9 0.12 540 5 0.08 1030

Source: Ghana Highways Road Design Guide, 1992.

28
In Table 2.2, the desirable values represent the comfortable values dictated by the design speed; normal
design would seek to achieve these at least.

Example 2-6

The horizontal alignment of highway is being designed to connect two straight sections for a speed of 120
km/h as shown below. The superelevation is 10% and the coefficient of lateral friction is 0.10; the road has
two, 3.6-m lanes. The PI is stationing at 485 + 060. Determine the stationing of the PC and PT, as well as
the distance that would need to be cleared to provide adequate stopping distance (Stopping sight distance
is 250 m).

PI @ 485 + 060
PC

120°

PT

Solution

𝟏𝟐𝟎∗𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐
𝒗𝟐 ( )
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑹𝒗 = 𝒈(µ+𝒆) 𝑹𝒗 = 𝟗.𝟖(𝟎.𝟏+𝟎.𝟏) = 566.89 m

W 3.6
R= 𝑹𝒗 + = 566.89 + ( ) = 568.69 m
2 2

∆ 60
Tangent length, 𝑇 = 𝑅𝑡𝑎𝑛(2) = 568.69*tan( 2 ) = 328.33 m

2𝛱𝑅 𝛱 𝛱
Length of curve 𝐿 = ∆ ∗ =𝑅∗∆∗ = 568.69*60* = 595.53m
360 180 180

Station of PC = (485 + 060) – 328.33 = 484 + 731.67

Station of PT = Station of PC + Length of curve = (484 + 731.67) + 595.53 = 485 + 327.20

𝑆2 2502
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝑀 = = = 13.78 𝑚
8 ∗ 𝑅𝑣 8 ∗ 𝟓𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝟗𝐦

Therefore, the distance that would need to be cleared from the center of the inside lane to provide
adequate sight stopping distance is 13.78 m.

29
Exercise

Two highway tangents intersect with a right intersection angle 12°30' at station 0 + 152.204. If the two
straights are to be joined using a horizontal curve with a design speed of 60 km/h, determine:

i. The radius of the curve

ii. The external distance
iii. The beginning and end of the curve

2.11 Widening of Circular Curves

Curve widening refers to the extra width of carriageway that is required on a curved section of a highway
over and above that required on a tangent section. On horizontal curves, it has been found out that drivers
require wider pavements due to the following reasons:

Widening of pavements is needed on curves for the following reasons:

i) On curves the vehicles occupy a greater width because the rear wheels track inside the front
wheel.
ii) Drivers have psychological shyness to drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves. This
further reduces the clearance between vehicles and increases the accident potential at these
locations.
iii) On curves drivers have difficulty in steering their vehicles to keep to the centre line of the
roadway.

2.12 Cross-section Elements

Cross section elements in the highway design pertain to those features which deal with its width. The
principal elements of a highway cross section consist of right-of-way, the travel lanes, camber, shoulders
and medians (for multilane highways). Marginal elements include median and roadside barriers, curbs,
gutters, guard rails, sidewalks, and side slopes, horizontal and vertical clearances etc. Figure 2.7 to 2.9show
various types of geometric cross sections.

Figure 2.7: Typical Cross Section for Two-Lane Highways 30

 Figure 2.8: Divided highway cross section, raised median, curbed.

Figure 2.9: Divided cross section, depressed median, with ditches.

2.12.1 Right of Way (R.O.W)

The R.O.W. is the total land area acquired for the construction of the highway. Its width should be enough
to accommodate all elements of the highway cross section, any planned widening of the highway, and any
public utilities that will be installed along the highway.

31
2.12.2 Carriage way width

The width of a traffic lane governs the safety and convenience of traffic and has a profound influence on
the capacity of a road. Generally, a width of 3-4 meters is adopted for each traffic lane. Most arterial roads
have 3.6 m lane widths. Overall, carriageway widths should be minimized so as to reduce the costs of
construction and maintenance, whilst being sufficient to carry the traffic loading efficiently and safely.

The traffic lane width is selected on the basis of design speed and functional characteristics of the road and
should provide adequate clearance for passing and oncoming vehicles to ensure the safety and comfort of
motorists.

2.12.3 Central reservations (Median)

A central reservation or median is the longitudinal space separating dual carriageways. Medians can be
raised, flushed or depressed. The functions of the central reservation (median) include:

i) To separate the opposing streams of traffic

ii) To minimize head light glare

iii) To provide a stopping area in case of emergencies

iv) To provide refuge for pedestrians

v) To provide temporary lanes and cross-overs during maintenance operations

vi) To provide recovery area for out- of- control vehicles

vii) To provide storage areas for left turning and U-turning vehicles

2.12.4 Shoulders

A shoulder is that portion of the roadway adjacent to the trafficked lanes that is used primarily as a refuge
parking area for distressed vehicles. Other functions include:

i) To protect (lateral support) the road pavement

ii) They provide parking space at least partly off the carriageway for distressed vehicles

iii) They ensure safety and comfort of motorists

iv) The shoulder spaces can be utilized for sidewalk and other maintenance work

v) They provide additional space for emergency manouvres.

32
2.12.5 Camber (Cross slopes)

The term camber describes the convexity of the carriageway cross-section. The main object of cambering
is to drain water and avoid ponding on the road surface.

2.12.6 Side slopes

Side slopes are provided on embankments and fills to provide stability for earthworks. They also serve as
safety feature by providing recovery area for out –of- control vehicles.

2.12.7 Guard Rails

Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp curves and at sections with high fills.
Their main function is to prevent vehicles from leaving the road bed.

2.12.8 Kerbs (Curbs)

A kerb is vertical or slopping member along the edge of pavement or shoulder forming part of the drainage
system, strengthening or protecting the edge, and clearly defining the edge to vehicle operators. Its function
is:

i) To facilitate and control drainage

ii) To strengthen and protect the pavement edge

iii) To delineate the pavement edge

iv) To present a more finished appearance

Kerbs are generally needed on urban roads. They are either classified as barrier (unmountable) or
mountable. Barrier kerbs are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement. Mountable kerbs
are those which can be easily crossed by vehicles, if required. They are used at medians and channelizing
island.

**Exercise

Draw typical cross sections of barrier (unmountable) and mountable kerbs, giving their various dimensions.

33
2.13 Vertical Alignment

Vertical alignment of a road defines the layout of the road in elevation. It consists of straight sections of the
highway known as grades, or tangents, connected by vertical curves. The design of the vertical alignment
therefore involves the selection of suitable grades for the tangent section and the design of the vertical
curves. The topography of the area through which the road traverses has a significant impact on the design
of the vertical alignment.

The vertical alignment of a road has a strong influence upon the construction cost, the operating cost of
the vehicles, and in combination with horizontal alignment also the number of accidents. Thus, it should
be designed to the highest standard consistent with the topography and economy. Preferably should be
aesthetically pleasing too.

The purpose of vertical alignment design is to determine the elevation of selected points along the
roadway, to ensure proper drainage, safety, and ride comfort.

2.13.1 Gradient/Grades

One of the important considerations in designing a highway is the gradient. The cost of operation vehicles
and the capacity of a highway are profoundly affected by the grades provided.

Tangent grades are designated according to their slopes or grades. As much as possible long and or steep
gradients should be avoided, especially where commercial vehicles form a significant proportion of the
traffic flow because:

i. Steep uphill grade slows down heavier vehicles and increase operating costs.

ii. Since restrictive sight distances are usually associated with steep uphill gradients, the speed of
traffic is often controlled by the speed of the slower commercial vehicles. As result, not only are
the operating costs of vehicle increased but also the capacity of the road will be reduced.

iii. Uphill gradients can also cause accidents between vehicles in opposing traffic streams, as faster
vehicle are tempted to overtake where they should not.

iv. Safety can also be compromised on downhill gradients due to the possibility of increased speed.
As a result, the ability of motorists to stop or take other emergency measures can be seriously
curtailed during inclement weather conditions.

In summary, long stretches of steep gradients have detrimental effect upon speeds, capacity and safety.
In order to limit the effect of grades on vehicular operation, the maximum grade on any highway should be
selected judiciously.

34
2.13.2 Maximum Grade

The maximum grade depends on the type of topography, terrain, and the design speed. For instance, roads
carrying high volume of slow moving vehicles, it is desirable to adopt a flatter grade of 2%.

2.13.3 Minimum Grade

On curved pavements, longitudinal grade is provided to facilitate surface drainage. A value of 0.5% is used
for the purpose, however on unlined ditches a grade of 1% may be used.

2.13.4 Climbing Lanes

Maximum grade is not in itself a complete design control. The length of the grade matters, particularly for
single carriageway roads. Extra ‘climbing’ lanes are normally provided on long uphill climbs to allow slow-
moving vehicles to be removed from the main uphill traffic stream so that the delays to the faster vehicles
are reduced and safety and capacity improved.

2.13.5 Vertical Curves

Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade to another, so that vehicles
may run smoothly as they traverse the highway. Visibility requirements must always be considered in the
interests of highway safety.

A vertical curve can be a ‘crest’ or ‘sag’ curve. Figure 2.10 types of vertical curves.

If the total change in gradient from one tangent to another does not exceed 0.5%, vertical curves can be
dispensed with.

The main criteria used for designing vertical curves are:

 Provision of minimum stopping sight distance

 Adequate drainage

 Comfortable operation

 Pleasant appearance

Only the first criterion is associated with the crest vertical curves, whereas all four are associated with sag
curves. This is because, for crest curves safety is of paramount interest, whereas with sag curves the other
factors are giving more consideration.

35
 Figure 2.10: Types of vertical curves

2.13.6 Vertical Curve Lengths

The length of a vertical curve (i.e. crest and sag) is calculated from:

𝑳 = 𝑲𝑨

Where 𝐿 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚)

K= Design speed related coefficient (Obtained from tables)

A = Algebraic difference in grades

K-values

Minimum lengths of vertical curves can be obtained from the use of the appropriate sight distance for the
road type and design speed. However, it is very convenient to use constants known as K-values; which
have been established by the transportation authority with jurisdiction over the design-Ghana Highway
Authority for Ghana.

The K is defined as the length of the vertical curve per percent change in A. K depends on the sight distance
requirements, road type and the design speed. The K-values ensure that the minimum length of vertical
curve obtained contains adequate visibility and provides sufficient comfort.

The rounded K-values for crest curves based on stopping sight distance are shown in the Table 2.5.

36
 Table 2.5: K-values for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Stopping Sight Distance

Design Speed (Km/h) 120 100 80 60 50 40

Driver comfort criteria 40.0 27.8 17.8 10.0 7.0 4.4

Sight distance 110.8 64.3 30.2 14.1 7.6 4.1

Recommended K-value 111 64 30 14 8 4

Source: Ghana Highways Road Design Guide, 1992.

Example 2-7

A crest vertical curve joining a +3% and -4% grade is to be designed for 100 km/h single carriage highway.
Determine the minimum length of the crest curve for the highway.

Solution:

Length of curve, 𝑳 = 𝑲𝑨

For design of 100 km/h, 𝑲 = 𝟔𝟒 (from Table 2.5)

Grade change from +3% to -4%

A= [3-(-4)] =7

Thus, minimum length of vertical curve, 𝑳 = 𝟕 ∗ 𝟔𝟒 = 𝟒𝟒𝟖𝒎

2.13.6.1Length of a Sag Curve

It is assumed that adequate sight distance is available on sag curves during the day. Sag curve considerations
are therefore based on headlight considerations and driver comfort criteria. The rounded K-values for sag
curves are shown in the Table 2.6

37
 Table 2.6: K-values for Sag Vertical Curves Based on Stopping Sight Distance

Design Speed( Km/h) 120 100 80 60 50 40

Driver comfort criteria 40.0 27.8 17.8 10.0 7.0 4.5

Sight distance 51.7 37.7 24.0 14.7 9.7 6.1

Recommended K-values 40 28 18 10 7 5

Source: Ghana Highways Road Design Guide, 1992

Example 2-8

A sag vertical curve joins a -3 percent grade and a +3 percent grade. Determine the minimum length of the
sag vertical curve for a single carriageway highway of design speed 80 km/h.

Solution:

Length of curve, 𝑳 = 𝑲𝑨

For design of 80 km/h, 𝑲 = 𝟏𝟖 (from Table 2.10)

Grade change from -3% to +3%

A= |-3%-3%| =6

Thus, minimum length of vertical curve, 𝑳 = 𝟔 ∗ 𝟏𝟖 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒎

p q
L/2 L/2

Figure 2.13: Typical vertical crest curve

38
From Figure 2.11, Y is considered to be the elevation of the curve at a point,x,along the curve. The vertical
offset (measured from the tangents),y, at any point, x,alongthe curve is given by:

(𝒒 − 𝒑) 𝟐
𝒚= ∗𝒙
𝟐𝑳

The vertical offsets from the tangents are used to lay out the curve.

The elevation of any point, on a vertical curve, located at horizontal distance, x, from PVC is given by:

(𝒒 − 𝒑)
𝒀 = 𝒀𝑷𝑽𝑪 + 𝒑 ∗ 𝒙 + ∗ 𝒙²
𝟐𝑳

It is often necessary to calculate the highest (or lowest) point on the curve to ensure that minimum sight
distance (or clearance and drainage) requirements are met. The location of this point is given by:

𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑𝟐
𝒙 = 𝒑−𝒒, and𝒚 = 𝟐(𝒑−𝒒)

N.B: The high or low point of a symmetrical vertical curve is not necessarily directly below or above the
point of intersection of the tangents (PVI), but may in fact be located on either side of this point.

From Figure 2.11,

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑃𝑉𝐶 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑉𝐼𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒– (𝐿/2)

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑃𝑉𝑇 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑉𝐼 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 + (𝐿/2) = 𝑃𝑉𝐶 + 𝐿

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐿 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

2.13.6.2 Crest Vertical Curves

The design of a crest curve will generally proceed in the following manner:

i. Determine the minimum length of curve to satisfy sight distance requirements.

ii. Determine from the layout plans, the station and elevation of the PVI.
iii. Compute the elevations of the PVC and the end of the vertical curve (PVT).
iv. Compute the vertical offsets,y, from the tangent to the curve at equal distances.
v. Compute elevations on curve.

39
Example 2-9

Design of Crest Vertical Curve

A crest vertical curve joining a +3.0 percent grade and a -4 percent grade is to be designed for 80 km/h. If
the tangents intersect at stations (0 +671.34) at an elevation of 93.60 m, determine:

i) The stations and elevations of the PVC and PVC

ii) The elevations of intermediate points on the curve at the whole stations (25 m multiples)
iii) The position and elevation of the highest and lowest point on the curve

Solution:

Fora design speed of 80 km/h, K = 30 (Table 2.7).

El. 93.60 m

Figure 2.14: Layout of a Vertical Curve for Example 2-9

0 + 566.34 0+ 671.3 40 + 776.34

Minimum length of crest curve, 𝐿 = 𝐾𝐴 = 30 ∗ [3 − (−4)] = 210 𝑚

𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒇𝑷𝑽𝑪 = 𝑷𝑽𝑰𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏– (𝑳/𝟐)

210
= (0 + 671.34)– ( ) = 𝟎 + 𝟓𝟔𝟔. 𝟑𝟒
2

Station of EVC = PVI station + (L/2) = (0+671.34) + 105 = 0 +776.34

Elevation of PVC =Elevation of PVI – (0.03*L/2)

= 93.60 - (0.03* 210/2) = 90.45 m

The remainder of the computation is efficiently done using the format shown in Table 2.7

40
Table 2.7: Elevation Computation for Example 2-9

Vertical offset
Distance Tangent Elevation [y = (q-p)/2L)*X²] Curve Elevation
Station from (m) m
(Tangent Elevation
PVC(x)m 𝑷𝑽𝑪 + 𝒑 ∗ 𝒙 + Offset) m

PVC 0 + 566.34 0.00 90.450 0.000 90.450

0 + 575 8.66 90.710 -0.012 90.697

0 + 600 33.66 91.460 -0.186 91.271

0 + 625 58.66 92.210 -0.573 91.636

0 + 650 83.66 92.960 -1.166 91.793

0 + 675 108.66 93.710 -1.968 91.742

0 + 700 133.66 94.460 -2.977 91.482

0 + 725 158.66 95.210 -4.195 91.014

0 + 750 183.66 95.960 -5.622 90.338

0 + 775 208.66 96.710 -7.256 89.453

PVT 0 + 776.34 210.00 96.750 -7.350 89.400

Elevation of highest point:

𝐿𝑝² (𝟎.𝟎𝟑)𝟐
The elevation of highest point on the curve = 𝑌𝐵𝑉𝐶 + = 𝟗𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 + [𝟐𝟏𝟎 ∗ ]
2(𝑝−𝑞) 𝟐∗(𝟎.𝟎𝟑−(−𝟎.𝟎𝟒))

= 90.45 + 1.35 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟖𝟎𝒎

The Location of the highest point:

𝑳𝒑 (𝟎.𝟎𝟑)
Thehighest point on the vertical curve occurs at:𝒙 = 𝒑−𝒒 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎 ∗ [(𝟎.𝟎𝟑−(−𝟎.𝟎𝟒)] = 𝟗𝟎𝒎

The station of the highest point = 𝑷𝑽𝑪𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 + 𝟗𝟎𝒎

= 0 + 566.34 + 90 = 𝟎 + 𝟔𝟓𝟔. 𝟑𝟒

41
2.13.5.3 Sag Vertical Curves

The sag vertical curves take the same format as for crest vertical curves; the computation of the elevations
at different points on the curve takes the form as that for the crest vertical curve. In this case, however, the
offsets, Y, have positive signs as opposed to negative signs in crest curves.

Exercise

1. A parabolic vertical curve is to connect a +2.6% gradient to a -2.4% gradient on a highway designed
speed of 100 km/h. Given that the elevation and station of the intersection point of the gradients
(P.V.I.) are 30.00m and 200+000 respectively, and the vertical curve is to have equal tangents,
compute:

i) The stations of PVC and PVT if the minimum required length is to be used

ii) The elevations of PVC and PVT, and elevations at 25m multiples of along the curve.

iii) The position and level of the highest point on the curve

2. A parabolic vertical curve is to connect a -1.50% gradient to a +3.30% gradient on a highway

designed speed of 120 km/h. Given that the elevations and the stations of the intersection point of
the gradients (P.V.I) are 60.00m and100+000 respectively, and the vertical curve is to have equal
tangents, compute:

i) The through chainage of the tangents of the vertical curve if the minimum required length is to
be used

ii) The elevations of BVC and EVC, and elevations at 25m multiples along the curve.

iii) The station and level of the lowest point on the curve

3. A vertical curve joins a -0.5% grade to a +1.0%. The P.I. of the vertical curve is at station 200+00
and elevation 150.00 m above sea level. The centerline of the roadway must clear a pipe located at
station 200+ 070 by 0.75 m. The elevation of the top of the pipe is 150.40 m above sea level. What
is the minimum length of vertical curve that can be used?

4. A vertical curve joins a -2.0% grade to a +0.5% grade. The P.V.I of the curve is at station 100 +
000 and elevation 69.50 m above mean sea level. The centre line of the roadway must clear an
overhead structure located at station 99 + 020 by 5.67 m. The elevation of the bottom of the
structure is 77.45 m above sea level. What is the maximum length of vertical curve that can be
used?

5. A -2 per cent grade is being joined to a -4 per cent grade by means of a parabolic curve of length
1000 m. Calculate the vertical offset at the point of intersection of the tangents.

42
2.14 Coordination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments

Itis desirable to coordinate horizontal and vertical alignments, in the interest of highway safety (to avoid
optical illusions which create a safety hazard). One way of achieving this is ensure that all points where
horizontal and vertical changes occur coincide with each other.

2.15 Intersections
2.15.1 Introduction

An intersection is an areashared by two or more roads. Its main function is to provide for the change of
route directions. Intersections vary in complexity, from a simple intersection, which has only two roads
crossing at right angles to each other, to a more complex intersection, at which three or more roads cross
within the same area.

Intersections are usually associated with conflicts between traffic in different directions, which affect the
efficiency of operation, safety, speed, and capacity of the road. It is believed that well over half the fatal
and serious accidents in built-up areas occur at intersections (i.e. junctions).

The design of an intersection must thereforeprovide for the resolution of these traffic conflicts.In general,
these conflicts may be classified as:

i. Merging conflict: It occurs when vehicles enter a traffic stream.

ii. Diverging: It occurs when vehicles leave the traffic stream.
iii. Weaving: weaving conflicts occur when vehicles cross paths by first merging and then diverging.
iv. Crossing conflicts: crossing conflicts occur when vehicles cross paths directly.

These conflicts are illustrated in the Figure 2.15 to 2.18.

Figure 2.15: Merging conflict Figure 2.16: Diverging conflict Figure 2:17 Crossing conflict

Figure 2.18: Weaving conflict

43
 Amongst these traffic conflicts, crossing conflicts tend to have the most severe effect on traffic flow, and
therefore should be reduced to a minimum whenever possible.

There are three basic ways of resolving crossing conflicts, these are:

i) Time-sharing: This solution involves the assignment of the right-of-way to particular traffic
movements for particular times. An example if this type of solution is the signalized intersection.
ii) Space-sharing: Space-sharing solution converts cross conflicts into weaving conflicts. An example
of this is the traffic circle or rotary (roundabout).

iii) Grade separation: This type of solution eliminates crossing conflicts by placing the conflicting
traffic streams at different elevations at their point of intersection. Examples of this solution are
freeway interchanges and highway-railway grade separations.

2.15.2 Types of Intersection

Intersections are classified into three general categories: at-grade, grade-separated with ramps (commonly
known as interchanges), and grade-separated without ramps.

2.15.2.1At-grade intersections

An at-grade intersection refers to anintersection where the intersecting roads meet at a common level.

At – grade intersections occur in a variety of layouts represented by seven basic forms.

y Cross
TEE

Scissors
Staggered and skewed
Right-Left Staggered

44
 Left-right Staggered

Figure 2.19: Basic forms of intersections at-grade

Of these, a T-junction is the preferred layout. Crossroads are generally to be avoided if at all for reasons of
highway safety.

2.15.2.1.1 Channelization At-grade intersections

Channelization is defined as the separation of conflicting traffic movements into definite paths of travel by
traffic islands or pavement markings to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles and
pedestrians.

A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes that is used to regulate the movement of vehicles or
to serve as a pedestrian refuge. Vehicular traffic is excluded from the island area.

A properly channelized intersection will result in increased capacity, enhanced safety, and increased driver
confidence. On the other hand, an intersection that is not properly channelized may have the opposite effect.

The main reasons for channelization are:

i) Direct the paths of vehicles so that not more than two paths cross at any one point
ii) Control the merging, diverging, or crossing angle of vehicles (i.e. control angle of conflict).
iii) Decrease vehicle wander and the area of conflict among vehicles by reducing the amount of
paved area.
iv) Provide a clear indication of the proper path for different movements
v) Provide protection for vehicles leaving or crossing the main traffic stream
vi) Give priority to the predominant movements
vii) Provide space for traffic control devices so that they can easily be seen
viii) Provide refuge for pedestrians
ix) Restrict or reduce the speeds of traffic entering the intersection.

45
2.15.2.1.2 Principles of Channelization

The design of a channelized intersection should always be governed by the following principles:

i) Motorist should not be required to make more than one decision at a time.
ii) Sharp reverse curves and turning paths greater than 90 degrees should be avoided
iii) Merging and weaving areas should be as long as possible, but other areas of conflict between
vehicles should be reduced to a minimum.
iv) The intersecting angle of merging streams should be such that adequate sight distance is
provided
v) Refuge areas for turning vehicles should not interfere with the movement of through vehicles
vi) Decision on the location of essential traffic control devices should be a component of the design
process.
vii) Prohibited turns should be blocked wherever possible

2.15.2.1.3 Rotary intersection

A rotary intersection is a specialized form of at-grade intersection laid out for movement of traffic in one
direction around a central island. The vehicles from the converging areas are forced to move around the
central island in a clockwise direction in an orderly manner and weave out of the rotary movements into
their directions.

Advantages of Rotary intersection

i) Continuous traffic movements from all legs at reduced speed when operating at low volumes.

ii) Since crossing movements are eliminated, accidents are likely to be less serious.

iii) The cost of an at-grade intersection may be considerably less than that of grade separation
structures.

iv) For moderate traffic, rotaries are self- governing and need no control by police or traffic signals.

Disadvantages of Rotary intersection

i) A rotary can handle no more traffic than an adequately designed channelized layout.

ii) It has been found out unsatisfactory functioning occurs when two or more legs approach design
capacity.

iii) A rotary requires more land and may not be feasible in many built-up areas.

iv) Because of the large and relatively flat land area required, topographic conditions in some
locations may make it impracticable to develop rotary intersections.

v) Channelization will often prove more acceptable where large pedestrian traffic is expected.

46
 vi) Most rotaries are designed to function at low speeds. Where high speeds are anticipated the
large lengths of required weaving sections may cause prohibitive land costs (i.e. when used on
high speeds roads, rotaries require extremely large size).

2.15.2.2Grade Separated Intersections

Grade-separated intersections usually consist of structures that provide for traffic to cross at different levels
without interruption. The potential for accident at grade-separated intersections is reduced because many
potential conflicts between intersection streams of traffic are eliminated. At-grade intersections do not
provide for the flow of traffic at different levels, and therefore there exist conflicts between intersecting
streams of traffic.

Basically there are two types:

i) Grade-separated intersections without ramps

ii) Grade-separated with ramps (commonly known as interchanges)

An interchange is a grade separation in which vehicles moving in one direction of flow may transfer by the
use of connecting roadways. These connecting roads at interchanges are called ramps.A structure without
interchange is an over pass or underpass or flyover, whereby the traffic at different levels moves separately
without a provision for an interchange between them.

The different forms of grade-separated junction can be considered under the number of legs the intersection
serves. Thus the interchange can be classified as three-leg and multileg, and these in turn can be sub-divided
into various types as follow:

i) T- and Y-interchanges.

ii) Diamond interchanges.

iii) Partial and full cloverleafs.

iv) Directional interchanges.

Figure 2.20 shows the different type of grade-separated intersection.

47
Figure 2.20: Types of Grade Separated Interchanges

48
The choice between an at-grade and grade-separated intersections at a particular site depends on various
factors such as traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics, delay etc. Grade-separated intersections are generally
more expensive initially and are justified or warranted in certain situations.

i) At intersection with motorways- the construction of highway complete control of access

automatically justifies the use of grade-separated structures in order to ensure the free
movement of high-speed traffic.
ii) To eliminate existing traffic bottlenecks- the inability of an important at-grade intersection to
provide the necessary capacity is in itself a justification for a grade separation on a major
highway.
iii) Safety considerations- some at-grade intersections are accident prone, regardless of the traffic
volumes they carry.
iv) Economic considerations- at at-grade major road junctions, very considerable economic losses
can be incurred due to intersectional frictions and the resultant delays to traffic. Grade
separation could result in long-term economic gains.
v) Topographic difficulties- at certain sites, the nature of the topography or the cost of land may
be such that the construction of at-grade intersection is more expensive.

49
 CHAPTER THREE

PAVEMENT MATERIALS

The materials required for the construction of road pavements can be broadly categorized into:

i. Aggregates
ii. Soil
iii. Binders (Cement)

3.1 AGGREGATES

Aggregates form a major component of a road pavement structure and hence the quality of aggregates plays
a great role in the performance and long term economy of the road. Aggregates have to bear stresses
occurring on the roads and have to resist wear due to abrasive action of traffic.

In general the aggregates may be classified as:

(a) Natural aggregates: e.g. crushed rock, gravel, and sand

(b) Artificial aggregates: e.g. blast furnace slag

3.1.1 Desirable Qualities of Road Aggregates

The following properties of aggregates are taken into consideration while selecting aggregates for road
construction:-

1. Hardness:

It is the quality of road aggregates which measures its resistance to abrasion at the surface. The road
aggregates should possess adequate hardness to resist abrasion action between tires of moving vehicles and
the aggregate exposed at the top surface.

2. Attrition:

Mutual rubbing of stones caused due to pavement deformation under wheel loads. The pavement
deformation results in relative movement of aggregates thereby causing mutual rubbing of stones within
the pavement layer.

3. Toughness:

It may be defined as the power possessed by an aggregate to resist fracture under an applied load. In all
form of flexible pavement, the aggregate must be tough enough to support the weight of the roller during
construction and the repeated impact action of traffic. The impact effect increases with the increase of road
surface roughness, the speed of vehicle and other vehicular characteristics.

4. Strength:
It is a measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing. The aggregates to be used in surfacing course
of the pavement structure should be able to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel loads in addition to
wear and tear.

50
5. Durability:

It may be defined as the resistance of stone to disintegration under the influence of weathering action. The
property by virtue of which a stone is able to withstand the adverse weathering action is known as
soundness. The composition of stone should be such that it can withstand or resist the action of rain and
ground water and that of atmosphere.

6. Shape of aggregate:

The shape of aggregates may be rounded, cubical, angular, flaky or elongated. The flaky and elongated
posses less strength and durability and their use in road construction should be avoided as far as possible.
The angular types are preferred in pavement construction, because of their high interlocking properties and
the high resulting strength.

6. Bitumen Absorption Property:

The porosity of an aggregate permits the aggregate to absorb asphalt and form a bond between the particle
and the asphalt. A degree of porosity is thus required, but aggregates that are highly absorbent are generally
not used.

8. Hydrophobic characteristics:

It is the property by virtue of which the stone aggregate resists stripping off of the bitumen in the presence
of water. The aggregate used in pavements should have less affinity for water otherwise the aggregates will
be easily stripped off in the presence of water.

3.1.2 Tests on Road Aggregate

Aggregate obtained from different sources may differ considerably in their constitution and properties.
Therefore, in order to decide the suitability of the road aggregates the following tests are carried out:

1. Abrasion tests
2. Crushing value tests
3. Shape tests
4. Soundness tests
5. Bitumen adhesion tests or stripping test
6. Water absorption tests
7. Specific Gravity test

3.2 BITUMINOUS MATERIALS

Bituminous materials denote substances in which bitumen is present or from which it can be derived.
Bitumen is as an amorphous, black or dark-colored (solid, semi-solid, or viscous) cementitious substance,
composed principally of high molecular weight hydrocarbons, and soluble in carbon disulfide. The
bituminous materials used in highway construction are either asphalts.

Bituminous materials are extensively used for roadway construction, primarily because of their excellent
binding characteristics, water proofing properties and relatively low cost.

51
3.2.1 Sources of Bituminous Materials

Asphalts may occur in nature (natural asphalts from oil-bearing rocks) or may be obtained from crude
petroleum processing through fractional distillation (petroleum asphalts). Tars do not occur in nature and
are obtained as condensates in the destructive distillation of coal, petroleum, oil-shale, wood or other
organic materials.

3.2.2 Types of Bituminous Materials used in Pavement Construction

The commonly used bituminous materials (binders) are:

 Asphalt
 Emulsion
 Cutbacks

Road tars are also a type of bituminous material but are not now widely used in highway construction. This
is because, tars which are products of destructive distillation, are more susceptible to weather changes than
the products of fractional distillation.

3.2.2.1 Asphalt cement

Asphalt cement is asphalt which has been specially refined as to quality and consistency for direct use in
the construction of asphalt pavements. Asphalt cement is semi-solid and very viscous, and hence it has to
be heated to an appropriate high temperature in order to be fluid enough to be mixed and placed.

3.2.2.2 Cutback Asphalt

Cutback asphalt is a liquid binder obtained by blending asphalt cement and petroleum solvents. This is done
to reduce the viscosity of the asphalt. Thus, a cutback asphalt can be mixed and placed with little or no
application of heat. After a cutback asphalt is applied and exposed to the atmosphere, the solvent will
gradually evaporate, leaving the asphalt cement to perform its function as a binder. Cutback asphalt is used
for cold weather bituminous road construction and maintenance.

Depending on the type of solvent used, there are three types of cutbacks:

i) Rapid Curing (CR): They manufactured by blending bitumen with naphtha or gasoline type of
distillate
ii) Medium Curing (MC): They are obtained by blending bitumen with kerosene type of distillate
iii) Slow Curing (SC): They are obtained blending bitumen with distillate of high boiling point.

52
3.2.2.3 Asphalt Emulsion (or Emulsified asphalt)

Asphalt emulsion is a mixture of asphalt cement and water in the presence of emulsifying agent (e.g. soap
or resin). The bitumen content in the emulsion is around 60% and the remaining is water.
Asphalt emulsion can be mixed and applied without any application of heat.

After an asphalt emulsion is applied, sufficient time is required for the emulsion to break and the water to
evaporate to leave the asphalt cement to perform its function as a binder.

Depending on the emulsifying agent, emulsion can be classified as:

i) Rapid-Setting (RS): An RS emulsion is designed to demulsify (to break away from the emulsion
form such that asphalt particles are no longer in suspension) upon contact with an aggregate, and
thus has little or no ability to mix with an aggregate. It is best used in spraying applications where
mixing is not required but fast setting is desirable.

ii) Medium-Setting (MS): An MS emulsion is designed to have good mixing characteristics with
coarse aggregates and to demulsify after proper mixing. It is suitable for applications where mixing
with coarse aggregate is required.

iii) Slow-Setting (SS): An SS emulsion is designed to be very stable in the emulsion form, and is
suitable for use where good flowing characteristics are desired or where mixing with fine aggregate
is required

3.2.2.4 Properties of Asphaltic Materials

The properties of asphaltic materials pertinent to pavement construction can be classified into four main
categories:

1. Consistency

Consistency is the degree of fluidity or plasticity of asphaltic materials (binders) at any particular
temperature. The consistency of any asphaltic material varies with temperature. The change in consistency
of different asphaltic materials may differ considerably even for the same amount of temperature change.
This property of asphaltic materials is known as temperature susceptibility. The temperature susceptibility
of a given asphalt depends on the crude oil from which the asphalt is obtained. Asphaltic materials are
graded based on ranges of consistency at a standard temperature.

53
 2. Durability

Durability is the measure of how well an asphaltic material (binder) retains its original characteristics when
exposed to normal weathering and aging processes. When asphaltic materials are exposed to environmental
elements, deterioration takes place, and eventually the materials lose their plasticity and become brittle.
This natural deterioration of the asphaltic material is known as weathering. For paving asphalt to act as
successfully as a binder, the weathering must be minimized as much as possible. The ability of an asphaltic
material to resist weathering is described as the durability of the material. Some of the factors that influence
weathering are oxidation, temperature, and age hardening.

3. Rate of Curing

Curing is defined as the process through which an asphaltic material increases its consistency as it loses its
solvent by evaporation.

The rate of curing for any cutback asphaltic material depends on the distillate used in the cutting-back
process. This is an important characteristic of cutback materials, since the rate of curing indicates the time
that elapse before a cutback will attain a consistency that is thick enough for the binder to perform
satisfactorily. The rate of curing is affected by both inherent and external factors. The important inherent
factors are:

i. Volatility of the solvent: the more volatile the solvent is, the faster the rate of evaporation from the
asphaltic material, the higher the rate of cure.
ii. Quantity of solvent in the cutback: for a given type of solvent, the smaller the quantity used, the
less time is required for it to evaporate, and therefore the faster the asphaltic material will cure.
iii. Consistency of the base material: the higher the penetration of the base asphalt, the longer it takes
for the asphalt cutback to cure.

The important external factors that affect curing rate are:

i. Temperature
ii. Ratio of surface area to volume
iii. Wind velocity across exposed surface

The higher any of these factors, the higher the rate of curing.

54
For asphaltic emulsion used for pavement construction, the rate of curing depends on the rate at which the
water evaporates from the mixture. When weather conditions are favourable, the water is relatively rapidly
displaced and so curing progresses rapidly. On the other hand, high humidity, low temperature, or rainfall
immediately after the application of the asphaltic emulsion, adversely affect the rate of curing.

4. Resistance to Water Action

When asphaltic materials are used in pavement construction, it is important that the asphalt continues to
adhere to the aggregates even with the presence of water. If this bond between the asphalt and the aggregate
is lost, the asphalt will strip from the aggregates resulting in the deterioration of the pavement. The asphalt
therefore must sustain its ability to adhere to the aggregates even in the presence of water.

3.1.4 Requirements of Bituminous Materials

The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general, bitumen should
possess the following desirable properties:

i. The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest weather the mix
should not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix should not become too
brittle causing cracks.

ii. The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate. This can
be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the bitumen and
aggregates prior to mixing.

iii. There should be adequate affinity and adhesion (i.e. adhesion and cohesion) between the bitumen
and aggregates used in the mix.

55
3.5 Tests on Asphaltic Materials (Bitumen)

There are a number of tests to assess the properties of bituminous materials to ascertain whether materials
used in highway construction meet the prescribed specifications. The following tests are usually conducted
to evaluate different properties of bituminous materials:

i) Penetration Test
ii) Viscosity Tests
iii) Flash-Point Test
iv) Float Test
v) Ductility Test
vi) Solubility Test
vii) Water Content Test
viii) Loss-on-Heating Test
ix) Softening Point Test
x) Specific Gravity Test

56
 CHAPTER FOUR

HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS

4.1 Introduction

Road surfaces provide support for vehicles travelling on transportation facilities; additionally they also
provide lateral clearance.

4.2 Pavement Types

In general, there are two types of pavement structures commonly used in construction of roadways: flexible
pavements and rigid pavements. There are, however, many variations of these pavement types: composite
pavements (which are made of both rigid and flexible layers). In summary, the pavement types are:

i) Flexible ii) Rigid and iii) Composite

4.2.1 Flexible Pavement

i) The wearing surface of a flexible pavement is made of bituminous material such that they
remain in contact with the underlying material even when minor irregularities occur.

ii) Load distribution is in the form of a cone with high stresses on top of the pavement.

4.2.2 Rigid Pavement

i) The wearing surface is usually constructed of Portland cement concrete (PCC) such that it acts
like a beam over any irregularities in the underlying supporting material.

ii) Load distribution is spread over a much wider area; hence less stress on the subgrade.

4.2.3 Composite Pavement

It is made up of a combination of surfaces.

i) AC/AC ii) AC/PCC

4.3 Components of a Pavement

Figure 4.1 shows the components of a typical highway pavement. Pavements usually consist of a surface
or wearing course (asphalt concrete, Portland cement concrete or bituminous surface dressing), a base
course, and a subbase constructed on top of prepared subgrade material.

57
 Figure 4.1 Typical flexible pavement cross- section

The performance of the pavement depends on the satisfactory performance of each component, which
requires proper evaluation of the properties of each component separately.

4.3.1 Subgrade

The subgrade is usually the natural material located along the horizontal alignment of the pavement and
serves the foundation of the pavement structure. The subgrade may also consist of a layer of selected
borrow materials, well compacted during construction to prescribe specifications to give added strength.
The strength of road subgrades is commonly assessed in terms of the CBR and this is dependent on the type
of soil, its density, and its moisture content.

4.3.2 Subbase Course

Located immediately above the subgrade, the subbase component consists of material of superior quality
to that which generally is used for subgrade construction: the subbase material has better engineering
properties than the subgrade material, in terms of its bearing capacity. The requirements for subbase
materials are given in terms of the gradation, plastic characteristics, and strength. In Ghana, typically, the
minimum CBR value for subbase material is 40%, maximum liquid limit (L.L) of 30% and a maximum
Plasticity Index (P.I) of 15%.

The subbases are usually local aggregate materials. In cases where suitable subbase material is not readily
available, the available material can be stabilized to achieve the necessary engineering properties.

4.3.3 Base Course

The base course lies immediately above the subbase. Base courses normally consist of aggregates such as
gravel and crushed rock (of higher strength than those used in the subbase).The specifications for base
materials usually include stricter requirements than those for subbase materials, particularly with respect to
their plasticity, gradation and strength. In Ghana typically, the minimum CBR value for base material is
80%, maximum liquid limit (L.L) of 25% and a maximum Plasticity Index (P.I) of 10%.

Materials that do not have the required properties can be used as base materials if they are properly
stabilized.

58
4.3.4 Surface Course

This is the upper course (wearing surface) of the road pavement and is constructed immediately above the
base course. The surface course in flexible pavements will usually consist of bituminous surface dressing
or asphaltic concrete, which is a mixture of mineral aggregates and asphaltic materials. The purpose of the
wearing layer is to:

i. Protect the base layer from wheel abrasion and to waterproof the entire pavement structure.
ii. Provides a skid-resistant surface for vehicle performance.

4.3.5 Functions of Base/Subbase

i) Distribute loads onto subgrade (primary function)

ii) Platform for construction equipment

iii) Drainage medium for pavement

4.4 Structural Design of Pavements

The design of pavements involves determination of the types and thickness of the various layers of material
making up the pavement. The goal is to specify the most economical pavement which will perform
satisfactorily over some predetermined design life.

The primary function of the pavement structure is to reduce and distribute the surface stresses to an
acceptable level at the subgrade (to a level that prevents pavement deformation).

Methods for the design of flexible pavements may be classified into two categories, namely analytical (or
mechanistic method) based on stress-strain calculations, and empirical methods based in which the
performance of pavements is predicted from the results of road tests and actual experience.

A couple of commonly used empirical design methods are: Asphalt Institute method, AASHTO method
and the TRL’s Road Note 31 method.

4.4.1 Factors Affecting Flexible Pavement Design

The structural design of road pavements depends primarily on the following factors:

i. Strength of the subgrade

ii. Traffic loading
iii. Materials
iv. Effects of environmental conditions

Thus, design considerations in all pavement include: traffic loads, an evaluation of the load-bearing capacity
of the subgrade material, the effects of environmental conditions (such as temperature and moisture), and
availability of materials.

59
4.4.2 The Design Process of Flexible Pavements: The TRL Road Note 31 Method.

There are three main steps to be followed in designing a new road pavement. These are:

i) Estimating the amount of traffic and the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles that
will use the road over the selected design life;
ii) Assessing the strength of the subgrade soil over which the road is to built;
iii) Selecting the most economical combination of pavement materials and layer thickness that will
provide satisfactory service over the design life of the pavement (It is usually necessary to
assume that an appropriate level of maintenance is also carried out).

4.4.2.1Annual Average Daily Traffic

For the pavement design of new roads, it is important to establish the total traffic over the design life of the
road. In order to estimate the total traffic over the design life of the road, the first step is to determine the
current volume and type of traffic (classified vehicle count) travelling on the road.

The Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is the most widely used statistic to indicate the level of traffic
on a road. This is the total annual traffic in both directions divided by 365. Hence it is an average 24-hour
daily traffic volume. This statistically usually includes all motorized traffic, including motorbikes. It is
important to note that this is a TWO WAY traffic flow. For pavement design purposes ONE WAY traffic
flow is normally used.

Pavement design is normally based on the lane with the highest traffic loading. On roads with more
than one lane in each direction (multilane), it should be assumed that the slow traffic lanes (outside
lanes) will carry all the heavy vehicles, and hence the design lane. The design thickness required for
the slow lane is usually applied to all lanes.

For structural design purposes, the loads imposed by private cars do not contribute significantly to the
structural damage to road pavements by traffic. Therefore, only the number of commercial vehicle and their
axle loads are considered.

Commercial vehicles comprise the main types of vehicle that damage the pavement. This usually includes
medium trucks (2-axle with twin rear tyres), heavy trucks (greater than 2 axles) and large buses (with greater
than about 40 seats). Figure 3.2 shows vehicle types in Ghana.

60
Figure 3.2: Vehicle classes in Ghana

61
4.4.2.2 Determination of Cumulative Standard Axle Load

For pavement design purposes, traffic loads (all heavy commercial vehicles) are expressed in terms of the
equivalent number of standard axles (ESA/ESAL) that which they represent over the design life. The
standard axle is taken to be 8160 kg (80 kN or 18000 lb).

The ESA (ESAL) is the total number of repetitions of an equivalent 8160 kg (80 kN) load over the life of
the pavement.

To determine the cumulative equivalent standard axles over the design life of the road, the following
procedure must be followed:

i) Annual Average Daily Traffic flow for each vehicle class

From the result of a classified traffic count, the annual average traffic for each class of vehicle in each
direction is determined.

ii) Average Equivalent Factor (EF) per vehicle (for each vehicle class)

From an axle load survey, the average equivalent factor (EF) per vehicle for each class of vehicle in each
direction can be calculated.

The equivalent factor is the damaging effect of an axle, in relation to the damage created by a standard
axle which has a load of 8160 kg. It can be calculated from:

 axle  loads  in  tons 4.5 

EF   
 8.16 
iii) Average ESA(ESAL) per day for (each vehicle type)

Again keeping the two directions separate, for each vehicle category, the average ESAL/day can be
calculated by multiplying the average EF per vehicle by the average traffic flow for that category.

iv) Daily traffic loading (one way)

Thesum of the ESAL/day for all vehicle categories gives the total daily traffic loading (in ESAL/day) for
each direction.

v) Annual traffic loading (one way)

Theannual traffic loading for each direction is obtained by multiplying the total traffic loading (ESAL/day)
values by 365. This figure is normally presented as millions of equivalent standard axles per year

62
(MESA/year) for each direction. The larger of the two directional values are used for pavement design
purposes.

vi) Design Life and traffic growth

a) Design life is the number of years that a highway pavement should remain in good condition and
be able to carry the design traffic load. During this period, the pavement layers should not
deteriorate to any serious extent. For most roads, a design life of between 10 and 40 years from the
date of opening is appropriate.

b) Since traffic volume does not remain constant over the design life of the pavement, it is essential
that the rate of growth be determined and applied when calculating the total ESAL. An estimate
must therefore be made of future traffic growth over the chosen design life, which should consider
normal traffic, diverted traffic and generated traffic. Annual growth rates can be obtained planning
agencies or highway departments: these are normally based on traffic volumes counted over several
years. Future traffic growth is normally expressed as a fixed percentage rate (e.g. 5% per year).

vii) Total traffic loading over design life

Using data from the lane with the highest traffic loading, the total traffic loadingover the design life is
calculated by multiplying the current highest annual ESAL by a growth factor. Growth factors are
calculated by:

(1  r ) n  1
fg 
r

Where is the r = annual growth rate (given as a decimal fraction) and n = the design life of the
pavement in years. Hence, the total cumulative ESAL is obtained as follows:

 (1  r ) n  1
Total cumulative ESA (one way) = AADT*EF*365*  
 r 

The results are usually expressed in units of millions of equivalent standard axles, one way.

63
Example 4-1

An existing road is to be rehabilitated to provide access to a headwork construction site. Traffic studies
have shown that Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is 464 vpd in both directions with a directional
split of 50/50 % at the design hour. Tables 4.1 and 4.2 provide information on the Axle load survey, as well
as classified vehicle count (one direction) respectively.

Table 4.1: Axle Load Survey DataTable 4.2 Axle load survey Data

Front
mean axle Rear mean
Description Total Vehicle load axle load
Heavy
Heavy Truck 121 truck 5008 12784
Mini truck 9 Mini truck 2600 5920
Big bus 102 Big bus 3955 6755

An evaluation of the subgrade strength by means of Dynamic Cone Penetrometer Tests (DCP, TRL) along
the proposed alignment revealed a CBR value of 8%. If the design life of the pavement is 10 years and the
traffic growth rate is 7.5%, determine the structure of the pavement and the thicknesses of the layers.

Solution

Table 4.3: Average Equivalent Factor (EF) per vehicle (for each vehicle class)

Front mean Equivalent Rear mean Equivalent Total

Vehicle axle load Factor(EF) axle load Factor(EF) EF
Heavy truck 5008 0.111 12784 7.540 7.652
Mini truck 2600 0.006 5920 0.236 0.242
Big bus 3955 0.038 6755 0.427 0.466

64
Table 4.4: Cumulative ESAL for the design period of 10 years

Cumulative ESAL for

AADT design period of 10
Equivalen (0.5xtwo Average Average years
(a)x(b)x365  (1  r )  1
n
t Factor way flow) ESAL/da ESAL/year  
Vehicle (a) (b) y (a)x(b) (a)x(b)x365  r 
Heavy
truck 7.652 121 925.837 337930.668 4780734.723
Mini truck 0.242 9 2.176 794.247 11236.28385
Big bus 0.466 102 47.501 17337.845 245280.007
Total 5037251.013

From Table 4.4, the total traffic loading (Cumulative ESAL) over design life of the pavement is 5.04*106
esa or 5.04 mesa.

Hence the pavement design is carried out according to guidance and procedure given in Road Note No.31,
TRRL UK and with the following considerations:
1. The pavement is designed for 10 years of life span;
2. The subgrade CBR value of 8 % is adopted as the design CBR of subgrade; and
6
3. Equivalent standard axle for this road is assumed to be in the range of 5.04 x 10 esa.

Option 1: Pavement Design with asphalt concrete surfacing

6
Hence, for cumulative equivalent standard axle of 5.04 x 10 esa and sub-grade CBR of 8 %, according to
Road Note 31, Chart 3, the pavement thickness required is:

Sub-base (with 40% min. CBR) - 250 mm

Base course with 80% min. CBR - 175 mm
Asphalt surfacing - 50 mm
Total 475 mm

Option 2: Pavement Design with double surface dressing surface

Also with surface dressing concept, according to Road Note 31, Chart 1, (TRRL, UK) for the above
mentioned requirements, the pavement thickness required is:

Sub-base (with 40% min. CBR) - 250 mm

Base course (with 80% min. CBR) - 200 mm
Total 450 mm

65
Conclusion and Recommendation

The road under consideration is only an access road for Kojokrom Water Supply Development Project; the
road pavement with asphalt concrete surfacing may therefore not be economically feasible for the project.
It is therefore economically prudent to build the road with the surface dressing option. For this purpose the
pavement type and thickness recommended by Road Note 31, Chart 1 is recommended

Exercise

The pavement of an existing highway is to be redesigned to cope with increased traffic conditions. Traffic
studies have shown that the Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is 2000 veh/day in directions with a
directional split of 70/30% at the design hour.

The proportion of Medium trucks, Heavy Trucks, Trailers and Large Buses and the equivalent factors
measured in the study are presented in Table 4.5

Table 4.5: Results of Traffic and Axle Load Survey

Equivalent Factor
Vehicle Class (EF) Traffic Composition
Medium
Trucks 3.4 22%
Heavy Trucks 6.0 18%
Trailers 7.2 10%
Large Bus 1.7 5%

If the traffic growth rate is 4% and the pavement design life is 15 years:

i. Estimate the cumulative ESAs over the design life of the pavement in millions of standard axles
(mesa).
ii. Select a structure for the pavement if the subgrade CBR is 10%

66
67
68
69
4.5 Compaction of Soil

Soil compaction is the processof bringing about an increase in soil density, with a consequent reduction
of air-voids volume, but with no change in the volume of water. This is usually effected by mechanical
means, such as rolling, tamping or vibrating the soil. In the construction of road bases and runways, the soil
is placed in layers of specified thickness, each layer being compacted to a specification relating to the type
of plant use.

There are three main objectives in the compaction of soil, namely:

i. To reduce the void ratio and thus the permeability of the soil.
ii. To increase the shear strength and therefore the bearing capacity of the soil.
iii. To make the soil less susceptible to subsequent volume changes and therefore the tendency to
settlement under load or under the influence of vibration.

The effectiveness of the compaction process is dependent on several factors:

i) The nature and type of soil (i.e. sand or clay; uniform or well graded; plastic or non-plastic).

ii) The water content at the time of placing.

iii) The type of compaction plant being used.

4.6 Compaction Control Testing

The dry density achieved in the field after compaction must be compared with the maximum dry density
value obtained in the laboratory. The required quality standard may be specified in terms of the relative
compaction percentage.

 d field
Relative Compaction (R.C) = *100
 d max

In order to measure the field dry density, frequent measurements of bulk density (field density) and water
content of the placed material are necessary. Samples should be taken along the center and edges of the
compacted area at intervals of 20-50m. A number of methods are in common use:

i) The sand replacement method

ii) Core-cutter Method

iii) Nuclear methods

70
SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

Field Procedure:
1. Expose an area of about 450mm square on the surface of the soil mass. Trim the surface down
to a level surface using a scrapper tool.

2. Place the metal tray on the leveled surface.

3. Excavate the soil though the central hole of the tray, using the hole in the tray as a pattern. The
depth of the excavated hole should be about 150mm.

4. Collect all the excavated soil in a metal container, and determine the mass of the soil (M).

5. Remove the metal tray from the excavated hole.

6. Fill the sand pouring cylinder within 10mm of its top. Determine its mass (M1).

7. Place the cylinder directly over the excavated hole. Allow the sand to run out the cylinder by
opening the shutter. Close the shutter when the hole is completely filled and no further
movement of sand is observed.

8. Remove the cylinder from the filled hole. Determine the mass of the cylinder (M2), as well as
mass of sand left on metal plate (M3).

9. Take a representative sample of the excavated soil. Determine its water content.

Determine the dry density of soil as shown in the data sheet below.

71
Dry Density of Soil
Sl. No. Observations and Calculations Determination No.
1 2 3
Observation
1 Mass of excavated soil (M)
2 Mass of pouring cylinder (M1), filled with
sand
3 Mass of pouring cylinder after pouring into
the hole and cone (M2)
4 Mass of sand left on plate after pouring (M3)
Calculations
4 Mass of sand in the hole
MS=M1 – M4- M2
5 Volume of sand in the hole
V=Ms/
6
Bulk density =M/V
7 Water content
8 Dry density using formula

Result:
Dry density=_______kg/m³.

The dry density of the excavated soil is determined as

Where w is the water content.

72
The following data and its associated calculations illustrate in-situ dry density determination of a
typical highway construction.

Dry Density of Soil

Sl. No. Observations and Calculations Determination No.
1 2 3
Observation
1 Mass of excavated soil (M) in g 2310 2400 2280
2 Mass of pouring cylinder (M1), filled with 11040 11042 11037
sand in g
3 Mass of pouring cylinder after pouring into 8840 8752 8882
the hole and cone (M2) in g
4 Mass of sand left on metal plate after 450 450 450
pouring (M3) in g
Calculations
4 Mass of sand in the hole 1.750 1.840 1.705
MS=M1 – M2- M3 in kg
5 Volume of sand in the hole 0.001167 0.001227 0.001137
V=Ms/ in m³
6 1980 1956.5 2005.9
Bulk density =M/V in kg/m³
7 Water content (w), in % 18.48 18.81 19.26
8 1671.17 1646.77 1681.93
Dry density using formula, in
kg/m³
Dry density (Average value) in kg/m³ 1666.62≈1667

Density of sand, ρs= 1500 kg/m³

73
4.7 Compaction Specification

Specifications for the quality of compaction fall into two distinct groups:

i) End-result Specifications

This specification tells the contractor what must be achieved. Under these specifications, it is the relative
compaction which is important, the method (procedure and equipment used) for achieving it is not so
important. To ensure compliance with the specification, both the dry density and water content tests are
conducted during construction. These are used mostly for building foundations and highways.

ii) Method Specifications

In a method specification a procedure is laid down, giving a specific type of plant, its mass, the frequency
of vibration, the maximum lift of loose material, the thickness of each layer and the number of passes to be
made on each layer.

In the end-result specifications, the responsibility for proper compaction rests with the contractor, whereas
in the method specifications, the responsibility for proper compaction rests with the consulting engineer. If
the compaction control test (in the method specification) results do not meet the required standard, the
contractor will have to be paid extra for rolling. This category of specification, calls for a prior knowledge
of borrow soils.

74
 CHAPTER FIVE

MAINTENANCE OF ROAD SURFACES

5.1 Introduction

Pavements are subjected to varying degrees of distress short of outright failure that reduces their
serviceability. This may be due to weathering, traffic use and changes in physical and chemical conditions
of various components of the highway.Pavement maintenance programmes seek to limit the detrimental
effects of these natural or imposed processes; thereby restoring the ride quality and maintaining the
structural integrity of the pavement over its full design life.

5.2 Factors affecting deterioration of roads

The deterioration of highway pavements are precipitated by a number of factors, Table 5.1 gives a summary
of the predominant ones.

Table 5.1: Factors affecting road deterioration

Non-Engineering Factors Engineering Factors

Insufficient funds for the maintenance of

roads Drainage problems

Untimely release of funds for road

agencies for road maintenance Traffic load

Inadequate supervision of maintenance Climatic condition (Rainfall,

works due insufficient logistics temperature)

Inadequate contractual capacity for road Unsuitable material for road construction
maintenance for road maintenance works and maintenance

5.3 Effects of road deterioration

It is important that priority is given to road maintenance, by ensuring the availability of sufficient funds, as
well as timely release of funds to the road agencies for preventive maintenance activities. Usually
preventive maintenance, carried out in an orderly and systematic way, will be least expensive approach in
the long run. Lack of funds often limits timely repairs and rehabilitation of transportation facilities, causing
a greater problem with more serious pavements defects and higher costs. The following are some of the
effects of road deterioration:

75
i) It increases travel time
ii) It causes the prevalence of road traffic accidents
iii) It increases vehicle operating cost
iv) It increases road user cost

5.4 Road Fund

In the 1980’s, it was realized that developing countries the world over had lost precious infrastructure
worth billions of dollars through deterioration in the physical condition of their roads; this is because,
basically, priority has not been given to the maintenance of these transportation facilities in terms of
availability of funds. To ensure an adequate and stable flow of funds for road maintenance, the concept
of ‘Road Fund’, was set up in 1985.

The ‘Road Fund’ is thus a fund established for the maintenance of existing roads only. The key
revenue sources of the Ghana Road Fund are:

i) Fuel levy
ii) Vehicle Registration Fee
iii) Road user fee (road worth)
iv) Road, Bridge and Ferry Tolls
v) International transit fees

5.5 Types of Maintenance Activities

Maintenance activities may be classified in terms of their frequency as follows:

1) Routine maintenance: This is required continually on every road regardless of the engineering
characteristics or traffic volume. It includes:

i) Grass cutting

ii) Drain cleaning

iii) Culvert maintenance

iv) Clearing bridge channels

v) Maintenance (e.g.sign cleaning) and replacing of road signs and guardrails, recutting ditches
etc.

76
 2) Recurrent Maintenance: This is required at intervals during the year with a frequency that
depends on the traffic using the road.

Recurrent on unpaved roads: repairing potholes and ruts, grading

Recurrent on paved roads: repairing pot-holes, repairing edges, sealing cracks etc.

3) Urgent Maintenance: This is needed to deal with emergencies and problems calling for immediate
action when a road is blocked, e.g. removal of debris and other obstacles, placement of warning
signs and diversion works.

4) Periodic Maintenance: It is required only at intervals of several years.

Unpaved roads: regravelling, rehabilitation

Paved roads:resealing, resurfacing, road surface marking, rehabilitation, etc.

5.6 Maintenance Tasks

5.6.1 Inventory:

It involves the basic characteristics of each section of the road network. The inventory is a set of
information about the basic engineering and traffic characteristics of the road network.

Content of an Inventory

i) Type of surface and construction

ii) Cross-section width, carriageway and shoulder

iii) Traffic volume (AADT)

iv) Structures; pipe culverts, box culverts, bridges

v) Junction location

vi) Road furniture; road signs, road markings, guard rails.

Presentation of information:

There are several ways of presenting the information recorded in an inventory; some notable ones are:

a) Diagrammatic map b) Line diagrams or strip maps.

77
4.6.2 Condition Surveys

They are similar to inventory procedures but their emphasis is on the condition of the road than its basic
characteristics. They identify locations where deterioration is occurring, measure the extent of the problem
and define the action needed to correct the defects.

5.7 Defects in Road Pavements

5.7.1 Paved roads (Asphalt and Surface treatment)

1) Potholes:This is usually due to poor quality of material use for the construction of the pavement,
infiltration of water and breakaway of the material under the action of traffic.

Remedies: Patching (Local restoration of the pavement structure).

However, if the size and number over the road surface is very large, scarifying and resealing may
be necessary.

2) Alligator cracking: a series of interconnected or interlaced cracks caused by fatigued failure of the
asphalt concrete surface under repeated traffic loading.

3) Block cracking: Cracks forming large interconnected polygons, usually with sharp corners or
angles. These cracks are generally caused by hardening and shrinkage of the asphalt and or
reflective cracking from underlying layers.

4) Transverse cracking: cracks approximately at right angles to the pavement centre-line. This may
be caused by shrinkage of the asphalt concrete or may be reflective cracks.

5) Longitudinal cracking: Cracks approximately parallel to the pavement center-line. These are
caused by poorly constructed construction joints and shrinkage of the asphalt concrete surface; they
may also be reflective cracks.

Remedies

 Local sealing: This may be used to seal relatively small areas of surfacing failure (i.e. surface
cracking). Here bitumen and chippings are used for the sealing.

 Crack sealing: This is used where reflection cracking has occurred and the aim is to fill the
cracks as completely as possible with bituminous binder to keep water out. Bitumen and
sand/quarrydust are used.

 Patching (or Base patching): This remedy is employed, where thereis severe cracking.

78
 6) Raveling/Stripping/Streaking: Wearing away of the pavement surface caused by the dislodging
of aggregate particles and binder. This is usually a result of insufficient asphalt binder in the mix,
aggregate dirty when laid and insufficient penetration of aggregate.

Remedy: Surface patching

7) Rutting: Depression in the wheel tracks of vehicles. This may be due toinsufficient foundation or
pavement strength forthe traffic being carried.

Remedies

 Slight rutting (less than 5 cm): Filling in of ruts and depressions

 Deep rutting: Base patching- local restoration of the pavement structure.

8) Bleeding: This is a condition caused by a concentration of excess binder, sometimes in the form of
longitudinal spots at the surface of the pavement. Usually found in wheel tracks during hot weather.
This is usually as a result of too much binder or unsuitable binder. If neglected the road surface
becomes slippery when wet.

Remedies

 Sanding/surface dressing

The main objectives of surface dressing are:

 To waterproof the pavement thereby protecting the pavement from traffic abrasion and weather

 To provide a surface with good riding qualities for road users

 To reduce vehicle operating and maintenance costs.

**NB: Generally a size 14 mm chipping is selected for sealing over a size 10 mm chipping
primerseal.

79
5.7.2 Unpaved Roads (Gravel and earth surface)

1) Loose gravel: Gravel surface loosely compacted; gravel in windrows along the centre of the road
alongside the wheel tracks, or along the shoulder, all parallel to the direction of traffic. This is
caused by insufficient compaction at the time of construction.

2) Potholes: Bowled-shaped depressions in the road surface. They may be due to;

i) Ponding of water

ii) Excessive weakening of pavement by moisture

iii) Inadequate initial compaction

iv) Variable quality of pavement material

3) Corrugations: A series of closely spaced crest and valleys in the form of corrugate. They occur
with the ripples perpendicular to the direction of travel and more pronounced at the wheel paths,
although it can and does cover the whole pavement surface area. Possible causes are traffic action
combined with loose gravel. Insufficient pavementstructural thickness (pavement strength) can be
other cause.

4) Rutting: It is characterized by a longitudinal depression in the road surface that occurs in the wheel
paths of a roadway. Traffic loading, inadequate structural strength of the road layers or subgrade
are several causes of rutting. Excessive moisture in the road structure combined with traffic loading
could also cause rutting.

5) Flat or Reverse crown: Camber of the road is flat and non-existent, or reversed camber with road
edges higher than the center portion of the road surface, thereby preventing water from draining
away. This is caused by poor construction or maintenance practice.

5.7.3 Maintenance of Unpaved Roads

1) Grading: It is normally a routine maintenance task. The object of grading is to restore lost camber,
by returning material from sides and shoulders of towards the centre of the road. This will enable
water to drain off easily. Grading can be used to restore the shape of shoulders, ditches and turnouts.
Grading is used to correct:

i) Loss of shape ii) Ruts iii) Potholes iv) Corrugations v) Silted ditches

2) Dragging: Dragging is a routine maintenance activity. The object of regular and frequent dragging
is to smooth out minor defects in the road surface and remove loose material from the surface. This
results in a better riding surface for traffic. Dragging is used to minor surface deformation.

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 Dragging will not remove corrugations once they are formed, nor will it restore camber or lost
material. Grading is needed to restore these problems.

3) Patching: It is a routine maintenance activity. Patching may either be used to repair worn or eroded
areas or can be used to restore areas which become soft when wet. This maintenance activity
consists of replacing or adding new gravel surfacing material over relatively small areas. Patching
is used to correct; i) Potholes ii) Ruts iii) Soft Spot iv) Erosion Gullies.

Where there are large numbers of potholes, the section will need scarifying and possibly
regravelling. Patching is not a satisfactory method for corrugations.

4) Regravelling: The surfacing material of unpaved roads is worn out by traffic, eroded by rain and
blown away as dust. Regravelling is needed to prevent total loss of surfacing material.Regravelling
is a periodic activity that is needed whenever the existing gravel layer (150 mm) becomes
unacceptably thin. That is if the existing gravel layer is found to be less than 50 mm thick for more
than 20% of the length of the sub-section of the road being inspected. Regravelling is used to
correct:

i) Loss of surfacing material ii) Loss of shape iii) Ruts iv) Potholes v) Corrugations vi)
Erosion gullies

5.8 Road Maintenance Benefits

Roads are expensive to build. They repay their initial investment only by means of long-term care and
maintenance. A road system that is well maintained brings important social and economic benefits:

i) Roads have a longer lifetime of service because their surfaces do not deteriorate so rapidly.
ii) The transport links on which the economy and development depend are kept in good working
condition.
iii) Transport operations are safer and more reliable
iv) Pollution and noise are reduced
v) Long-term network maintenance and renewal costs are reduced

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5.9 GLOSSARY OF TERMS FOR ROAD MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES

i) REGRAVELLING

Placing of 100-150 mm of gravel sub-base material on an unpaved road, compact, sometimes including
earthworks and construction of culverts and drains.

ii) RESEALING

Laying of another seal coat (usually using 10-14 mm chippings) on an existing surface dressed road.

iii) RESURFACING
a) Layingof new surfacing on an existing paved road to restore skid resistance, maintain surface
characteristics and structural integrity (e.g. Surface dressing, thin asphalt surfacing).

b) Scarifying an existing surface dressed road, laying base material on the scarified surface and surface
dress, sometimes including construction of culverts and drains.

iv) REHABILITATION

Full-width, full-length surfacing with strengthening and shape correction of an existing road pavement
including minor drainage improvement to restore structural strength (e.g. Asphalt overlay,
granular/gravel and surfacing, surface treatment with major shape correction). It involves replacing the
pavement.

NB: Rehabilitation refer to works that are needed to restore a deteriorated road to a maintainable
condition.

v) RECONSTRUCTION

Full-width, full-depth reconstruction of a roadway pavement and shoulder mostly on an existing

alignment including rehabilitation of all drainage structures.

vi) NEW CONSTRUCTION

Full-width, full-length construction of a road on a new alignment, upgrading of gravel or earth road
to paved standard and provision of additional lanes or carriageways to existing roads.

vii) N.B: All the above are periodic activities save, RECONSTRCUTION AND NEW
CONSTRUCTION. They are capital or development works.

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 CHAPTER SIX

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF HIGHWAY PROJECTS

Highway development enhances mobility and is critical to the economic growth of a community and a
country as a whole. However, inappropriately planned, designed, and constructed highways can aggravate
the conditions of the poor, harm the natural and socio-economic environment. The common adverse impact
of highway development include damage of natural landscape, habitat and bio-diversity, destruction of
cultural and social structure of affected communities, noise disturbance and visual impairment, and
lowering of living quality of displaced inhabitants.

The positive and negative impacts of highway development need to be examined together in a logical
manner to ensure that sustainable social and economic growth can be achieved through the highway
development programme. An effective strategy to achieve this goal is the application of environmental
impact assessment (EIA) to the highway development process. By integrating environmental and social
considerations into the complete highway development process, the negative impact could be minimized
or eliminated, while the positive benefits are enhanced.

The EIA is a systematical procedure that aims at identifying, quantifying, characterizing and mitigating
negative impacts of highway development project, while striving to optimize the positive benefits.

83
Possible Adverse Environmental Impacts of Highway Development Activities

84
Activity Possible adverse environmental
impacts
Land acquisition for roadway and Displaces residences and businesses
right of way
Loss of cultural and historical heritage
Loss of properties
Mitigation
 Routes that pass through densely
populated areas should be avoided as
much as possible.
 In case of resettlement, residence and
business must be relocated to where
it will not increase hardship or
increase cost of living.
 Where they can be avoided, they
must be relocated to preserve their
historical importance.
 Zoning of historical sites to avoid
future confusion.
 Cultural and historical sites must be
avoided when selecting possible
routes.
 Equitable and adequate compensation
must be paid to persons who lose
their properties.
 Cities and towns must be planned
well to avert future losses.
85

Site preparation for road construction
Divided community with restriction to
mobility and reduced social activities
Loss of vegetative cover and topsoil
Degradation of habitat and possible
loss of valued ecosystem components
Accelerated erosion
Reduced retention of surface water
 Alternative route that make economic
sense and don not cause major
changes should be looked at.
 Realignment of route to prevent
severance of communities
 Limiting access to heavy equipment
 Vegetative cover stripped can be
stored for future use
 Temporary stilt basins to control loss
of vegetative cover.
 Re-alignment to deter exceptional
areas.
 Implementation of erosion of control
plans
 Increase number of drain outlets
 Line receiving surfaces with stones
Minimize impervious areas
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Earthwork of road construction
Deterioration of water quality
Damage to flora and fauna
Change of landscape
Interference with surface and
groundwater hydrology
Disruption of natural drainage system
Unstable slopes and landslides
 Avoid accidental spills of lubricants
and fuel through good practices such
as regular maintenance of equipment
 Lubricants should be stored in safe
place
 Alternative route should be used to
avoid damage to natural habitat.
 Planning of natural transportation
route alignment to avoid unique and
fragile places
 Proper planning of transportation
routes
Replace disfigured surfaces and vegetation.
Use of architectural effort and design to
transform the landscape.
 Realignment to avoid natural
drainage systems
 Installation of adequate drainage
systems
 Provide culvers, bridges etc
 Use of earth retaining structures to
stabilize road edges
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Damage to flora and fauna
Road construction operations i. Generation of dust, debris,
and waste
ii. Noise, vibration and odours
iii. Water and soil contamination
 Align route to avoid inherently
unstable areas
 Provide proper drainage works to
reduce risk
 Alternative route should be used to
avoid damage to natural habitat.
 Planning of natural transportation
route alignment to avoid unique and
fragile places
 Proper planning of transportation
routes
 Keeping the site clean regularly to
remove debris
 Watering the site from time to time to
control dust
 Regular servicing of equipment to
prevent vibrations
 Install air pollution control
equipment to prevent odour from
bitumen
 Mufflers should be fixed to
equipment to prevent noise.
 Regular servicing of vehicles and
equipment to prevent leakages
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  Avoid accidental spills of lubricants
and fuel through good practices
 Collect and store lubricants in safe
place
iv. Traffic congestion and traffic  Planning times for construction
delay activities to reduce delays
 Putting in place proper traffic
management systems to deal with
delay.
v. Disturbances to local
communities by construction
workers
vi. Spread of bacterial and viral
diseases

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

Construction equipment are very important in highway engineering project. The type of equipment used
depends on the scope of work. In this regard, two technologies are used in the road construction industry.
These are the Labour-based Technology and Equipment-based Technology. In general, in developing
countries, a considerable number of highway engineering projects are executed using a blend of these
technologies.

LABOUR-BASED TECHNOLOGY

This technology involves the use of locally available labour, supported by light equipment, for the
constructing and maintaining of infrastructure of a required standard. The use of labour-based technology
involves the application of labour in a large fraction and supported with light equipment as and when
necessary due to quality and cost reasons. A typical example for the inclusion of light equipment includes
activities such as long distance hauling and high quality surfacing works.

Labour-based technology has successfully been used in many countries, and has been used to construct
and maintain feeder roads, tracks and paths, drainage systems, sewerage and sanitation systems,
irrigation systems, and houses.

Advantages of Labour-based Technology

There are lots advantages associated with the Labour-based Technology in road construction, especially
in developing countries, because of the abundance of local lobour.

 Considering the low-wage levels in developing countries, labour-based technologies are far cheaper
for most construction and maintenance works.
 Labour-based technologies usually provide other benefits over equipment-based methods including
savings in foreign exchange and the creation of employment opportunities.
 The wages of local labour tend to be spent locally, generating further employment in, for
instance, local retail and services businesses.
 Labour-based technology is very appropriate for participative approaches. Communities can
construct and maintain infrastructure themselves, using local labour and resources, with limited
technical assistance. By using local labour in construction, skills are created for maintenance.

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In summary, the advantages of labour-based technology are:

 Creation of employment
 Savings of foreign exchange
 Putting cash in the local economy, followed by the multiplier effects
 Positive distribution effects through wages reaching poorer sections of the population
 Contributing to reduction rural urban migration

Assignment: what are some of the challenges affecting the effective implementation of Labour-based
Technology in the road construction industry in Ghana?

Equipment used in Labour-based Technology

In labour-based road construction hand tools and some pieces of light equipment are used to produce the
same results as heavy bulldozers and graders. It is therefore extremely important to know how to select and
maintain your tools. Below are in-exhaustive list of equipment and tools often used in the road construction
industry.

Figure 7.1: Labour-Technology in Road Construction, using simple tools

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Hoes

The hoe is probably the most useful and widely used hand tool in the world. It is mostly used in agriculture
for tilling virgin land, preparing the soil for planting and for weeding and harvest.

But the hoe is also a very important and useful tool for road workers and in all other kinds of work which
involves excavation.

There are basically two types of hoes. These are the plain and forked hoes. The plain hoe consists of a blade
and a handle. The blade can be fastened to the handle with an eye or a spoke (Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2: Types of Plain Hoes

Forked Hoes

The forked hoe is a special type of hoe. Instead of a blade it has a number of prongs which can penetrate a
cohesive or hard/stony soil easier than a blade.

Figure 7.3: Types of Forked Hoes

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  Using the Hoe

Hoes can be effective in:

 Excavation
 Loading of baskets or trays;
 Spreading.

In excavation, the plain hoe is best for rather soft soils with only little or no stones, while forked hoes are
better on cohesive or hard and more stony soils.

When excavating it is least exhausting to work if one does not have to bend the back all the time. The
handle of the hoe should therefore be around 1 metre long and one should try to stand a bit lower than the
level which is excavated.

Loading with the hoe is not so common but can be done when shovels are not available. It is then
necessary to have a tray or basket which is rather flat. The tray or basket is placed on the ground and soil
or gravel raked onto it with the hoe. The tray is then carried to the place where the soil should be placed,
i.e. in a trailer, wheelbarrow or directly onto a fill.

Maintenance and Repair of Hoe

The hoe needs maintenance to be effective. The cutting edge should preferably be sharpened on a
grinding wheel but a file (for metal) can also be used. The length of the handle should be such that it is
comfortable for most workers to use.

Pickaxes and mattocks

Pickaxes and mattocks are also tools for excavation. They are more specialised for construction work than
hoes and suitable for excavation in more stony soils. For instance, they are used for excavating trenches
for drainage construction (i.e. side drains and culverts).

Many different designs of pickaxes and mattocks are produced. The most common for road works are
shown in Figure 7.4.

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 Figure 7.4: Pickaxe and Mattock

Using pickaxes and mattocks

Pickaxes are used to loosen stony material, mostly in quarries. It is important to stand somewhat lower than
the level which is excavated. This helps to avoid unnecessary strain.

The pickaxe should be aimed at softer material or cracks around the stones or harder material. The handle
is then used as a lever to break loose the stone.

The mattock has its best use in loosening the soil and cutting roots in firm soils. It is also useful in digging
hard, non-cohesive soils, which are difficult to penetrate with a hoe and difficult to move with a forked hoe.

Maintenance and repair

Both tools need sharpening from time to time. The mattock, being less solid, can be sharpened on a grinding
stone, while the pickaxe may need to be re-made if sharpening at the site store proves too difficult.

The handles must be stronger than the ones used for hoes but should be fastened in the same way, using
wedges. As both ends of the pickaxe or mattock are used, the handle has to be straight. It is recommended
to purchase handles with a raised safety grip which prevents the handle slipping out of the workers' hands.

Shovels, Spreaders and Rammers

These tools are used when the soil or gravel has been loosened.

Shovels and spades

The shovel is effective for scooping up material and throwing it either onto a trailer, truck or wheelbarrow
or directly to where the material is needed.

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 Figure 7.5: Shovel and Spade

Contrary to a shovel a spade can also be used for loosening the soil. Spades have stronger blades than
shovels. The blades are curved only in one direction. The handle should be long enough to allow the
worker to throw the soil with little effort. For workers with an average stature a length of 65-70 cm is
recommended.

Using shovels and spades

When the soil is loose, the shovel can be used directly to scoop it up and throw it elsewhere.

With harder soil the spade is more useful, because it can be pushed into the ground without bending the
blade.

To help to push the blade into the ground, the worker can put his foot on the top of the blade and press
down. To be able to do this the worker should have shoes with strong soles. Alternatively, a broad slotted
piece of wood can be fitted onto the top of the blade to allow a barefooted worker to push the blade into the
soil without hurting his foot.

When throwing the soil, the worker should throw it as far as possible towards where the loading or spreading
is taking place.

Maintenance and repair: Shovel and Spade

The blade of a good shovel will not bend or crack but will wear. The edge of the blade will be so worn that
it becomes blunt and it will be difficult to push it into the soil.

The worn blade can sometimes be cut and sharpened so that the shovel can be used again. This cutting
requires very strong tools and should be done in a workshop.

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Spreaders

Spreaders are tools used for spreading out the soil on fills (Figure 7.6). A spreader can be a heavy rake but
the best spreaders are specially made for the purpose. They can be made of sheet metal (5-4 mm thickness)
and have a ridge on the back for crushing lumps of soil. Hoes and shovels are also sometimes used for
spreading but they are less effective and more tiresome to use than a special spreader or heavy rake.

Figure 7.6: Handle of 150 cm long hardwood Spreader

Using the spreader

The spreader is very useful when forming a camber from soil which has been heaped along the centre-line.
The soil should be raked from the centre towards the shoulders and lumps crushed with the back of the
spreader.

Maintenance and repair

Apart from replacing broken handles, a good spreader requires no routine maintenance.

Rammers

The rammer is used for compacting soil and consists of a weight with a handle (Figure 7.7). It can be made
of different kinds of material although rammers which totally consist of wood are usually not heavy enough.

There are two things which determine the effectiveness of a rammer: its weight and the area of the end
which hits the ground. Ideally, the weight should be as large as possible and the area as small as possible.

96
A rammer which can be handled by a worker should therefore have a weight of some 8-10 kg and a diameter
of the bottom end of less than 10 cm.

The handle must be long enough to allow the worker to lift the rammer without bending his back.

Figure 7.7: A typical Rammer

Using the rammer

Rammers should be used in situations when mechanical compaction is difficult or not possible.

The soil should be spread in thin layers (not more than 10-15 cm thick).

A good and even compaction can be achieved if several workers with rammers are working side by side
moving backwards. The pressure from the feet of workers also helps to compact the soil.

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Maintenance and repair

No maintenance or repair should be needed.

Wheelbarrows

The wheelbarrow is one of the most useful and economic forms of transportation over short distances
(usually not exceeding 150 metres).

Wheelbarrows can be of many different types and qualities. A good wheelbarrow should take a big load
(approximately 70 litres) and be easy to balance, push and tip. Unfortunately, many of the wheelbarrows
which are made are small, of poor quality and difficult to push.

A wheelbarrow consists of a body or tray which rests on a chassis with attached handles and a wheel. It
also has a stand (Figure 7.8).

The strongest and most comfortable wheelbarrows have pneumatic rubber wheels and a tray made of 1.6
mm steel sheet. The tray should be reinforced around the rim and attached to the chassis with bolts, nuts
and washers. The clearance between wheel and tray should be minimum 50 mm.

Figure 7.8: A typical Wheel barrow

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Using the wheelbarrow

If the ground is soft or very stony, planks should be laid to provide a smooth running surface for the
wheelbarrows.

The best performance of a number of wheelbarrows is obtained if the hauling route can be made as one-
way runs. This means that one run leads to the dumping place and another from it so that the haulers do not
have to meet on a narrow hauling run.

Maintenance and repair

Wheelbarrows need a lot of maintenance to remain serviceable. Each day all bolts and nuts should be
tightened. If a bolt has been lost it must be replaced before the wheelbarrow is used again.

This means that there must be on the site a supply of spare bolts, nuts, spring washers, spanners and
screwdrivers of the right size.

If the wheels are pneumatic, a pump is also necessary.

N.B: It must be emphasised that, there is no exclusive labour-based technology. There is always a
blend of labour-based and equipment-based technology depending on a given situation.

EQUIPMENT-BASED TECHNOLOGY

It has been clearly established that Labour-based Technology has enormous benefits. However, it should
be noted that labour based technology cannot be used in all situations especially works involving huge
infrastructure. In such instances, the necessary heavy equipment are used, as labour based methods will not
be financially suitable as a replacement.

Nevertheless, labour based technology can still be used for selected construction activities and the
maintenance of the created assets.

Bulldozers

The bulldozer, often called dozer, is largely employed for excavating and moving the earth. Figure 7.9
shows a typical bulldozer. It consists of a blade mounted at the front a tractor. The blade widths may be 2
to 8.5 metres, with heights varying from 0.6 to 2.0 metres.

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 Figure 7.9: A typical bulldozer

The most effective work done by bulldozers is moving earth down-hill for short hauls (distances). They
are also important tools in excavation plant for rapid digging and dumping.

Uses of Bulldozers on a Project

Bulldozers are versatile machines used for the following operations on a project:

 For construction site clearance

 To clear construction site of debris
 To level earth fills
 To clear floors of borrow pits
 To backfill trenches
 To construct temporary roads through difficult terrain

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Excavator and Backhoe Loader

Excavator

The excavator and the back-hoe are two important heavy construction equipment that are used extensively
for excavation in the road construction industry.

An Excavator is basically made up of two (2) parts: a driving base associated a powerful boom arm with
an attachment designed for excavating (Figure 7.10). The operator sits within a small cab connected to the
base and controls the arm.

Excavators are been used in large and small scale constructions. They are used for small housing projects
to do a cut and fill, used in road construction, and also been used in larger sites to excavate, move
construction material, remove construction waste etc.

Uses of Excavator

 Normal grading work and landscaping

 Digging of foundations, holes and trenches
 Demolition of structures, removal of debris
 Dredging of rivers
 Installation of piles in foundations
 Laying of heavy pipes
 Handling of heavy material

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 Figure 7.10: Excavator

Backhoe Loader

The backhoe loader is known as multi-purpose heavy construction equipment in the construction industry.
These backhoe loaders can do several tasks in a short time. Designed to have two attachments, one at the
front (loader) and the other at the back (bucket), backhoe loader can excavate trenches and ditches as well
as load trucks (Figure 7.11).

Backhoe loaders are very common and can be used for a wide variety of tasks:

 construction,
 small demolitions,
 light transportation of building materials,
 powering building equipment,
 digging holes/excavation,
 landscaping,
 breaking asphalt,
 paving roads.

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 Figure 7.11: Back-hole Loader

Grader

A grader is a self-propelled machine which has its blade within the wheel base. The length of the blade is
about 3.5 metres, but its effective length during spreading becomes 2.75 metres. The blade is supported on
a machine framework and is capable of turning, tilting, raising, and lowering.

The function of grading equipment is to bring the earthwork to the desired shape and elevation. Major types
of grading equipment include motor graders and grade trimmers (Figure 2.12). The former is an all-
purpose machine for grading and surface finishing, while the latter is used for heavy construction because
of its higher operating speed.

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 a) Motor grader b) Grade trimmer (left) and Motor Grader (Right)

Figure 2.12: Types of Grading Equipment

The graders are used for a number of purposes:

 For spreading heaped earth into layers

 For maintaining cross-section of an embankment
 For shaping the cross-section of a road during construction

Rollers

The function of compaction equipment is to produce higher density in soil mechanically. The basic forces
used in compaction are static weight, kneading, impact and vibration. The degree of compaction that may
be achieved depends on the properties of soil, its moisture content, the thickness of the soil layer for
compaction and the method of compaction.

Rollers are used in the road construction for the compaction of soils and road macadam (i.e. a mixture of
chippings and bitumen for wearing course construction). There are different types with varying operating
characteristics:

104
  Smooth Wheel Rollers
 Pneumatic Tyred Rollers
 Sheep Foot Rollers

Smooth Wheeled Rollers

Smooth wheeled rollers may have either two axles or three axles. Three axles are very heavy and are useful
for heavy rolling. These rollers are not suitable for road construction. Two axles may be either two wheels
or three wheels (Figure 7.13). The compaction efficiency of smooth wheeled rollers depend on the weight,
width and diameter of wheels.

The smooth wheeled rollers are effective in compacting granular soils such as sand, gravel, and crushed
stone.

Pneumatic Tyred Rollers

They are rollers with rubber wheels (Figure 7.14). They are suitable for compacting non-plastic soils and
silty soils. The layer thickness of soil should be 10-20 cm when compacting by these rollers. They are ideal
for compacting and leveling of asphalt-surface to bring density and stiffness to the material. Furthermore,
when completing chipseal (surface dressing) project pneumatic tyred rollers will set the aggregate in the
soil, without breaking the edges of the rock.

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 Figure 1-14: Pneumatic Tyred Roller

Sheep Foot Rollers

This type of rollers consist of hollow circular steel drum with steel projections in the form of a sheep’s foot
(Figure 7.15). These projections are called tamping feet. They are generally towered by tractors. These
rollers are suitable for cohesive soils (clayey soils). The number of passes of sheep’s foot rollers depends
on the type of soil, moisture, and density desired.

Figure 7.15: Sheep Foot Roller

Dump Trucks or Tipper trucks

These trucks are used for hauling different types of materials over long distances at the construction site.
They are fitted with trolleys at the rear for tilting the bucket when tipping loaded material from the truck
(Figure 7.16).

106
The difference between dump truck and tipper truck lies in the sizes. Dump trucks usually have a larger
steel cargo box (bucket) that primarily hauls road construction or maintenance material. These trucks might
also be called "tipper trucks" by some. But dump trucks typically are classified as those that are primarily
suitable for very heavy duty use often in construction duty.

Dump Truck

Tipper Truck

Figure 7.16: Dump and Tipper Trucks

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Concrete Mixtures
A concrete mixer is a device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and
water to form concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components (Figure
7.17). For smaller volume works, portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made
at the construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens. An alternative
to a machine is mixing concrete by hand. This is usually done in a wheelbarrow or wooden platform. Figures
7.17 to 7.19, show various types of concrete mixtures.

Portable Concrete Mixture

Figure 7.17: Portable Concrete Mixture

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Self-Loading Concrete Mixture
It is a type of concrete mixing equipment that can do loading, mixing, and unloading of concrete.

Figure 7.18: Self-loading Concrete Mixture

Concrete Trucks
Special concrete transport trucks (in-transit mixers) are made to mix concrete and transport it to the
construction site. They can be charged with dry materials and water, with the mixing occurring during
transport. They can also be loaded from a "central mix" plant; with this process the material has already
been mixed prior to loading. The concrete mixing transport truck maintains the material's liquid state
through agitation, or turning of the drum, until delivery.

Figure 7.19: Concrete Mixing Truck

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Paver Finisher

A paver (paver finisher, asphalt finisher, paving machine) is a piece of construction material used to lay
asphalt on roads, bridges, parking lots and other such places. It lays the asphalt flat and provides minor
compaction before it is compacted by a roller.

. Figure 2.20: Paver

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