Gender Differences in Indian Higher Education: A Study

Abstract
Education is the most powerful weapon which is used to change the world says Nelson
Mandela. It plays an important role in technological development and teaches various skills and
values. At present, India faces various issues such terrorism, poverty and gender disparity.
Proper education will eradicate these problems. Higher education is essential as it helps to
develop the social and economic development of the country. The objective of this paper is to
examine the gender disparities in higher education enrollment in India. The data for this research
comes from All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE), from the years from 2011 to 2020.
The primary focus of this study was on yearly enrollment trends, as well as comparisons across
undergraduate and postgraduate programs and disciplines. According to the findings of the study,
male students dominate Indian higher education, particularly in the disciplines of engineering,
agriculture and law. Despite the fact that the Government of India promotes various schemes for
girl students, there is still a gender divide in higher education that favors males.

Keywords: gender disparity; women empowerment; enrollment; higher education; India

Introduction
Higher education is tertiary education that leads to the awarding of an academic degree.
Higher education, also known as post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is
the optional final stage of formal learning after completion of secondary education (Wikipedia,
2020). Higher education is recognized as education beyond the school level and it includes
undergraduate, postgraduate, M.Phil, Ph.D, engineering and medical and other professional
courses. Higher education can be further classified as technical and non-technical education. A
university or a college or an institute is a place of higher education. Students may enroll in
general degree programs such as bachelors in arts, commerce or science, or professional degree
program such as engineering, law or medicine, after passing or completing of the higher
secondary examination, i.e. the standard 12 examination (Kumar,2016).
Higher education has been portrayed as a great equalizer and a powerful tool of upward
social mobility in the pursuit of a more inclusive society. Women’s access to education is likely
to improve as the higher education system is strengthened. Gender imbalance is one of the
biggest challenges Plaguing Indian higher education systems. In order to achieve gender parity
and empower women, India must close the gender gap in educational sector, particularly in
higher education (Mitra, 2015).
Gender disparity is a societal phenomenon that occurs when men and women are not
treated equally (Wikipedia, 2020). According to UNESCO, "poverty, geographical isolation,
minority status, disability, early marriage and pregnancy and gender-based violence" are the
main causes of gender based inequality in education around the world. Female education is
significant since it is multiplier for a nation’s progress. India is ranked 112 th in the overall Global
Gender Gap Index, with two-thirds of the gender gap (66.8%) narrowed. Women’s lives, on the
other hand, are perilous across broad parts of India’s society. Violence, forced marriage and
prejudices in health care continue to be widespread. In terms of gender disparities in education,
the status and trend are improving. From primary to tertiary education, the share of women who
attend school is consistently higher than that of men. But, there is still a significant disparity in
literacy rates: barely two-thirds of women are literate compared with 82% of men. However, in

1
the last decade, the gender gap has narrowed, as women’s literacy rates have climbed (to 66%)
and men’s literacy rates have somewhat declined to 79% (Global Gender Report, 2020).
According to the Sixth Economic Census of 2018 released by the Ministry of Statistics and
Program Implementation, Government of India, women make up 14 of all entrepreneurs, with
the majority working in non-agricultural sectors. Furthermore, only 39% of Indian women are
employed, according to the report. When compared to the rest of the globe, Indian women have
the fewest work opportunities.
Higher education plays a crucial role in enhancing the quality of life of women, who are
the most important resource for national-building. Strengthening the higher education system is
projected to boost women’s access to education, allowing them to pursue careers of their choice
and contribute their full potential to the country (Mitra, 2015). In India, higher education begins
after the 12th grade. A B.A., B.Sc or B.Com pass from an Indian college or university takes three
years to complete. A bachelor’s degree in engineering, on the other hand, would take four years
to complete, while a bachelor’s degree in medical takes five years (plus six months of mandatory
internship). However, bachelor’s degree in law takes six years including three years for any
bachelor’s degree. The average postgraduate course lasts two years (Rami, 2017).
According to the Global Gender Report 2020, there are 132 million girls globally who are
not in school. In India, however, according to the 2011 Census, around 73% of the population
was literate, with males accounting for 81% for males and females for 65%. This is in
comparison to 1981, when the rates were 41%, 53% and 29%. In 1951, the rates were 18%, 27%
and 9%, respectively. One of the key contributors to India's economic prosperity is its better
educational system.
In primary education, only 66% of countries have achieved gender parity. The gender
divide deepens at the secondary level, with 45% of nations achieving gender parity in lower
secondary education and 25% in upper secondary education. There are numerous reasons for
this. Barriers to girls’ education differ by country and community, including poverty, child
marriage and gender-based violence. This research investigates the male and female enrollment
in higher education in India. During the period 2011-2020, the first part examines male and
female enrollment percentages in undergraduate and postgraduate programs. Moreover, the
study looks ahead to future predictions of levels of women enrollment in higher education.
LITERATURE REVIEW
In the post-independence period, commerce education has developed as one of the
technological managerial revolutions. In most universities, commerce has progressed from a
topic to a full-fledged faculty, and it now has a prominent position among academic fields.
Demand for higher education will rise as urbanization and income levels rise. India’s economy is
predicted to grow quickly, and industrialization will necessitate a gross additional workforce of
around 250 million people by 2030. India has the potential to become a worldwide provider of
skilled labor. Given the projected socio-economic situation in 2030, India would require a strong
higher education system capable of delivering on multiple fronts (Mahendrakumar, 2020).
Women’s contributions to medicine have increased significantly during the last 4
decades, although they continue to be underrepresented. Because research production is a key
criterion for advancement, assessing gender differences within the faculty of medicine and across
departments was critical. (Elza Rachid, 2021)

2
 Gender imbalance, according to Mitra (2015), is one of the most significant concerns in
India’s higher education system. India, according to the World Economic Forum, lags behind in
terms of health, education and economic opportunity. It warned that India’s future growth would
be harmed as a result of this lag. The Gender Gap Index Rank and Score of India have been
examined: India was ranked 98th out of 115 countries in 2006 which was again decreased to 101
out of 136 countries in 2013 which is not a good sign for India’s growth.
India has grown into one of the largest systems of higher education in the world. Among
those students enrolled in higher education, about 80 % belong to three disciplines, namely arts
(42 %) , Science (19 %) and Commerce (18 %), and the remaining 20 % are in the professional
courses such as education, engineering and technology, medicine, agriculture, management and
Law (Choudhury, UGC, 2011).
Mun 2015 examined the enrollment and performance of female students in science and
technical Courses offered by various technical colleges in Agartala (Mun , 2015).
The present study mainly focused on Year-wise enrollment trend, comparison between
undergraduate and postgraduate and various disciplines in higher education.
METHODOLOGY
The study is based on secondary data from the All India Survey on Higher Education (the
Ministry of Human Resources and Development, Government of India). The data covered a ten-
year period, 2011-2020 on various streams such as agriculture, commerce, engineering,
management, law, medicine, and science, including undergraduate and postgraduate (Table 1).
MS-Excel was used to analyze the data that was retrieved. Under the unified nomenclature, the
courses that led to an equivalent degree were integrated, taking into account the differences in
the classification of various courses enrolled for higher education by male and female students.
Table 1 – Various streams and its objectives

Stream Definition Objectives

A study of trade and business
activities like the exchange of
Commerce
products and services from producer
to final customer
A science may be a specific branch
Science of science like physics, chemistry,
or biology.
Management is that the act of
obtaining individuals along to
Management
accomplish desired goals using
existing resources effectually
Education associated with the
follow of being a medical expert, as
Medicine well as the initial coaching to
become a physician and extra
coaching thenceforth
Education Prepares students to work as a
To develop the skills required
for applying the concepts and
techniques in the field of
Commerce
To encourage and change
students to develop inquiring
minds and curiosity regarding
science and nature.
To provide them tools and
techniques to be used in the
performance of the managerial
job.
To produce physicians who
are prepared to serve the
fundamental purposes of
medicine.
To develop teachers who are

3

teacher in schools
 To provide quality education
Agricultural education teaches
Agriculture students concerning agriculture,
food and natural resources
professionally equipped with
skills and competencies for
changing technological needs
and global concerns
in Agriculture, Viticulture,
Co-operation, Forestry,
Agricultural Engineering,
Home Science and additional
allied disciplines.

To apply the engineering

Engineering is the application of problem solving process to
Engineering Courses science and Maths to solve solve basic engineering design
problems. and analysis problems.

A law degree is an academic degree

To apply concepts, principles
conferred for studies in law. Such
Law and theories to understand
degrees are generally prepared for
simple business laws.
legal careers.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Higher Education plays a prominent role in the country’s overall growth. Indian higher
education institutes have the responsibility of providing high-quality education to empower the
youth. As shown in the table 2, female enrollment in higher education has increased dramatically
between 2011 and 2020. Nonetheless, female enrollment has consistently remained lower than
that of male. According to the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Index 2020, India’s
overall Gender Gap Rank is 112. There is still room for development in order to reduce the
gender gap.
Table 2 – Enrollments in higher education
Year Female (%) Male (%) Total
2011-2012 11514823 (44.70%) 14243271 (55.30%) 25758094
2012-2013 11938930 (44.98%) 14604229 (55.02%) 26543159
2013-2014 13057003 (45.97%) 15349137 (54.03%) 28406140
2014-2015 13968473 (45.95%) 16431441 (54.05%) 30399914
2015-2016 14220411 (46.23%) 16539469 (53.77%) 30759880
2016-2017 14885387 (47.08%) 16730737 (52.92%) 31616124
2017-2018 15746925 (48.29%) 16863859 (51.71%) 32610784
2018-2019 16436996 (49.17%) 16990324 (50.83%) 33427320
2019-2020 16985264 (49. 5 %) 17264173 (50.5 %) 34249437

As compared to the upsurge in total population, increase in females’ enrolment has been more or
less diffident. This is illustrated in the figure 1below.

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 Enrollment values of Gender
2019-2020

2018-2019

2017-2018

2016-2017

2015-2016

2014-2015

2013-2014

2012-2013

2011-2012

0 5000000 10000000 15000000 20000000 25000000 30000000 35000000 40000000

Total Male Female

Figure 1 Enrollment values of Gender

Commerce education is the area of study that focuses on developing the necessary
information, abilities and attitudes for successful trade, commerce and industry management
(Katre, 2020). It is a platform that allows any common man to undertake various business
activities in a seamless and progressive manner. It has risen to prominence in India’s academic
disciplines due to its substantial ramifications (Anjana Raju, 2018). As shown in the figure 1,
from the 2001 to 2020, there are differences exists in enrollment of male and female students in
commerce courses at UG and PG level. The female enrollment ratio is lower than the male
enrolling rate. Every year, however, the growth in female enrollment is more or less moderate.
Notably, the female enrollments have higher than the male enrollments through the period. The
increased female enrollment is due to the ease with which work options are available. Commerce
education is the backbone of the country’s economic and long-term prosperity. This education
focuses on people’s development (Mahendrakumar, 2020).

5
 Commerce Under Graduate Course Commerce Post Graduate Course

2019-20 Male 51.22 Female 48.78 2019-20 Male 36.68 Female 63.32

2018-19 Male 51.22 48.79 2018-19 Male 36.68 Female 63.32

2017-18 Male 51.22 47.53 2017-18 Male 36.68 Female 63.32

2016-17 Male 51.22 47.53 2016-17 Male 36.68 Female 63.32

Male 36.68 Female 63.32
Year

Male 51.22 46.21 2015-16

Year
2015-16

2014-15 Male 51.22 47.55 2014-15 Male 36.68 Female 63.32

2013-14 Male 51.22 47.67 2013-14 Male 36.68 Female 63.32

2012-13 Male 51.22 47.80 2012-13 Male 36.68 Female 63.32

2011-12 Male 51.22 45.58 2011-12 Male 36.68 Female 63.32

10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00

Enrollment % Enrollment %

Figure 2 : Male – Female enrollment in Higher Education: Commerce Under and Post Graduate
Course Source: All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) (2011- 2020).
Generally speaking, the men and women in India do not attain higher education in the
same numbers. This gender disparity is evident from the data given in the figure 3 for science
faculty enrollment. The female enrollment in science undergraduate courses has been steadily
falling from 2011-2012 to 2014-2015, as shown in the figure 3. However, the proportion
increased slightly from 2015-2016 to 2017-2018, but at a very slow rate.

6
 Science Under Graduate Course Science Post Graduate Course
51.72
2019-20 48.28 63.38
2019-20 36.62
51.00
2018-19 49.00 63.39
2018-19 36.61
48.65
2017-18 51.35 61.24
2017-18 38.76
47.58
2016-17 52.42 60.87
2016-17 39.13
47.13
2015-16 59.69
Year

52.87 2015-16

Year
40.31
49.07
2014-15 50.93 2014-15 55.50
44.50
50.46
2013-14 49.54 2013-14 56.12
43.88
50.39
2012-13 49.61 2012-13 52.90
47.10

50.70
2011-12 49.30 2011-12 51.53
48.47

10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
Enrollment % Enrollment %

Figure 3: Male – Female enrollment in Higher Education: Science Under and Post Graduate
Course

The data in the figure 4 shows that male enrollment in engineering courses is increasing
while female enrollment at the UG level is falling. The majority of girls are interested in
humanities and arts subject, according to many previous studies (Saha 2015). Overall male
enrollment is higher than that of female. It has been argued that engineering and technology
courses are only for men, and that women must overcome these restrictions. An option has to be
given for women to choose their academic domain. Several studies have discovered that
professional education, such as engineering and technology is dominated by men, whereas
medicine and education are dominated by women (Choudhry 2016; Ghuman, Singh & Brar
2009; Salim, 2008). In the public sphere, engineering is associated with macho, competitive,
objective and impersonal attributes that are at contrast with our perceptions of women.
Postgraduate engineering courses depicts that male enrolment is high as compared to male
enrolment.

7
 Engineering Under- Graduate Engineering Post- Graduate Course
Course
29.22
2019-20 35.19
70.78 2019-20
64.81

28.88
2018-19 71.12 37.06
2018-19
62.94
28.60 37.37
2017-18 71.40 2017-18
62.63
28.36
2016-17 38.29
71.64 2016-17
61.71
27.92
2015-16 39.09
Year

72.08 2015-16
60.91

Year
32.35
2014-15 40.10
67.65 59.90
2014-15

31.89
2013-14 38.73
68.11
2013-14
61.27
30.86
2012-13 36.17
69.14
2012-13
63.83
31.00
2011-12 34.85
69.00
2011-12
65.15
10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00
10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
Enrollment %
Enrollment %

Figure 4: Male – Female enrollment in Higher Education: Engineering Under and Post
Graduate Course
In India, female students are more likely to choose medicine. It is abundantly obvious
from the figure 5 that female students have a higher enrollment than male students. Female may
pick this course for a variety of reasons. The key reason is that the majority of female students
pick nursing as a career path since it offers more work prospects around the world. Apart from
nursing, the majority of female students choose courses such as lab technician, psychology,
public health, dental studies, nutrition, animal and veterinary studies.

8
 Medicine Under- Graduate Course Medicine Post Graduate Course
70.00 70.00

60.00 60.00

50.00
50.00

Enrollment %
Enrollment %

40.00
40.00

30.00
30.00

20.00
20.00

10.00

20 1 6

20 1 8

0
20 1 2

20 1 3

20 1 4

20 15

20 17

20 19
10.00

-2
-

-
-

-
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19
20
-12 -13 -14 -15 -16 -17 -18 -19 -20

Figure 5: Male – Female enrollment in Higher Education: Medicine Under and Post - Graduate
Course
Male students enrolled in the management program in greater numbers than female
students. Management education is the practice and study of several skills that are critical to the
advancement of the business sector. In the current scenario, management education plays a vital
role due to the vastness and growth of technology. In the sphere of Indian entrepreneurship and
management, management education plays a significant role. It has experience continual
expansion since its inception, with a large number of students enrolled and management
educations institutions (Guntur Anjana Raju, 2018).

9
 Management Under- Graduate Course

37.46 Management Post- Graduate Course

2019-20 62.54
2019-20 42.42
37.66 57.58
2018-19 62.34
2018-19 41.48
58.52
2017-18 38.24
61.76 39.00
2017-18 61.00
2016-17 37.61
62.39 2016-17 39.68
60.32
2015-16 37.33 37.52
62.67 2015-16
Year

62.48

Year
2014-15 40.58 2014-15 37.31
59.42 62.69

40.19 2013-14 36.53

2013-14 59.81 63.47

2012-13 35.94
2012-13 40.44 64.06
59.56
2011-12 33.65
39.21 66.35
2011-12 60.79
10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
Enrollment %
Enrollment %

Figure 5: Male – Female enrollment in Higher Education: Management Under and Post -
Graduate Course

Male enrollment in professional courses such as undergraduate law is increasing as

compared to female enrollment; however female enrollment in postgraduate law is high in 2018-
2019 as compared to previous years. However, the female enrollment in postgraduate Law
course has decreased, particularly in the years 2019 – 2020.

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 Law Under -Graduate Course 70.00
Law Post -Graduate Course
70.00

69.43 67.44 68.55 67.41

67.10 67.26 66.87 60.00
60.00 66.21
61.58 60.16
51.3566.35
58.6357.33
57.85
50.00 50.00 55.51
55.75 54.74
48.65
42.15

Enrollment %
Enrollment %

40.00 45.26
40.00
44.25
44.49
41.3742.67
33.65 38.42 39.84
30.00 32.56
30.5732.90 32.74 30.00 33.79
31.45 32.59 33.13

20.00
20.00

10.00
2011- 2012- 2013- 2014- 2015- 2016- 2017- 2018- 2019- 10.00
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20
Year Year

Figure 6: Male – Female enrollment in Higher Education: Law Under and Post -Graduate
Course

Enrollment among females is higher than that of males. This is especially true in the field
of education. The greatest number is around 66% in both undergraduate and postgraduate
education courses (see Figure 7). Female students choose this course because they believe
teaching is one of the professions that allow them to work between the hours of 8 am to 4 pm.
This will enable them to look after their families after work hours.

11
 Education Under -Graduate Course Education Post -Graduate Course

35.67 64.33 2019-20 35.15 64.85

2019-20

35.26 64.74 2018-19 37.57 62.43

2018-19

35.37 64.63 2017-18 38.06 61.94

2017-18
2016-17 36.06 63.94
2016-17 35.88 64.12
36.49 63.51

Year
37.72 2015-16
Year

2015-16 62.28

2014-15 33.04 66.96

2014-15 34.69 65.31
2013-14 38.96 61.04
2013-14 33.71 66.29
2012-13 37.04 62.96
2012-13 37.04 62.96
2011-12 39.78 60.22
2011-12 37.17 62.83
10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
Enrollment %
Enrollment %

Figure 7: Male – Female enrollment in Higher Education: Education Under and Post -Graduate
Course

From the figure 8, it can be seen that male enrollment in agricultural courses has been
higher than female enrollment during the last 10 years. The highest percentage of male
enrollment is in postgraduate studies (75%), whereas the percentage in undergraduate studies is
slightly lower.

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 Agriculture Under-Graduate Course
80.81 80.09 77.02 76.65 73.62 72.67 72.19 70.63 70.98
70.00

60.00

50.00
Enrollment %

40.00 Male
27.81 29.37 29.02 Female
27.33
30.00 26.38
22.98 23.35
19.91
19.19
20.00

10.00
2011- 2012- 2013- 2014- 2015- 2016- 2017- 2018- 2019 -
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Year

Agriculture Post -Graduate Course

74.59 71.64 74.43 70.85
67.71 66.55
70.00 64.82
63.10 61.91

60.00

50.00
Enrollment %

36.90 38.09
40.00 35.18 Male
32.29 33.45 Female
28.36 29.15
30.00 25.41 25.57

20.00

10.00
2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20

Year

Figure 8 : Male – Female enrollment in Higher Education: Agriculture Under and Post -
Graduate Course

In the present study we have provided discipline wise percentage of male and female
enrollment for ten years from 2011-2020. From this data, it is evident that which discipline has
got highest enrollment. After analyzing the data, it is found that the percentage of female

13
students enrollment has been increasing in Education, Science and Medicine disciplines than
male students. However, there is a significant decrease of female students in the enrollment in
Commerce, Engineering and Technology, Management and Law disciplines. Figure 1, Figure 2,
Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 8 depict the enrollment ratio for
Commerce, Science, Engineering &Technology, Education, Management, Medicine and Law
disciplines.
The important reason is that there are lot of discrimination in education based on numerous
social factors like region, area, caste, sex, class, disabilities etc. and this a great snag in the
enrolment of women. In the current scenario, lack of educational opportunities for women and
the way families look at girls’ education in several communities and thus sending them to be
educated is contrary to the constitution of India. Gender disparity is also a huge problem and
leads to impediment of women empowerment not only in education but also in the society and
employment. (Aneja 2015).

CONCLUSION
It is common knowledge that higher education is essential for women. Higher education
is the most important weapon for social and economic development in society. According to this
study, women’s enrollment in some disciplines like engineering, law and agriculture has
decreased between 2011 and 2020. Despite the fact that the government has established different
programs to encourage more women to enroll, there is still a gender gap. The goal remains the
same to succeed. As a result, India must close the gender gap in education, particularly in higher
education, in order to achieve gender equality and women’s empowerment.

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(https://www.unicef.org/education/girls-education)
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_inequality
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_India
Conflict of Interest:
The author has no conflict of interest.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.

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