1641398216 518432 2016 线性代数讲义中科院

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3v 27v 3 27
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s √ s √ s √ s √
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x1 = − , x2 = ε − ε2 ,
2 2 2 2
s √ s √
2 3 −q + D 3 q + D
x3 = ε −ε .
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x − 2y = −1,
(a)
2x + y = 3;
x − 2y = 2,
(b)
−3x + 6y = −6;
2x − 3y = 1,
(c)
−4x + 6y = 3.
) (a) ò(§2)−2×(§1), 5y = 5"¤±y = 1"òÙ\§1x = 1"Ï
d§|(a)k)x = y = 1; =üû:"
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1 1 2 2 n n
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 ,
(∗)
············
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm .
AÛþ§·´¦nmm¥²¡"ùp§·#Nm 6= n"§|(∗)
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1 1 2 2 n n 1 1 2 2 n n
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · a1n xn = b1 ,

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?¿)´§|
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,
(b)
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~2 )5§|
2x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 1,
4x1 + 2x2 + 5x3 = 4,
2x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 5.
) ò(§2)−2×(§1)9ò(§3)−(§1)§
2x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 1,
4x2 − x3 = 2,
2x2 − x3 = 4.
Ùg§ò(§2)−2×(§3)§
2x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 1,
x3 = −6,
2x2 − x3 = 4.
éN§2Ú§3gS§·k
2x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 1,
2x2 − x3 = 4,
x3 = −6.
6
ò(§1)−3×(§3)9ò(§2)+(§3)§
2x1 − x2 = 19,
2x2 = −2,
x3 = −6.
ò§2¦±1/2,
2x1 − x2 = 19,
x2 = −1,
x3 = −6.
r(§1)+(§2)§·k
2x1 = 18,
x2 = −1,
x3 = −6.
ò§1¦±1/2,
x1 = 9,
x2 = −1,
x3 = −6.
¤±·)´(9, −1, −6)"
þãL§±^L/ª{z"·¡L
 
a11 a12 ··· a1n

 a21 a22 ··· a2n 

 .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn
5§|(∗)XêÝ
(coefficient matrix) ¡L
 
a11 a12 ··· a1n b1

 a21 a22 ··· a2n b2 

 .. .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn bm
§O2Ý
(augmented matrix)"5§|O2Ý
¹
§¤k&
E"éA5§|ÐC§·kµ
Ý
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¥ü1gS¶
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¥1~ê\,1¶
(III) òÝ
¥1¦±"~ê"
e¡·Ô2Ý
5{z~2¦)L§"Äk§§|O2Ý
´
 
2 −1 3 1
 4 2 5 4 
2 1 2 5
7
ò(12)−2×(11)9ò(13)−(11)§
 
2 −1 3 1
 0 4 −1 2 
0 2 −1 4
Ùg§ò(12)−2×(13)§
 
2 −1 3 1
 0 0 1 −6 
0 2 −1 4
éN12Ú13gS§·k
 
2 −1 3 1
 0 2 −1 4 
0 0 1 −6
ò(11)−3×(13)9ò(12)+(13)§
 
2 −1 0 19
 0 2 0 −2 
0 0 1 −6
ò12¦±1/2,  
2 −1 0 19
 0 1 0 −1 
0 0 1 −6
r(11)+(12)§·k  
2 0 0 18
 0 1 0 −1 
0 0 1 −6
ò11¦±1/2,  
1 0 0 9
 0 1 0 −1  ,
0 0 1 −6
§éA5§|´
x1 = 9,
x2 = −1,
x3 = −6.
¤±·)´(9, −1, −6)"
l¥±wÑ, )5§|é§O2Ý
1ÐC=.
~3 )5§|
x2 − 4x3 = 8,
2x1 − 3x2 + 2x3 = 1,
5x1 − 8x2 + 7x3 = 1.
8
) §|O2Ý
´
 
0 1 −4 8
 2 −3 2 1 
5 −8 7 1
éN11Ú12gS§·k
 
2 −3 2 1
 0 1 −4 8 
5 −8 7 1
ò(13)−(5/2)×(11)§  
2 −3 2 1
 0 1 −4 8 
0 −1/2 2 −3/2
2ò(13)+(1/2)×(12)§·k
 
2 −3 2 1
 0 1 −4 8 ,
0 0 0 5/2
§¤éA5§|´
2x1 − 3x2 + 2x3 = 1,
x2 − 4x3 = 8,
0 = 5/2.
¤±§§|Ã)"
dd§XJ3éO2Ý
1ÐC¥§k1(0,...,0,b)Ñy b 6= 0§@o
§|Ã)"
~4 )5§|
3x2 − 6x3 + 6x4 + 4x5 = −5,
3x1 − 7x2 + 8x3 − 5x4 + 8x5 = 9,
3x1 − 9x2 + 12x3 − 9x4 + 6x5 = 15.
) §|O2Ý
´
 
0 3 −6 6 4 −5
 3 −7 8 −5 8 9 
3 −9 12 −9 6 15
é13¦±1/3§  
0 3 −6 6 4 −5
 3 −7 8 −5 8 9 
1 −3 4 −3 2 5
9
éN11Ú13gS§·k
 
1 −3 4 −3 2 5
 3 −7 8 −5 8 9 
0 3 −6 6 4 −5
ò(12)−3×(11)§  
1 −3 4 −3 2 5
 0 2 −4 4 2 −6 
0 3 −6 6 4 −5
é12¦±1/2§  
1 −3 4 −3 2 5
 0 1 −2 2 1 −3 
0 3 −6 6 4 −5
ò(13)−3×(12)§  
1 −3 4 −3 2 5
 0 1 −2 2 1 −3 
0 0 0 0 1 4
ùÝ
®¤F/§§Ø¹1(0, 0, 0, 0, 0, b)9b 6= 0"¤±§|Ń"
ò(11)−2×(13)9ò(12)−(13)§
 
1 −3 4 −3 0 −3
 0 1 −2 2 0 −7 
0 0 0 0 1 4
2ò(11)+3×(12)§·k
 
1 0 −2 3 0 −24
 0 1 −2 2 0 −7  ,
0 0 0 0 1 4
§¤éA5§|´
x1 − 2x3 + 3x4 = −24,
x2 − 2x3 + 2x4 = −7,
x5 = 4.
Ïd§
x1 = −24 + 2x3 − 3x4 ,
x2 = −7 + 2x3 − 2x4 ,
x5 = 4.
¤±§|)´
(−24 + 2x3 − 3x4 , −7 + 2x3 − 2x4 , x3 , x4 , 4), Ù¥ x , x ´gdCþ"
3 4
10
d±þ~f§é5§|(∗)§·^ÐCo´±ò§z{¤F
/(echelon form)
ā11 x1 + · · · +ā1n xn = b̄1 ,
ā2k xk + · · · +ā2n xn = b̄2 ,
ā3l xl + · · · +ā3n xn = b̄3 ,
··· ···
ārs xs + · · · +ārn xn = b̄r , (∗∗)
0 = b̄r+1 ,
.. .. ..
. . .
0 = b̄m ,
Ù¥, ā ā ā · · · ā 6= 0, 1 < k < l < · · · < s.

(Ø:
11 2k 3l rs
(1) 5§|(∗)Ń¿©7^´b̄ = · · · = b̄ = 0¶
(2) 5§|(∗)´(½¿©7^´r = nb̄ = · · · = b̄ = 0"
r+1 m
(3) 5§|(∗)kÃ¡õ)¿©7^´r < nb̄ = · · · = b̄ = 0"

r+1 m
r+1 m
13ù
b̄ = · · · = b̄ = 0§·¡x , x , x , · · · , x Ìê§ Ù{ê(XJ
3{)§gdCþ"
r+1 m 1 k l s
NF/§|¥XJk"ÌêXê1§K¡´
{F/"~X§·þg!{F/§|kµ
x1 = 9,
x2 = −1,
x3 = −6
Ú
x1 −2x3 + 3x4 = −24,
x2 −2x3 + 2x4 = −7,
x5 = 4.
±y²üN5§|d¿©7^´§±ÏLÐCz¤Ó
{F/§|"duÐC´_§üN5§|d¿©
7^´^ÐCò§|z,"
5§|
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = 0,
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = 0,
(∗ ∗ ∗)
············
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = 0
11
àg5§|"w,§(0, ..., 0)´§)"§oŃ"¯¢þ§§
F/(∗∗)¥§b̄ = · · · = b̄ = 0. ¤±§§k")¿©7^´r < n"
§|(∗ ∗ ∗)§|(∗)éAàg5§|"
1 m
¯Kµ
(1) N5§|´(½¿©7^´§éAàg5§|k
")º
(2) àg5§|XJk")§@o§kÃ¡õ)º
3 $1ª
Ä5§|
a11 x1 + a12 x2 = b1 ,
(?)
a21 x1 + a22 x2 = b2 .
a 11 6= 0 "ò(§2)−a −1
21 a11 ×(§1)§·k
a11 x1 + a12 x2 = b1 ,
−1
(a22 − a12 a21 a11 )x2 = b2 − b1 a21 a−1
11 .
§|k)¿©7^´
a22 − a12 a21 a−1
11 6= 0 ∼ a11 a22 − a12 a21 6= 0.
XJa 21 ·ÓíÑ§|k)¿©7^´
6= 0,
a12 a21 − a11 a22 6= 0.
·¡
a11 a12

= a11 a22 − a12 a21 (??)
a21 a22
Ý

a11 a12
a21 a22
1ª"¤±§±þ5§|(?)k)¿©7^´ÙXêÝ
1
ª(??)Ø""
·y3b1ª(??)Ø""é§|(?)§·òa ×(§1)−a ×(§2)

22 12

b1 a12

b2 a22
(a11 a22 − a12 a21 )x1 = b1 a22 − b2 a12 =⇒ x1 = .
a11 a12
a21 a22
aq/§·
a11

b1
a21 b2
x2 = .
a11 a12
a21 a22
12
~5 ^1ª)5§|
2x1 + x2 = 3,
x1 + 2x2 = 4.
) ·O1ª
2 1
= 2 × 2 − 1 × 1 = 3,
1 2

3 1
= 3 × 2 − 1 × 4 = 2,
4 2

2 3
= 2 × 4 − 3 × 1 = 5.
1 4
¤±§§|)´µ 2 5
x1 = , x2 = .
3 3
e¡Än5§|
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1 ,
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2 , (†)
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3 .
a 11 "ò(§2)−a
6= 0 −1
21 a11 ×( §1)Ú(§3)−a −1
31 a11 ×( §1)§·k
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1 ,
(a22 − a12 a21 a−1
11 )x 2 + (a 23 − a a a −1
13 21 11 )x 3 = b2 − b1 a21 a−1
11 ,
−1 −1 −1
(a32 − a12 a31 a11 )x2 + (a33 − a13 a31 a11 )x3 = b3 − b1 a31 a11 .
ò§2Ú§3¦±a § 11
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1 ,

(a11 a22 − a12 a21 )x2 + (a11 a23 − a13 a21 )x3 = a11 b2 − b1 a21 , (††)
(a11 a32 − a12 a31 )x2 + (a11 a33 − a13 a31 )x3 = a11 b3 − b1 a31 .
¤±§§|k)¿©7^´dþã§2Ú§3¤§|k
)"âc¡(J§§d

a11 a22 − a12 a21 a11 a23 − a13 a21

a11 a32 − a12 a31 a11 a33 − a13 a31
= (a11 a22 − a12 a21 )(a11 a33 − a13 a31 ) − (a11 a23 − a13 a21 )(a11 a32 − a12 a31 ) 6= 0.
5¿
(a11 a22 − a12 a21 )(a11 a33 − a13 a31 ) − (a11 a23 − a13 a21 )(a11 a32 − a12 a31 )
= a11 a22 a11 a33 − a11 a22 a13 a31 − a12 a21 a11 a33 + a12 a21 a13 a31
−a11 a23 a 11 a32 + a11 a23 a12 a 31 + a13 a21 a11 a32 − a13 a21 a12 a31

a22 a23 a12 a13 a12 a13
= a11 a11 − a21
a32 a33 + a31 a22 a23 .

a32 a33
13
·¡

a11 a12 a13
a22 a23 a12 a13 a12 a13
a32 a33 − a21 a32 a33 + a31 a22 a23
a21 a22 a23 = a11

a31 a32 a33
(† † †)
= a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a21 a32 a13 − a13 a22 a31 − a12 a21 a33 − a23 a32 a11
Ý
 
a11 a12 a13
 a21 a22 a23 
a31 a32 a33
1ª"¤±§±þn5§|(†)k)¿©7^´ÙXêÝ
1
ª(† † †)Ø""
XÓþ¡O

a11 a12 a13
a11 a22 − a12 a21 a11 a23 − a13 a21
= a11 a21 a22 a23 ,
a11 a32 − a12 a31 a11 a33 − a13 a31
a31 a32 a33
·k

a11 b2 − b1 a21 a11 a23 − a13 a21

a11 b1 a13

a11 b3 − b1 a31 a11 a33 − a13 a31
= a11
a21 b2 a23 ,

a31 b3 a33

a11 a22 − a12 a21 a11 b2 − b1 a21

a11 a12 b1

a11 a32 − a12 a31 a11 b3 − b1 a31
= a11
a21 a22 b2 .
a31 a32 b3
¤±§§|(††)¥§2Ú§3)´

a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1

a21 b2 a23 a21 a22 b2

a31 b3 a33 a31 a32 b3
x2 = , x3 = .
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23

a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
ò§X§|(††)¥§1§·

b1 a12 a13

b2 a22 a23

b3 a32 a33
x1 = .
a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23

a31 a32 a33
XJa 6= 0Úa 6= 0§·aq/Ó(J"

þã)úª¡.%(Cramer)úª"
21 31
14
~6 ^.%úª)5§|
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 3,
3x1 − x2 − 3x3 = −1
2x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 4.
) ·O1ª

1 2 1
−1 −3 2 1 2 1
3 −1 −3 = − 3
−1 −3 = 8 − 3 · (−1) + 2 · (−5) = 1,
+ 2
3 1 3 1
2 3 1

3 2 1
−1 −3 2 1 2 1
−1 −1 −3 = 3
−1 −3 = 3 · 8 − 1 + 4 · (−5) = 3,
+ + 4
3 1 3 1
4 3 1

1 3 1

3 −1 −3 = −1 −3
−3
3 1
+2
3 1
= 11 − 3 · (−1) + 2 · (−8) = −2,

2
4 1 4 1 −1 −3
4 1

1 2 3
3 −1 −1 = −1 −1 − 3 2 3 + 2 2 3

3 4 3 4 −1 −1 = −1 − 3 · (−1) + 2 = 4.
2 3 4
â.%úª
x1 = 3, x2 = −2, x3 = 4.
4 8ÜN
8Ü´
éN§ ù
é¡8Ü"X§·k8ÜµS =
{−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, S =óêN"km1nÝ
m × nÝ
1
"·Ï~^M (R)L«m × n¢êÝ

N", §Z´êNÚQ´k
2
nêN"Ü6þB§·^∅L«Ø¹?Û8Ü§=8"
m×n
14ù
8Ümk
$"ü8ÜSÚT 8´8Ü
T = {x | x ∈ S x ∈ T }.
\
S
~X§éþã8ÜS ÚS , ·k 1 2
\
S1 S2 = {2, 4}.
15
ü8ÜSÚT ¿8´8Ü
S
[
T = {x | x ∈ S ½ x ∈ T }.
~X§ [
S1 S2 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 3, 2n | n ∈ N}.
XJ8ÜT ¥Ñ´,8ÜS¥§·¡T Sf8§P

¤T ⊂ S"~X§þãS Ńf8"8∅´?¿8Üf8"XJT S
f8T 6= S§·¡T Sýf8"
2
Ún2 8Ü¿÷v©Æµ
\ [ \ [ \
R (S T ) = (R S) (R T ),
[ [ \ [ \
R (S
T ) = (R S) (R T ).
y ² w,§ T
"XJ
S
T S T
§@o
R (S T ) ⊃ (R S) (R T )
T S
x ∈ R (S T ) x ∈
S
R x∈S T"¤± ½ "ù
x∈S x∈T ½ = T
" T T S T
x ∈ R S x ∈ R T , x ∈ (R S) (R T )
Ïd§ T S
"1ª¤á"
T S T
R (S T ) ⊂ (R S) (R T )
w,§ S T
"b
S T S
R (S T ) ⊂ (R S) (R T ) "@o§ S T S
x ∈ (R S) (R T ) x ∈
S

R S x∈R T"XJ§ §g,
S
x∈R "XJ §@o S T
x ∈ R (S T ) x 6∈ R x∈S x∈
T§= "¤±§
T
x∈S T "Ïd§
S T
x ∈ R (S T ) " S T S T S
R (S T ) ⊃ (R S) (R T )
1ª¤á" 2
·±½Â8ÜST µ
S \ T = {x ∈ S | x 6∈ T }.
éS Ú óêN§S
= {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} S2 = \ S2 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 3} S \
u óêN"
1 1 2
S1 = 5
Ún3 é8ÜR, SÚT §eª¤áµ

[ \
R \ (S T ) = (R \ S) (R \ T ),
\ [
R \ (S T ) = (R \ S) (R \ T ).
y ²T ·y1ª"w,§ "XJ§x ∈
T S
R \ (S T ) ⊃ (R \ S) (R \ T )
R \ (S T ), x ∈ Rx 6∈ S T "x ∈ S §·7kx 6∈ T "¤±§x 6∈ S ½x 6∈ T §
T
=x ∈S R \ S½x ∈ R \ T "Ïd§x ∈ (R \ S) S(R \ T ), d/R \ (S T T ) ⊂

(R \ S) (R \ T )"1ª¤á" 2
16
XJS´8ÜX f8§·¡X\SS3¥X Ö8§PC S"AO/§C XX =
∅ÚC ∅ = X "XJS ÚT ´8ÜX f8§@odÚn3
X
[ \ \ [
CX (S T ) = CX S CX T, CX (S T ) = CX S CX T.
ü8ÜX ÚY (kÈ(Cartesian product):

X × Y = {(x, y) | x ∈ X, y ∈ Y }.
N´wÑ
[ [ \ \
X × (Y Z) = (X × Y ) (X × Z), X × (Y Z) = (X × Y ) (X × Z).
XJX ´k8Ü§·^|X|L«X ¥ê"SÚT ´ü

k8§@o [ \
|S T | = |S| + |T | − |S T |.
éuk8S , S 1 2 S3
[ [
|S1 S2 S3 |
[ [ \
= |S1 S2 | + |S3 | − |(S1 S2 ) S3 |
\ \ \ [
= |S1 | + |S2 | + |S3 | − |S1 S2 | − |(S1
(S2 S3 )| S3 )
\ \ \ \ \
= |S1 | + |S2 | + |S3 | − |S1 S2 | − (|S1 S3 | + |S2 S3 | − |S1 S2 S3 |)
\ \ \ \ \
= |S1 | + |S2 | + |S3 | − |S1 S2 | − |S1 S3 | − |S2 S3 | + |S1 S2 S3 |.
l8ÜX 8ÜY N(map)f ´ùéA{K: ?X x§Ò

éAY f (x)"ùpX ¡f ½Â(domain)§ Y ¡f (range)"X
JX = Y §·¡f X þC(transformation)"üN7^
´§kÓ½ÂÚ"~X§lZNNx 7→ x + 1ÚNNN 2
x 7→ x + 1´ØÓ"
2
8Ü
{f (x) | x ∈ X}
Nf "éy ∈ Y §·¡8Ü

f −1 (y) = {x ∈ X | f (x) = y}
y(inverse image)"XJy 6∈ f (X)§@of −1

(y) = ∅ "w,§éY ¥üØÓ
y Úy §·k
1 2
\
f −1 (y1 ) f −1 (y2 ) = ∅. (∗)
17
XJSÝ f8§·½Â
[
f −1 (S) = f −1 (y).
y∈S
SÚT Y üf8"|^ª(*)±y²
[ [ \ \
f −1 (S T ) = f −1 (S) f −1 (T ), f −1 (S T ) = f −1 (S) f −1 (T ),
f −1 (S \ T ) = f −1 (S) \ f −1 (T ).
·½ÂNf : X → Y Úg : Y → Z ¦Ègf : X → Z
(gf )(x) = g(f (x)).
éuNf : X → Y, g : Y → Z Úh : Z → R§·k
[(hg)f ](x) = (hg)(f (x)) = h(g(f (x))) = h[(gf )(x)] = [h(gf )](x), x ∈ X.
¤±(ÜÆ
(hg)f = [h(gf )
¤á"
Nx 7→ xX ðN(C)§Pe "éuNf : X → Y §·k X
eY f = f = f eX .
Nf : X → Y ¡ü(injection)XJé?¿üØÓx , x ∈ X §Ñkf (x ) 6=

f (x )"XJf (X) = Y §·¡f ÷"f Q´üq´÷§·¡§V
1 2 1
(bijection)½(1-1)N"
2
Ng : Y → X ¡Nf : X → Y _(m_)§XJgf = e (f g = e )" X Y
Ún4 XJNf : X → Y k_(m_)§@o§§´ü(÷)"

y² f k_g"XJx , x ∈ X f (x ) = f (x )§@o§
1 2 1 2
x1 = eX (x1 ) = (gf )(x1 ) = g(f (x1 )) = g(f (x2 )) = (gf )(x2 ) = eX (x2 ) = x2 .
¤±§f ´ü"
f km_h"@o§h(Y ) ⊂ X "
Y = eY (Y ) = (f h)(Y ) = f (h(Y )) ⊂ f (X) ⊂ Y.
ÏdY = f (X)§=f ´÷" 2
18
15ù
Nf : X → Y ¡_(invertible)XJkNg : Y → X ¦gf =
eX Úf g = e "ùgf _(inverse)"XJg Úg Ñ´f _§·k
Y 1 2
g1 = g1 eY = g1 (f g2 ) = (g1 f )g2 = eX g2 = g2 .
¤±§_Nf k_§Pf " −1
½n5 Nf : X → Y ´_¿©7^´§´V"

y ² âÚn4§7¤á"f ´V"du§´÷§é?¿y ∈ Y §
3x ∈ X ¦f (x ) = y"qdu§´ü§ùx ´"ùg : y 7→ x Ñ
lY X N" f (x ) = y¤y = f (g(y)) = (f g)(y)§=f g = e ",¡§

y y y y
é?¿x ∈ X §
y Y
f [(gf )(x)] = f [g(f (x))] = (f g)[f (x)] = f (x).
du§f ´ü§·k(gf )(x) = x§=gf = e "¤±f _" 2 X
½n6 XJNf : X → Y Úg : Y → Z _§@ogf _(gf ) −1

= f −1 g −1 .
y² â½Â§
(f −1 g −1 )(gf ) = [(f −1 g −1 )g]f = [f −1 (g −1 g)]f = [f −1 eY ]f = f −1 f = eX ,
(gf )(f −1 g −1 ) = g[f (f −1 g −1 )] = g[(f f −1 )g −1 ] = g[eY g −1 ] = gg −1 = eZ . 2
Ún7 X ´k8f : X → X Ć"XJf ´ü½÷§K§´

V"
y² XJf Ø´ü§@o|f (X)| < |X|"Ïd§÷7´ü"XJf ´ü§
@o|f (X)| = |X|"duf (X) ⊂ X §·kf (X) = X " 2
8ÜX ê8§XJ3Vσ : N → X "XJ´ù§·Px =
σ(n)"@o§X = {x , x , ..., x , ...}ü¤è"
n
½Â
1 2 n
σ(2i) = i, σ(2i − 1) = 1 − i, i ∈ N.
@o§σ´lNZV"ê8Z´ê"
Ún8 ê8X ?¿Ãf8D´ê"
19
y ² 3Vσ : N → X "PD 0
= σ −1 (D) ⊂ N "òD Uüè§
0
=D = {k , k , ...k , ...}¿
0
1 2 n
k1 < k2 < · < kn < kn+1 < · · · .
½Â
σ 0 (i) = σ(ki ), i ∈ N.
@o§σ ´lNDV" 2
0
Ún9 XJf ´lê8X Ã8Y ÷§@oY ´ê8"

y² é?¿y ∈ Y §·À½x ∈ f (y)"@o§D = {x | y ∈ Y }´X Ã −1
f8D"âÚn8§3Vσ : N → D"u´f σ ´lNY V" 2

y y
0 0
Ún10 XJX ÚY ´ê8§KX × Y ´ê8"

y² 3Vσ : N → X Úσ : N → Y "½Â
1 2
σ3 [(i, j)] = (σ1 (i), σ2 (j)), i, j ∈ N.
@o§σ ´lN × NX × Y V"

½Â
3
σ4 [(i, j)] = 2i 3j , i, j ∈ N.
XJki , i , j , j ∈ N¦i < i ¿2 3 = 2 3 §@o3 = 2 3 "§>

i1 j1 i2 j2 j1 i2 −i1 j2
´Ûê§ m>´óê"gñ"¤±§σ ´lN × NNü"Ïdσ (N ×

1 2 1 2 1 2
N)ŃÃf8"L3Vσ : N → σ (N × N)"5¿σ ´lN × Nσ (N × N)

4 4
V"ùσ σ σ lNX × Y V" 2

5 4 4 4
−1 −1
3 4 5
Ún10`§Z × N´ê8"5¿N
n
ϕ : (n, m) 7→ , n ∈ Z, m ∈ N,
m
´lZ × Nknê8Q÷"âÚn9§Q´ê8"
XJü8Üm3V§·@§kÓõ"ék8Ü5`§
Ùýf8êu§ê"Ã8Ü5`§Ùýf8
ê±u§ê"XN´Zýf8§§kÓõ"
5 d'XÚûN
½ü8ÜX ÚY §?¿f8ω ⊂ X × Y X ÚY m'X"X
JX = Y §K{¡X þ'X"XJ(x, y) ∈ ω§·¡xyk'Xω§P
xωy"
20
~X§¢êm'X´d²¡R þ ux = yþ:I8Üω 2
Ñ"¯¢þ§XJa, b ∈ R§Ka < b¿©7^´(a, b) ∈ ω"

X ´k8ω´X þ'X"·^²¡þØÓ:5L«¥Ø
Ó"XJ(x , x ) ∈ ω§·^3x Þ3x lL«(x , x )"ù·Ò
ãØ¥½ã(directed graph ½digraph)"¤±k8þ'Xã
1 2 2 1 1 2
Ø¥½ã1-1éA"~X§X = {x , x , x , x }§ 1 2 3 4
ω = {(x1 , x2 ), (x2 , x1 ), (x3 , x1 ), (x2 , x3 ), (x4 , x2 ), (x4 , x3 )}.
·kãµ
f : R → R´¢¼ê§K
Γ(f ) = {(x, f (x)) | x ∈ R}
3²¡R þL«¼êy = f (x)ã"

2
8ÜX þ'X∼¡d'XXJ§÷v^µé§x, y, z ∈ X §
i) x ∼ x (g5)¶
ii) x ∼ y =⇒ y ∼ x (é¡5)¶
iii) x ∼ y, y ∼ z =⇒ x ∼ z (=45)"
~7 PΨ = Z × N"½Â
(a1 , b1 ) ∼1 (a2 , b2 ) ⇐⇒ a1 b2 = a2 b1 , a1 , a2 ∈ Z, b1 , b2 ∈ N.
5¿î)Úii)w,¤á"
(a1 , b1 ) ∼1 (a2 , b2 ), (a2 , b2 ) ∼1 (a3 , b3 ),
d/
a1 b 2 = a2 b 1 , a2 b3 = a3 b2 .
Ïd
b1 a2 b3 = b1 a3 b2 =⇒ b2 a1 b3 = b1 a3 b2 =⇒ a1 b3 = a3 b1 .
¤±§(a , b ) ∼ (a , b )¶=îii)¤á"'X∼ ´d'X"

1 1 1 3 3 1
~8 nú1ê"éi, j ∈ Z§½Â
i ∼2 j ⇐⇒ i − j = kn, k ∈ Z.
21
5¿i − i = 0 · n9
i − j = kn, k ∈ Z =⇒ j − i = −kn, −k ∈ Z.
'X∼ ÷vg5Úé¡5"
2
i − j = k1 n, j − ` = k2 n, k1 , k2 ∈ Z =⇒ i − ` = (k1 + k2 )n =⇒ i ∼2 `.
Ïd§=45¤á"¤±§'X∼ ´d'X" 2
~9 f : X → Y Ń"éx, x ∈ X §½Â 0
x ∼f x0 ⇐⇒ f (x) = f (x0 ). (3)
XJx ∼ x Úx ∼ x §Kf (x) = f (x )Úf (x ) = f (x )"¤±§f (x) = f (x ) = f (x ),

0 0 00 0 0 00 0 00
=x ∼ x "¤±§∼ ´d'X"
f f
00
f f
16ù
8ÜX f88Ü{S | i ∈ I}(Ù¥I Í8)y©XJ i
\
Si1 Si2 = ∅, i1 , i2 ∈ I, i1 6= i2
¿X = S S ; =X ´{S | i ∈ I}Ø¿"

i∈I i i
∼´8ÜX þd'X"éx ∈ X §½Âxda

x̄ = {x0 ∈ X | x0 ∼ x}.
âg5§x ∈ x̄"=45¿XØÓda´8"ù§ddaN
¤8Ü´X y©"§XJ{S | i ∈ I}´X y©§·½Â i
x ∼ x ⇔ 3 i ∈ I ¦ x, x ∈ S .
0 0 0
i
Ný∼ ÷vd'Xn^"
0
½n11 8Üd'X§y©1-1éA"
8ÜX 'ud'X∼da8ÜX 'ud'X∼û8§PX/ ∼"
Np : x 7→ x̄lX X/ ∼g,N"
22
f : X → Y Ń"éx ∈ X §'ud'X∼ §xda f
x̄ = {x0 ∈ X | f (x0 ) = f (x)}.
¤±f pÑNf¯ : X/ ∼ → Y : f
f¯(x̄) = f (x), x ∈ X.
AO/§
f¯(p(x)) = f (x), x ∈ X =⇒ f = f¯p.
XJx , x ∈ X x̄ 6= x̄ §@of¯(x̄ ) = f (x ) 6= f (x ) = f¯(x̄ )"¤±§f¯´ü"X
Jf ´÷§Kf¯´V"
1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2
~X§3~7¥§Nϕ[(a, b)] = ´lΨQ÷" ∼ Ò´∼ §Ï a

b ϕ 1
a1 a2
= ⇔ a1 b 2 = a2 b 1 .
b1 b2
¤±§ϕ̄ : Ψ/ ∼ → Q´V"Ψ/ ∼ w¤QÄ½Â"
~8¥Z/ ∼ nÓ{a(½{a)§PZ "AO§Z ^5ïÄ5?
1 1
è§ Z ^5ïÄn5?è"Acc§·uyoêL«Ø¥35
2 n 2
?èÚn5?è"
3
8ÜX þ'X≺¡ S(partial ordering)XJ§÷v^µ

(i) x ≺ x (5)¶
(ii) ex ≺ y y ≺ x§Kx = y (é¡5)¶
(iii) ex ≺ y y ≺ z §Kx ≺ z(D45)"
XJX ´k8§K§ S^ë;ãL«"~X§¹'
X⊂´X f8NP(X)þ S"X = {a, b, c}§K
P(X) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}.
¤±·k Sãµ
éêmÚn§·½Âm ≺ nXJmØn"K“≺”Ńþ S"§
Ñ§f8þ S"é½k ∈ N§PD(k)kÏfN"X§D(36) =
{1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36}"§ Sã´µ
8ÜX þ S≺¡S(total ordering)XJé?¿x, y ∈ X §kx ≺ y½y ≺

23
x"ù·¡X S8"¡4XJvk'§"
¡XJ§u?ÛÙ§"
6
X ´8Ü"X _CX (permutation)"·
PS X N|¤8Ü"·¡S X þé¡+(symmetric group)"8
c§êÆþ^õ´k8X þé¡+"
X X
n8Üþé¡+þ´"±e·ÄX = {1, 2, ..., n}§

PS = S "XJσ ∈ S §Pi = σ(r)"@o§i , i , ..., i ´1,2,...,nü"3.
KF(Lagrange,1736-1813)c§^PÒ
n X n r 1 2 n

1 2 ··· n
i 1 i2 · · · in
5Oσ"§?¿½1,2,...,nü` , ` , ..., ` §·½Âν(1) = ` , ν(2) =
` , · · · , ν(n) = ` "Kν ∈ S "ùÒÑ
üm1-1éA"AO§|S | =
1 2 n 1
n!"
2 n n n
~X§n = 4,
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
σ= , ν= .
2 3 4 1 4 3 2 1
·k
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
σν = =
2 3 4 1 4 3 2 1 1 4 3 2

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
νσ = = .
4 3 2 1 2 3 4 1 3 2 1 4
σν 6= νσ"
i ∈ X Úσ ∈ S "·`σ½iXJσ(i) = i§ `σ£ÄiXJσ(i) 6= i"i , i , ..., i ´X Ø
Ó"XJσ ∈ S ½X \ {i , i , ..., i }¥¿
n 1 2 r
n 1 2 r
σ(i1 ) = i2 , σ(i2 ) = i3 , ..., σ(ir−1 ) = ir , σ(ir ) = i1 ,
·¡σrÌ§{¡r-Ì(r-cycle)"·Pσ = (i i2 ... ir ). ·±^

ã5L«µ
1
z1-Ì½X ¤k§§uð(C)"2-Ì==X
é§¡é"~X§·keÌµ

1 2 3 4
σ= = (1 2 3 4);
2 3 4 1
24

1 2 3 4 5
σ= = (1 5 3 4 2);
5 1 4 2 3

1 2 3 4 5
σ= = (1 2 3)(4)(5) = (1 2 3).
2 3 1 4 5
5¿
(i1 i2 ... ir ) = (i2 ... ir i1 ) = · · · = (ir i1 · · · ir−1 ).
Ì¦ÈU5§Xµ

1 2 3 4 5
(1 2)(1 3 4 2 5) = = (1 3 4)(2 5).
3 5 4 1 2
üσ, ν ∈ S ØXJX £Ä7,½"XJ

´ù§@oσν = νσ"
n
17ù
½n12 zðσ ∈ S ´Ýu1ØÌ¦È"
y² X ¥σ£Äêk "@o§k ≥ 2"k = 2§σ = (i j)´
n
é§K½n¤á"bk < `½n¤á"Äk = `"?¿σ£Ä

σ σ σ
i "½Â
σ σ
i2 = σ(i1 ), i3 = σ(i2 ) , ..., ir+1 = σ(ir ),

Ù¥r´÷vi ∈ {i , i , ..., i }ê"5¿Xi , i , ..., i ´rØÓ"
ei = i s ≥ 2§@o§σ(i ) = i = i = σ(i )"duσ´ü§·ki =
r+1 1 2 r 1 2 r
i §gñ"¤±§i = i §=σ(i ) = i "Pν = (i i ... i )"

r+1 s s−1 s r+1 r s−1
XJσ = ν §K½n¤á"bσ 6= ν "·PY = X \ {i , i , ..., i }"5¿

r r+1 1 r 1 1 2 r
σ(i ) =Tν(i ), s = 1, ..., r"4σ = ν σ§Kσ (i ) = i , s = 1, ..., r"dσ´ü

1 2 r
0 −1 0
§σ(Y ) {i , i , ..., i } = ∅"¤±§σ(Y ) = Y "Ïd§σ | = σ| "k = r + k §

s s s s
0
σ0
=k < `"â8Bb§σ = σ · · · σ ´Ýu1ØÌ¦È"d

1 2 r Y Y σ
0
σ0
uσ ν Ø§σ , · · · , σ ν Ø"Ïd§σ = σ · · · σ ν ´Ýu1ØÌ

1 t
0
¦È"â8B{§½n¤á" 2
1 t 1 t
ØÌLª §þã©)´"~X§

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
σ= ,
3 4 5 6 7 2 1 9 8
·k½n¥¤©)µ
σ = (1 3 5 7)(2 4 6)(8 9).
25
½n13 zσ ∈ S ±¤é¦È"
y² XJσ = e ´ð§@oσ = (1 2)(1 2)"σ = (i ´Ý
n
i2 ... rr )
u1Ì"K·k
X 1
σ = (i1 ir )(i1 ir−1 ) · · · (i1 i3 )(i1 i2 ).
â½n12§zðσ ∈ S ´Ýu1ØÌ¦È"Ïd§½n¤
á" 2
n
±e§·{Pe e" X
½n14 τ , ..., τ , ν , ..., ν ∈ S é

1 r 1 s n
τ1 τ2 · · · τr = ν1 ν2 · · · νs .
KrÚsÓÛê½Óóê.
y² 5¿?¿é(i j)÷v(i j)(i j) = e"Ïd§
νs · · · ν2 ν1 τ1 τ2 · · · τr = (νs · · · ν2 ν1 )(ν1 ν2 · · · νs ) = e.
y²Únduy²r + s´óê"þ¡ª`²·y²XJké¦
Èσ σ · · · σ = e§@ok´óê="â8B{§·y²3éσ , σ , ..., σ 0 0 0
¦σ σ · · · σ = e="@{§k´Ûê¬íÑeué"
1 2 k 1 2 k−2
0 0 0
σ = (s t)"XJσ = (s t)§@oσ σ = e"Ïd§σ σ · · · σ = σ σ · · · σ "

1 2 k−2
bσ = (s j)j 6= s, t"·k

k k−1 k−1 k 1 2 k 1 2 k−2
k−1
σk−1 σk = (s j)(s t) = (s t j) = (t j s) = (t s)(t j) = (s t)(t j).
σk−1
= (t j) j 6= s, t §·k
σk−1 σk = (t j)(s t) = (t s j) = (j t s) = (j s)(j t) = (s j)(t j).
XJσ = (i j)i, j 6= s, t§@oσ k−1 σk = σk σk−1 "o§XJσ σ · · · σ ØU

¤k − 2é¦È§K
k−1 1 2 k
σ1 σ2 · · · σk = σ1 σ2 · · · σk−2 σ̄k−1 σ̄k ,
Ù¥σ̄ ´¹sé σ̄ ´Ø¹sé"

rþãín^σ σ · · · σ σ̄ "XJσ σ · · · σ ØU¤k − 2é¦È§@
k−1 k
oþãª`²σ σ · · · σ σ̄ ØU¤k − 3é¦È"ù

1 2 k−2 k−1 1 2 k
1 2 k−2 k−1
σ1 σ2 · · · σk−2 σ̄k−1 = σ1 σ2 · · · σk−3 σ̂k−2 σ̂k−1 ,
26
Ù¥σ̂ ´¹sé σ̂ ´Ø¹sé"
k−2 k−1
σ1 σ2 · · · σk = σ1 σ2 · · · σk−3 σ̂k−2 σ̂k−1 σ̄k .
Xd?1e§XJσ σ · · · σ ØU¤k − 2é¦È§K 1 2 k
σ1 σ2 · · · σk = σ̃1 σ̃2 · · · σ̃k ,
Ù¥σ̃ ´¹sé σ̃ , ..., σ̃ ´Ø¹sé"´§

1 2 k
s = e(s) = (σ1 σ2 · · · σk )(s) = (σ̃1 σ̃2 · · · σ̃k )(s) = σ̃1 (s)
íÑσ̃ Ø´é"gñ"¤±§σ σ · · · σ ¤k − 2é¦È" 2

1 1 2 k
σ ∈ S ¡Û(½ó)XJ§¤Ûê(óê)é¦È"þãü
½n`²§σ ∈ S U´Û½ó"·½ÂÎÒ
n
−1 σ ´Û,

1 σ ´ó.
ε = σ
@o§
εσν = εσ εν , σ, ν ∈ Sn .
σ = (i i · · · i )´rÌ"Kσ = (i i )(i i ) · · · (i i )"¤±ε = (−1)r−1 "

XJν ∈ S ©)Ý` , ` , ..., ` pØÌ¦È§@o
1 2 r 1 r 1 r−1 1 2 σ
n 1 1 m
Pm
εν = (−1) s=1 (`s −1) .
~X§
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ν= .
5 4 6 7 2 9 1 3 8 11 10
K
ν = (1 5 2 4 7)(3 6 9 8)(10 11),
=m = 3` = 5, ` = 4, ` = 2"¤±ε = (−1) = 1" 4+3+1
PA ¤kóN9Ā ¤kÛN"½ÂNψ : S → S ψ(σ) =

1 2 3 ν
(1 2)σ "duσ = (1 2)[(1 2)σ]§ψ ´÷"Ïd§´V"5¿ψ(A ) ⊂

n n n n
Ā , ψ(Ā ) ⊂ A 9ψ(A ) = Ā "¤±

n
n n n n n
n!
|An | = |Ān | = .
2
f (x , x , ..., x )Ć¼ê"éσ ∈ S §½Â
1 2 n n
(σ ◦ f )(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = f (xσ(1) , xσ(2) , ..., xσ(n) ).
27
·¡σ ◦ f ´dσ^3f þ¼ê"éσ, ν ∈ S §- n
yi = xν(i) , i = 1, 2, ..., n.
·k
[ν ◦ (σ ◦ f )](x1 , x2 , ..., xn )
= (σ ◦ f )(xν(1) , xν(2) , ..., xν(n) ) = (σ ◦ f )(y1 , y2 , ..., yn )
= f (yσ(1) , yσ(2) , ..., yσ(n) ) = f (xν(σ(1)) , xν(σ(2)) , ..., xν(σ(n)) )
= f (x(νσ)(1) , x(νσ)(2) , ..., x(νσ)(n) ) = [(νσ) ◦ f ](x1 , x2 , ..., xn ).
Ïd§
ν ◦ (σ ◦ f ) = (νσ) ◦ f.
¼êf (x ,Px , ..., x )¡é¡¼êXJé?¿σ ∈ S §·kσ ◦ f = f "~X§x 3

+
+ ···x 9 x x Ò´é¡¼ê"¼êf (x , x , ..., x )¡é¡¼êXJ
1 2 n n 1
x32 3
n 1≤i<j≤n i j 1 2 n
f (x1 , · · · , xi−1 , xi , xi+1 , xi+2 , ..., xn ) = −f (x1 , · · · , xi−1 , xi+1 , xi , xi+2 , ..., xn ), i = 1, ..., n−1.
18ù
P
σi = (i i + 1), i = 1, ..., n − 1.
f ´é¡¿©7^´σ ◦ f = −f, i = 1, ..., n − 1"XJ1 ≤ i < j ≤ n§·

k
i
[σj (i j)σj ](i) = [σj (i j)](σj (i)) = σj ((i j)(i)) = σj (j) = j + 1,
[σj (i j)σj ](j) = [σj (i j)](σj (j)) = σj ((i j)(j + 1)) = σj (j + 1) = j,
[σj (i j)σj ](j + 1) = [σj (i j)](σj (j + 1)) = σj ((i j)(j)) = σj (i) = i,
[σj (i j)σj ](k) = [σj (i j)](σj (k)) = σj ((i j)(k)) = σj (k) = k = (i j + 1)(k),
Ù¥k ∈ {1, 2, ..., n} \ {i, j, j + 1}. Ïd

σj (i j)σj = (i j + 1).
AOé1 ≤ s < r ≤ n§·k

(s r) = σr−1 · · · σs+1 (s s + 1)σs+1 · · · σr−1 = σr−1 · · · σs+1 σs σs+1 · · · σr−1
28
´(2(r − s − 1) + 1)σ ¦È"¤±é?¿é¡¼êf §(s r) ◦ f = (−1) 2(r−s−1)+1
=
−f "ù
i
ν ◦ f = εν f.
Nýõª Y
∆(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = (xj − xi )
1≤i<j≤n
´é¡¼ê"
â½n13§z´é¦È§ zéq´σ , ..., σ ¦È"Ïd§
z´σ , ..., σ ¦È§=S dσ , ..., σ )¤"
1 n−1
, §küÌ5"éσ ∈ S §·½Âσ = σ, σ = σσ, ..., σ =

1 n−1 n 1 n−1
1 2 k+1
σσ "{` | 1 ≤ i ≤ r, 1 ≤ j ≤ s} ⊂ {1, 2, ..., n}´rsØÓ§K

n
k
ij
[(`11 · · · `1s `21 · · · `2s · · · `r1 · · · `rs )]s = (`11 · · · `r1 )(`12 · · · `r2 ) · · · (`1s · · · `rs ).
~X
[(1 2 3 4 5 6)]2 = (1 3 5)(2 4 6).
¤±ÌØ½´Ì"±y
(` k)(` i1 · · · ir k j1 · · · js ) = (` i1 · · · ir )(k j1 · · · js ),
d/
(` i1 · · · ir k j1 · · · js ) = (` k)(` i1 · · · ir )(k j1 · · · js ).
7 êâ
êm`´Ø,ênXJ3êk¦km = n¶d·¡mń
Ïf n´mê"êp¡êXJØ±1Ú±p vkÙ§Ïf"
âÄ½n ?¿u1êÑ±©)¤ê¦È§ ØÏfg
S ´"
òÓÏf3å§?¿u1ên = p p · · · p §Ù¥p , p , ..., p ´ a1 a2 ar
ØÓêa , a , ..., a ∈ N"

1 2 r 1 2 r
1 2 r
îAp½n kÃ¡õê"
y ² ·knêµp , p , ..., p "-N = p p · · · p + 1"ââÄ
½n§N ¹Ïfp §=N = p kk ∈ N"ù1 = n − p p · · · p = p (k −
1 2 n 1 2 n
p · · · p p · · · p ) ≥ 2§gñ"
i i 1 2 n i
1 i−1 i+1 n 2
P8Ü
S = {4k + 1 | 0 ≤ k ∈ Z}.
29
é4k 1 + 1, 4k2 + 1 ∈ S §·k
(4k1 + 1)(4k2 + 1) = 4(4k1 k2 + k1 + k2 ) + 1 ∈ S.
¤±§S 'u¦{´µ4"S u1¡[êXJ§ØU¤S ¥ü

u1¦È"·ke[êµ5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 49"^8B{±y²S ¥?¿
u1¤[ê¦È"´©)Ø½´§X9 · 49 = 21 · 21"
P8Ü
S 0 = {4k − 1 | k ∈ N}.
½n15 8ÜS ¹Ãõê" 0
y ² bS ¹kõê"· 0
p = 4k − 1S ¥ê"-N = 0 0
2k
(2i − 1) − 1 ∈ S "5¿4 (2i − 1)¹
¤kØupê"Ïd§
0 2k
Q Q
4
¹S ¥¤kê"qŃ Ïf"duq 6 |(−1)§q 6∈ S "q ∈ S "ââ
i=2 i=2
0 0 0
Ä½n§N ´S ¥ê¦È"´S 'u¦{´µ4"¤±N ∈ S §gñ"ùÒ 0
`²S ¹Ãõê" 2
0
½üêmÚn"3mÚnÓÏf8Ü¥§k§
mÚnúÏf(greatest common divisor)§P¤g.c.d(m, n)"3mÚnÓê
8Ü¥§k§mÚnúê(least common multiple)§P
¤l.c.m(m, n)"
n = pa11 pa22 · · · par r , m = pb11 pb22 · · · pbrr ,
Ù¥0 ≤ a , b , ..., a , b
1 1 r r
∈ Z p1 , ..., pr ´ØÓê"P
ki = max{ai , bi }, ì = min{ai , bi }.
l.c.m(m, n) = pk11 pk22 · · · pkr r , g.c.d(m, n) = p`11 p`22 · · · p`rr .
du
{ki , ì } = {ai , bi }, ∀i = 1, 2, ..., r,
·k
(l.c.m(m, n)) × (g.c.d(m, n)) = mn.
¤± mn
l.c.m(m, n) = .
g.c.d(m, n)
XJg.c.d(m, n) = 1§·¡mÚnp¶ù§l.c.m(m, n) = mn"/§-d =
g.c.d(m, n)"u´m = m d, n = n dg.c.d(m , n ) = 1"@ol.c.m(m, n) = m n d"
1 1 1 1 1 1
½n16 ({Ø{) ½êaÚb > 0§3êéqÚr¦

a = bq + r 0 ≤ r < b.
30
y² -
S = {a − bx | x ∈ Z; a − bx ≥ 0}.
Ka − b(−|a|) = a + b|a| ∈ S"S"r = a − bq´¥"XJr ≥ b§

K0 ≤ r − b = a − (q + 1)b ∈ Sr − b < r§gñ"Ïd§0 ≤ r < b"
bbq + r = bq + r q , r , q , r ∈ Z÷v0 ≤ r , r < b"@ob > |r − r | =
b|q − q | ≥ b§gñ"¤±§÷v½nêéq Úr´"
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1
1 2 2
·¡qaØbû ¡raØb{ê"
19ù
½n17 (îAp{) ½êaÚb÷vb 6 |a"-r = a, r = b98B{Ø
{r = q r + r §Ù¥i ≥ 0Ú0 ≤ r < r "Kên¦r = 0"
0 1
r = g.c.d(a, b)"
i i+1 i+1 i+2 i+2 i+1 n+2
y ² XJØ3ùn§@ob = r > r > r > · · · §=0bmkÃõ

n+1
ê§gñ"¤±n3"d5§r > 0r = q r "\ªr =

1 2 3
+ 1)r "br = c q Úr = c q §Ù¥c , c ∈ Z"

n+1 n n+1 n+1 n−1
q r +r = (q q
|^ªr = q r + r §·kr = (c q + c )r "â8B{§r Ø¤
n n n+1 n n+1 n+1 i+1 1 n+1 i+1 2 n+1 1 2
kr , r , ..., r , r "Ïd§§á = r Úb = r úÏf"

i i+1 i+1 i+2 i 1 i+1 2 n+1 n+1
L5§br = d a + d bÚr = k a + k b§Ù¥d , d , k , k ∈ Z"AOr =

n+1 n 1 0 0 1
aÚr = b`²béi = 0g,¤á"dªr = q r + r Ñ

i 1 2 i+1 1 2 1 2 1 2 0
1 i i+1 i+1 i+2
ri+2 = ri − qi+1 ri+1 = (d1 − qi+1 k1 )a + (d2 − qi+1 k2 )b.
â8B{§3s, t ∈ Z¦r = sa + tb"Ïd§aÚb?ÛúÏf´r Ï

f"¤±r = g.c.d(a, b)" 2
n+1 n+1
n+1
é?¿"êmÚn§3ês , t ¦ 0 0
g.c.d(m, n) = g.c.d(|m|, |n|) = s0 |m| + t0 |n|.
5¿ |m|s0 |n|t0
s= ,t = ∈Z
m n
¿
g.c.d(m, n) = sm + tn.
AO§mÚnp¿©7^´3ês, t¦sm + tn = 1"

31
~X, a = 54Úb = 20"UîAp{§r 0 Ú
= 54 r1 = 20; ?Ú§·k
54 = 2 · 20 + 14 ⇒ q1 = 2, r2 = 14 :
20 = 1 · 14 + 6 ⇒ q2 = 1, r3 = 6;
14 = 2 · 6 + 2 ⇒ q3 = 2, r4 = 2;
6 = 3 · 2 ⇒ q4 = 2, r5 = 0.
Ïd§r = 2á = 54Úb = 20Ïf§=g.c.d(54, 20) = 2"
,¡§
4
14 = 54 − 2 · 20 ⇒ 6 = 20 − 14 = 20 − (54 − 2 · 20) = −54 + 3 · 20
⇒ 2 = 14 − 2 · 6 = 54 − 2 · 20 − 2(−54 + 3 · 20) = 3 · 54 − 8 · 20,

=g.c.d(54, 20) = 2 = 3 · 54 − 8 · 20"
éuõ"ê§·Ó½ÂúÏfÚúê"¯¢þ§·k
g.c.d(m, n, k) = g.c.d(m, g.c.d(n, k)), l.c.m(m, n, k) = l.c.m(m, l.c.m(n, k)).
m = 2 · 3 · 5 , n = 3 · 5 · 7 , k = 2 · 5 · 7 · 11 "Kl.c.m(m, n, k) = 2 · 3 · 5 · 7 ·
3 4 2 3 5 2 8 2 3 2 4 8
11 g.c.d(m, n, k) = 5 = 25"
2 2
σ ∈ S k´÷vσ = eê"~X§σ = (i i · · · i ) ´r- k
Ì"Ké1 ≤ s < r§·kσ (i ) = i " σ (i ) = i "¤±σ 6= eσ = e"Ï

n 1 2 r
s r s r
d§r´σ"XJσ = e§K^{Ø{m = qr + r §Ù¥q, r ∈ N0 ≤ r < r"

1 s+1 1 1
m
·k
1 1 1
e = σ m = σ qr+r1 = σ qr σ r1 = (σ r )q σ r1 = eq σ r1 = eσ r1 = σ r1 .
Ïdr = 0"=m´rê"
XJσ©)¤Ý` , ` , ..., ` pØÌ¦Èσ = ν ν · · · ν §
1
@odØ5
1 2 s 1 2 s
σ m = ν1m ν2m · · · νsm = e ⇔ ν1m = e, ν2m = e, · · · , νsm = e.
¤±
`1 |m, `2 |m, ..., `s |m,
=m´` , ` , ..., ` úê"d45½Â§σ´l.c.m(` , ` , ..., ` )"~
X§
1 2 s 1 2 s
σ = (1 3 5 7)(2 4 6 8 9 10)(11 12 13 14 15),

·ks = 3Ú` = 4, ` = 6, ` = 5"¤±σ´l.c.m(4, 6, 5) = 60"
1 2 3
gKµUÄ(½S ¥º n
32
12Ù Ý
8 1Úþm
²¡þþ: þ´²¡þ→¶üþ¡XJ±ÏL²
£,þ"þAÛ\{~a + ~bÚê¦α~a" é"~êα§α(~a + ~b) =
α~a + α~b"3²¡þïáIX§òþà£:"ù§þd§
ÞI(½"·ò²¡þþÙIÓ"u´§é~a = (a , a ),~b =
(b , b )Ú~êλ 6= 0§·k
1 2
1 2
~a + ~b = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 ), λ~a = (λa1 , λa2 ).
Ü6þ§·½Â"þ~0I(0, 0)þ¿
0 · ~a = ~0, λ · ~0 = ~0.
5¿
~0 + ~a = ~a, ~a + (−~a) = ~0.
/§é~êαÚβ§
α~a + β~b = (αa1 + βb1 , αa2 + βb2 ).
±þ$5$"l,Ýw§²¡R ´dþ|¤8Ü§k\ 2
{Úê¦ü«$"¤±§·¡§þm"
3c¡ù5§|§·®^nmµ
Rn = {(a1 , a2 , ..., an ) | a1 , a2 , ..., an ∈ R}.
·Ó½ÂR ¥\{ n
(a1 , a2 , ..., an ) + (b1 , b2 , ..., bn ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , ..., an + bn )
Úê¦
λ(a1 , a2 , ..., an ) = (λa1 , λa2 , ..., λan ).
·Pþ
~0 = (0, 0, ..., 0), ~a = (a1 , a2 , ..., an ).
¤±R ±w¤dþ|¤8Ü§k\{Úê¦ü«$"þm'
n
u\{Úê¦¤k5§Ñ÷v"Ïd§·¡R nþm(vector n
space)"
33
þmR f8V ¡R fmXJé?¿~a,~b ∈ V Úα, β ∈ R§α~a + β~b ∈
n n
V "~X§{~0}¤fm§¡"fm"éfmV §?þ~a ∈ V §·
k~0 = 0 · ~a ∈ V "¤±"m´R fm¥ R ´", §én n
?¿"þ~a§8ÜR~a = {λ~a | λ ∈ R}¤fm§ n = 2½3§§

L²¡½m¥ÏL:^"w,§8Ü{(a , a , 0) | a , a ∈ R}¤R 3
fm"
1 2 1 2
Äàg5§|
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = 0,
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = 0,
(1)
············
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = 0.
~bÚ~c´±þ§|)§=µ
ai1 b1 + ai2 b2 + · · · + ain bn = 0, i = 1, 2, ..., m
Ú
ai1 c1 + ai2 c2 + · · · + ain cn = 0, i = 1, 2, ..., m.
é?¿α, β ∈ R§·k
ai1 (αb1 + βc1 ) + ai2 (αb2 + βc2 ) + · · · + ain (αbn + βcn )
= α(ai1 b1 + ai2 b2 + · · · + ain bn ) + β(ai1 c1 + ai2 c2 + · · · + ain cn ) = 0,
i = 1, 2, ..., m "Ïd§α~a + β~b´§|(1))"¤±§§|(1))8¤R n
fm"
S = {~a , ~a , ..., ~a }´R kf8"½Â
1 2 r n
Span S = {α1~a1 + α2~a2 + · · · + αr~ar | α1 , α2 , ..., αr ∈ R}
5Ü¤(½5)"é?¿λ, µ, α , α , ..., α , β , β , ..., β 1 2 r 1 2 r ∈R §·k

λ(α1~a1 + α2~a2 + · · · + αr~ar ) + µ(β1~a1 + β2~a2 + · · · + βr~ar )
= (λα1 + µβ1 )~a1 + (λα2 + µβ2 )~a2 + · · · + (λαr + µβr )~ar ∈ Span S.
Span S¤R fm"é?¿~0 6= ~a ∈ R §KSpan {~a} = R~a§L«^ÏL

n n
:"XJ~b ∈ R \ R~a§@oSpan {~a,~b} = {α~a + β~b | α, β ∈ R}"éu?¿

n
½α§8ÜL = {α~a + β~b | β ∈ R}LR ¥Lþα~aÞ¿~b²1^"2 n
4αCå5§Span {~a,~b} = {L | α ∈ R}L«R ¥ÏL:²¡"P

α
n
α
i
~ei = (0, ..., 0, 1, 0, ..., 0) ∈ Rn .
K n
X
(a1 , a2 , ..., an ) = ai~ei .
i=1
34
¤±§R = Span{~e , ~e , ..., ~e }.
n
éR ¥?¿üfmU ÚV §U T V ´fm~0 ∈ U T V § U S V Ø½

1 2 n
n
´fm"~X§
U = {(a, 0) | a ∈ R}, V = {(0, b) | b ∈ R} ⊂ R2 .
·k(1, 0) + (0, 1) = (1, 1) 6∈ U S V "
110ù
þ~b`´þ~a , ~a , ..., ~a 5|ÜXJ3~êα , α , ...., α ¦
1 2 r
1 2 r
~b = α1~a1 + α2~a2 + · · · + αr~ar .
Äàg5§|
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 ,
(2)
············
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm .
P
~b = (b1 , b2 , ..., bm ), ~ai = (a1i , a2i , ..., ami ) ∈ Rm , i = 1, ..., n.
5§|(2)¤
x1~a1 + x2~a2 + · · · + xn~an = ~b.
¤±§5§|(2)k)¿©7^´~b´þ~a , ~a , ..., ~a 5|Ü" 1 2 n
~1 (½þ~b = (7, −2, 23, 12)´Ä´þ

~a1 = (1, 3, 0, 5), ~a2 = (1, 2, 1, 4), ~a3 = (1, 1, 2, 3), ~a4 = (1, −3, 6, −1)
5|Ü"
) þã¯Kdu(½§|
x1 +x2 +x3 +x4 = 7,
3x1 +2x2 +x3 −3x4 = −2,
x2 +2x3 +6x4 = 23,
5x1 +4x2 +3x3 −x4 = 12
´Äk)"^1Ù{§·¦)
x = −9, x2 = 13, x3 = 2, x4 = 1.
35
¤±þ~b´þ~a , ~a , ~a , ~a 5|Ü: ~b = −9~a
1 2 3 4 1
+ 13~a2 + 2~a3 + ~a4 . 2
XJ1ª
a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23 6= 0,

a31 a32 a33
Ké?¿þ~b = (b , b , b ), n5§|
1 2 3
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1 ,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2 , (†)
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3
k)(.%úª)"Ò´`R ¥?¿þ´þ 3
~a1 = (a11 , a21 , a31 ), ~a2 = (a12 , a22 , a33 ), ~a3 = (a13 , a23 , a33 )
5|Ü"¤±R = Span{~a , ~a , ~a }" 3 1 2 3
þ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a } ⊂ R ¡5'XJ3Ø"~êα , α , ...., α ¦

1 2 n m
1 2 n
α1~a1 + α2~a2 + · · · + αn~an = ~0.

~ai = (a1i , a2i , ..., ami ), i = 1, 2, ..., n.
þã5'5du(α , α , ..., α )´àg5§| 1 2 n
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = 0,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = 0,
············
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = 0
")"AO/§XJm < n§Kþ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a } ⊂ R ©ª´5'5 1 2 n m
"
~2 (½þ
~a1 = (1, −1, 0, 0), ~a2 = (0, 1, −1, 0), ~a3 = (0, 0, 1, −1), ~a4 = (1, 0, 0, −1)
´Ä5'"
) 5¿
~a1 + ~a2 = (1, 0, −1, 0) ⇒ ~a1 + ~a2 + ~a3 = (1, 0, 0, −1) = ~a4
=~a + ~a + ~a − ~a = ~0"¤±þ|{~a , ~a , ~a , ~a }5'5" 2

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
þ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a } ⊂ R ¡5Ã'§XJ~êα , α , ...., α ÷v

1 2 n m
1 2 n
α1~a1 + α2~a2 + · · · + αn~an = ~0,
36
Kα 1 = α2 = · · · = αn = 0 "
~ai = (a1i , a2i , ..., ami ), i = 1, 2, ..., n.
þã5Ã'5duàg5§|
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = 0,
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = 0,
············
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = 0
k")"
~3 (½þ|
{~a1 = (7, 0, 0, 0, 0), ~a2 = (−1, 3, 4, 0, 0), ~a3 = (1, 0, 1, 1, 0), ~a4 = (0, 0, 1, 1, −1)}
´Ä5'"
) d§àg5§|
7x1 − x2 + x3 = 0,
3x2 = 0,
4x2 + x3 + x4 = 0,
x3 + x4 = 0,
−x4 = 0.
l12§5§§x = x = 0"\13§x =0 "l11§x "¤±

=0
þ|~a , ~a , ~a , ~a 5Ã'"
2 4 3 1
1 2 3 4
þ|5:
(1) £Á
i
~ei = (0, ..., 0, 1, 0, ..., 0) ∈ Rn .
þ|{~e , ~e , ..., ~e }´Ä5Ã'º
1 2 n
(2) XJþ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a },Ü©þ|5'§Kþ|5'"

1 2 r
(3) 5Ã'þ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }zÜ©þ|5Ã'" 1 2 r
(4) XJþ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }5'§K¥,þ´Ù§þ5|

1 2 r
ÜºL5(ØéÄº
(5) XJþ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }5Ã' þ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a , ~b}5'§K~b´
1 2 r 1 2 r
þ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }5|Ü"

1 2 r
(6) XJþ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }5Ã'þ~b 6∈ Span{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }§Kþ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a , ~b}

1 2 r 1 2 r 1 2 r
5Ã'"
37
XJfmV ¥þ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }5Ã'V = Span{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }§K¡{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }
1 2 r 1 2 r 1 2 r
|Ä"
~X§{~e , ~e , ..., ~e }´R |Ä§¡R IOÄ"
1 2 n
n n
½n1 XJV ´R "fm§K¹|Ä" V ¥?¿ü|Äê n
Ó"
y ² ?"~a ∈ V "XJV = R~a §K½n¤á"b·®3V ¥ 1 1
Ñi5Ã'þ~a , ~a , ..., ~a §XJV = Span{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }§KK½n¤á"Ä

1 2 i 1 2 i
K§~a ∈ V \ Span{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }§â5(6)§·V ¥(i + 1)5Ã'

i+1 1 2 i
þ~a , ~a , ..., ~a , ~a "5¿R ¥n + 1þ75'§Ïkn§Ú(n +

1 2 i i+1 n
1)CþÙg5§|k")"¤±V ¥5Ã'þê≤ n"ù

â8B{§V ¥3r5Ã'þ~a , ~a , ..., ~a ¦V = Span{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }§ 1 2 r 1 2 r
={~a , ~a , ..., ~a }´V |Ä"

1 2 r
{~b ,~b , ...,~b }´V ,|Ä"K

1 2 s
~ai = ci1~b1 + ci2~b2 + · · · + cis~bs , i = 1, ..., r; cij ∈ R.
du{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }5Ã'§§

1 2 r
x1~a1 + x2~a2 + · · · + xr~ar = 0
k")" þã§du
s
X s
X s
X
x1 cij~bj + x2 c2j~bj + · · · + xr crj~bj = 0
j=1 j=1 j=1
§q¤
(c11 x1 + · · · + cr1 xr )~b1 + (c12 x1 + · · · + cr2 xr )~b2 + · · · + (c1s x1 + · · · + crs xr )~bs = 0.
qdu{~b ,~b , ...,~b }5Ã'§ þã§du5§|

1 2 s
c11 x1 + · · · + cr1 xr = 0,
c12 x1 + · · · + cr2 xr = 0,
······
c1s x1 + · · · + crs xr = 0.
du±þ§|k")())§·kr ≤ s"3þ¡Øy¥ü|Ä §
·s ≤ r"r = s. 2
·½Â
dim V = Ä¥ê.
38
~X§{~e , ~e , ..., ~e }´R |Ä§¤± dim R = n§·*êÎ"ê
n n
Æþ§þê´vk½Â§êém½Â"¡/nþ0´
1 2 n
/3R ¥þ0§ù«`{êÆþæ^"
n
{~a , ..., ~a }´R ¥þ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }45Ã'f8(¡45Ã'

i1 is n 1 2 r
|)"âþ|5(6)§
~aj ∈ Span{~ai1 , ..., ~ais }, j = 1, 2, ..., r.
¤±
Span{~ai1 , ..., ~ais } = Span{~a1 , ~a2 , ..., ~ar },
={~a i1
, ..., ~ais } ´fmSpan{~a , ~a , ..., ~a }|Ä"Ïd§
1 2 r
s = dim Span{~a1 , ~a2 , ..., ~ar }.
AO§þ|?¿ü45Ã'f8êÓ"·½Âþ|{~a , ~a , ..., ~a } 1 2 r
(rank)s"·½Â"m{~0}ê0"
¦Ø"þ|45Ã'f8§·±æçÀ{"3þ|
¥1"þ~a §, þ|¥1ØáuSpan{~a }~a §2i1 i1 i2
þ|¥1ØáuSpan{~a , ~a }~a §Xde§ª45 i1 i2 i3
Ã'f8{~a , ..., ~a }"d{é,

AOþ|k"
i1 is
111ù
~4
~a1 = (2, 3, 1, 1), ~a2 = (4, 6, 2, 2), ~a3 = (0, 1, 2, 1), ~a4 = (0, −1, −2, −1).
¦þ|{~a , ~a , ~a , ~a }45Ã'f8Ú"
1 2 3 4
) ·k~a ·5Ã'f81þ"du~a = 2~a §·ØÀ~a "5

1 2 1 2
¿~a 6∈ R~a "·~a ·5Ã'f81þ"Ï~a = −~a §{~a , ~a }

3 1 3 4 3 1 3
þ|{~a , ~a , ~a , ~a }45Ã'f8" rank{~a , ~a , ~a , ~a } = 2. 2

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
±þ·ùþ´1þ"Ó·Äþmµ
  

 a1 

a2

  

n
R=   | a1 , a2 , ..., an ∈ R ,
 
..



 . 


 an 
39
Ù5$      
a1 b1 αa1 + βb1
 a2   b2   αa2 + βb2 
α +β = .
     
.. .. ..
 .   .   . 
an bn αan + βbn
¤k'u1þm(ØéþmÑ¤á"~X§5§|
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 ,
············
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm
duþ§
       
a11 a12 a1n b1
 a21   a22   a2n   b2 
x1   + x1   + · · · + xn  = .
       
.. .. .. ..
 .   .   .   . 
am1 am2 amn bm
Bå§·P
   
0 α1
*
 0  *
 α2 
0=  , α=  .
   
.. ..
 .   . 
0 αm
m × nÝ
 
a11 a12 ··· a1n
 a21 a22 ··· a2n 
A= .
 
.. .. .. ..
 . . . . 
PA1þ
~a(i) = (ai1 , ai2 , ..., ain ), i = 1, 2, ..., m
Úþ  
a1j
*(j)
 a2j 
a = , j = 1, 2, ..., n.
 
..
 . 
amj
?Ú·½ÂA1m
Vr (A) = Span{~a(1) , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(m) } ⊂ Rn
ÚAm *(1) *(2) *(n)

Vc (A) = Span{ a ,a , ..., a } ⊂ m R.
40
¡r (A) = dim V (A)A1Ú¡r (A) = dim V (A)A"
r r c c
½n2 é?¿m × nÝ
A§·kr (A) = r (A)§§¡Ý
A§Prank A
(½A)"
r c
y ² B´dA²kg1ÐCÝ
"w,V (A) = V (B)"Ï r r
dr (A) = r (B)"- b , b , ..., b Ý

Bþ"d1Ùpd{§
*(1) *(2) *(n)
§
r r
*(1) *(2) *(n) *

x1 a +x2 a + · · · + xn a =0 (3)
§ *(1) *(2) *(n) *

x1 b +x2 b + · · · + xn b =0 (4)
kÓ)8"
8Ü{ a , a *(1) *(2)
, ..., a
*(n)
} 45Ã'f8{ a *(j1 ) *(j2 )
,a , ..., a
*(js )
} "Kr (A) = s"
â½Â§§
c
*(j1 ) *(j2 ) *(js ) *

xj1 a +xj2 a + · · · + xjs a =0 (5)
k")"5¿§(5)´§(3)AÏ¹" §(4)AAÏ¹´
*(j1 ) *(j2 ) *(js ) *
xj1 b +xj2 b + · · · + xjs b =0 . (6)
¤±§§(6)k")§={ b , b , ..., b }5Ã'" *(j1 ) *(j2 ) *(js )
du{ a , a , ..., a }´{ a , a , ..., a }45Ã'f8§é?¿j

*(j1 ) *(j2 ) *(js ) *(1) *(2) *(n)
∈
{1, 2, ..., n} \ {j , j , ..., j }§
1 2 s
*(j) *(j1 ) *(j2 ) *(js )

a = αj1 a +αj2 a + · · · + αjs a . (7)
½Âα = −19α = 0§k ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}\{j, j , j , ..., j }"§(7)¿X(α , α , ..., α )´

§(3))§§´§(4))§=
j k 1 2 s 1 2 n
*(j1 ) *(j2 ) *(js ) *(j) *

αj1 b +αj2 b + · · · + αjs b − b =0;
d/ *(j) *(j1 ) *(j2 ) *(js )

b = αj1 b +αj2 b + · · · + αjs b .
¤±{ b , b , ..., b }´{ b , b , ..., b }45Ã'f8"Ïdr (B) = s =

*(j1 ) *(j2 ) *(js ) *(1) *(2) *(n)
r (A)"
c
P e þm R¥1jI1 Ù§I"þ"K{ e , e , ..., e

c
*j m *1 *2 *m
41
} R|Ä"·bÝ
AØ¹"§ùØ¬UC"BA{zF/
m
k`
 k2

1 ··· 0 ··· 0 ··· ∗
1 ··· ··· ∗
 
 0 
 .. 

 ... ··· . 

B=
 1 ··· ∗
,

0 ··· ··· ··· 0
 
 
 .. .. 
 . . 
0 ··· ··· ··· 0
Ù¥ *(1) *1 *(k2 ) *2 *(k` ) *`

b =e , b = e , ..., b =e .
Ïd{ b , b , ..., b } = { e , e , ..., e }¤V (B)|Ä"

*(1) *(k2 ) *(k` ) *1 *2 *`
P~b Ý
B1i1"KV (B) = Span{~b ,~b , ...,~b }" §
c
(i) r (1) (2) (`)
x1~b(1) + x2~b(2) + · · · + x`~b(`) = ~0
>þ11I´x §1k I´x §....§1k I´x "¤±þã§

k")§={~b ,~b , ...,~b }5Ã'§¤V (B)|Ä"ù
1 2 2 ` `
(1) (2) (`) r
rr (A) = rr (B) = ` = rc (B) = rc (A). 2
~5
~a1 = (1, 3, 0, 1, 1), ~a2 = (−3, −7, 3, 0, −2), ~a3 = (4, 8, −6, −2, 2),
~a4 = (−3, −5, 6, 3, −1), ~a5 = (2, 8, 4, 6, 3), ~a6 = (5, 9, −5, 0, 2).
¦{~a , ~a , ~a , ~a , ~a , ~a }45Ã'f8(|).
1 2 3 4 5 6
) /¤±þã1þþÝ
 
1 −3 4 −3 2 5

 3 −7 8 −5 8 9 

A=
 0 3 −6 6 4 −5 
.
 1 0 −2 3 6 0 
1 −2 2 −1 3 2
^Ð1CòAz¤F/µ
   
1 −3 4 −3 2 5 1 −3 4 −3 2 5

 0 2 −4 4 2 −6 


 0 1 −2 2 1 −3 

A→
 0 3 −6 6 4 −5  → 

 0 3 −6 6 4 −5 

 0 3 −6 6 4 −5   0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 1 −2 2 1 −3 0 1 −2 2 1 −3
42
 
1 −3 4 −3 2 5

 0 1 −2 2 1 −3 

→
 0 0 0 0 1 4 
.
 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0
ù/¤F/"¤±§rank A = 3" {~a , ~a , ~a }´¤¦45Ã'f8(|)" 1 2 5
A ∈ M (R)´1Ý
"~a , ~a , ..., ~a }¥?¿"þα~ = (α , α , ..., α )"
K
m×n (1) (2) (m) 1 2 n
~a(i) = βi α
~, i = 1, 2, ..., m.
Ïd  
β1 α1 β1 α2 ··· β1 αn
 β2 α1 β2 α2 ··· β2 αn 
A= .
 
.. .. ..
 . . . 
βm α1 βm α2 · · · βm αn
£Á·^ÐCo´±ò5§|
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 ,
(2)
············
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm .
z{¤F/(echelon form)
ā11 x1 + · · · +ā1n xn = b̄1 ,
ā2k xk + · · · +ā2n xn = b̄2 ,
ā3l xl + · · · +ā3n xn = b̄3 ,
··· ···
ārs xs + · · · +ārn xn = b̄r , (8)
0 = b̄r+1 ,
.. .. ..
. . .
0 = b̄m ,
Ù¥, ā ā ā · · · ā 6= 0, 1 < k < l < · · · < s. 5§|(2)k)¿©7^

´b̄ = · · · = b̄ = 0"ùqdu§|(8)XêÝ
O2Ý
kÓ"du
11 2k 3l rs
ÐCØUCÝ
§·kµ5§|(2)k)¿©7^´§XêÝ
r+1 m
O2Ý
kÓ"
9 5NÚÝ
$
Nϕ : n
R → mR ¡5XJé?¿u, v ∈ RÚλ, µ ∈ R§k n
ϕ(λu + µv) = λϕ(u) + µϕ(v).
43
£Á{ e , e , ..., e } RIOÄ"é?¿w = α
*1 *2 *n n *1 *2
e +α2 e + · · · + αn e ∈ n R
*n
§ϕ´
5íÑ
1
*1 *2 *n
ϕ(w) = α1 ϕ( e ) + α2 ϕ( e ) + · · · + αn ϕ( e ).
¤±5Nϕd R¥þ|{ϕ(~

e ), ϕ( e ), ..., ϕ( e )}(½"-
m

1 *2 *n
a1j
*j  a2j
 
ϕ( e ) =  .. , j = 1, 2, ..., n.

 . 
amj
·¡  
a11 a12 ··· a1n
 a21 a22 ··· a2n 
A=
 
.. .. .. .. 
 . . . . 
5Nϕ3Ä{ e , e , ..., e }eÝ

"
*1 *2 *n
§½m × nÝ
A§Ù a , a *(1) *(2) *(n)
, ..., a "KN
*1 *2 *n *(1) *(2) *(n)
ϕA (α1 e +α2 e + · · · + αn e ) = α1 a +α2 a + · · · + αn a
Ñ
l R R5N§ §3Ä{ e , e , ..., e }eÝ
ÒÁ"
n m *1 *2 *n
ù3Ä{ e , e , ..., e }e§l R R5Nm × nÝ

1-1éA"
*1 *2 *n n m
~X§l R RN
2 3
 
3x1 + x2
x1
ϕ =  x1 + 2x2 
x2
2x1 − x2
´5N§§3Ä
1 0
,
0 1
eÝ
´  
3 1
 1 2 .
2 −1
é?¿ü5Nϕ, ψ : n
R → mR Ú?¿ü~êλ, µ§·½Â
(λϕ + µψ)(u) = λ · ϕ(u) + µ · ψ(u), u ∈ n R.
Ké?¿u, v ∈ RÚα, β ∈ R§k

n
(λϕ + µψ)(αu + βv) = λϕ(αu + βv) + µψ(αu + βv)

= λ[αϕ(u) + βϕ(v)] + µ[αψ(u) + βψ(v)]
= α[λϕ(u) + µψ(u)] + β[λϕ(v) + µψ(v)]
= α(λϕ + µψ)(u) + β(λϕ + µψ)(v).
44
¤±λϕ + µψ´l R R5N" n m
112ù
Pm × n¢êÝ
NM m×n (R) "é?¿A, B ∈ M m×n (R) §·k
*1 *2 *n *(1) *(2) *(n)
ϕA (α1 e +α2 e + · · · + αn e ) = α1 a +α2 a + · · · + αn a
Ú *1 *2 *n *(1) *(2) *(n)

ϕB (α1 e +α2 e + · · · + αn e ) = α1 b +α2 b + · · · + αn b ,
Ù¥ a Ú b ©OÝ
AÚBþ"λ, µ ∈ R"duλϕ +µϕ ´l R R
*(j) *(j)
n m
5N§3C ∈ M (R)¦ϕ = λϕ + µϕ " c Ý

C þ"K
A B
*(j)
m×n C A B
*(1) *(2) *(n)

α1 c +α2 c + · · · + αn c
*1 *2 *n
= ϕC (α1 e +α2 e + · · · + αn e )
*1 *2 *n
= (λϕA + µϕB )(α1 e +α2 e + · · · + αn e )
*1 *2 *n *1 *2 *n
= λϕA (α1 e +α2 e + · · · + αn e ) + µϕB (α1 e +α2 e + · · · + αn e )
*(1) *(2) *(n) *(1) *(2) *(n)
= λ(α1 a +α2 a + · · · + αn a ) + µ(α1 b +α2 b + · · · + αn b )
*(1) *(1) *(2) *(2) *(n) *(n)
= α1 (λ a +µ b ) + α2 (λ a +µ b ) + · · · + αn (λ a +µ b ).
dα , α , ..., α ?¿5
1 2 n
*(j) *(j) *(j)

c =λ a +µ b , j = 1, 2, ..., n.
ùÒÑ½ÂM m×n (R) ¥5$é«"·½Â

λA + µB = C, §1j ´ λ a
*(j) *(j)
+µ b ,
d/
   
a11 a12 ··· a1n b11 b12 ··· b1n
 a21 a22 ··· a2n   b21 b22 ··· b2n 
λ  + µ
   
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 
 . . . .   . . . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn bm1 bm2 · · · bmn
 
λa11 + µb11 λa12 + µb12 · · · λa1n + µb1n
 λa21 + µb21 λa22 + µb22 · · · λa2n + µb2n 
=  .
 
.. .. .. ..
 . . . . 
λam1 + µbm1 λam2 + µbm2 · · · λamn + µbmn
45
ù·Òk
λϕA + µϕB = ϕλA+µB .
~X§      
3 1 −1 2 3 8
2 1 2  + 3 1 1  =  5 7 .
2 −1 −1 1 1 1
d
*1 *2 *n *(1) *(2) *(n)
ϕA (α1 e +α2 e + · · · + αn e ) = α1 a +α2 a + · · · + αn a ,
·½ÂÝ
Aþα¦È *
* *(1) *(2) *(n)

A α= α1 a +α2 a + · · · + αn a .
ù * *1 *2 *n *
ϕA ( α) = ϕA (α1 e +α2 e + · · · + αn e ) = A α .
~X§        
3 1 3 1 9
 1 2
2  =2 1
  +3  2  =  8 .
3
2 −1 2 −1 1
5¿
* *(1) *(1) *(2) *(2) *(n) *(n)
(λA + µB) α = α1 (λ a +µ b ) + α2 (λ a +µ b ) + · · · + αn (λ a +µ b )
*(1) *(2) *(n) *(1) *(2) *(n)
= λ[α1 a +α2 a + · · · + αn a ] + µ[α1 b +α2 b + · · · + αn b ]
* *
= λA α A + µB α,
= * * *
(λA + µB) α= λA α +µB α
55¤á)"
(
,¡
* * *(1) *(2) *(n)
A(λ α +µ β ) = (λα1 + µβ1 ) a +(λα2 + µβ2 ) a + · · · + (λαn + µβn ) a
*(1) *(2) *(n) *(1) *(2) *(n)
= λ(α1 a +α2 a + · · · + αn a ) + µ(β1 a +β2 a + · · · + βn a )
* *
= λA α +µA β ,
= * * * *
A(λ α +µ β ) = λA α +µA β
m55¤á)"¤±§Ý
þ¦È÷vV55"
(
46
A ∈ M (R)ÚB ∈ M n×k (R) "Kk5Nϕ : nR → mR Úϕ : k R → nR "é
?¿u, v ∈ RÚλ, µ ∈ R§k
m×n A B
k
(ϕA ϕB )(λu + µv)

= ϕA (ϕB (λu + µv)) = ϕA (λϕB (u) + µϕB (v))
= λϕA (ϕB (u)) + µϕA (ϕB (v)) = λ(ϕA ϕB )(u) + µ(ϕA ϕB )(v).
Ïd§ϕ ϕ A B : k R → mR ´5N"3C ∈ M m×k (R) ¦

ϕC = ϕA ϕB .
é?¿α∈ R§·k
* k
*(1) *(2) *(k)

α1 c +α2 c + · · · + αk c
* * * *
= C α= ϕC ( α) = (ϕA ϕB )( α) = ϕA (ϕB ( α))
*(1) *(2) *(k) *(1) *(2) *(k)
= ϕA (α1 b +α2 b + · · · + αk b ) = A(α1 b +α2 b + · · · + αk b )
*(1) *(2)
= α1 A b +α2 A b + · · · + αk A~b(k) .
dα , α , ..., α ?¿5
1 2 k
*(j) *(j)
c =A b , j = 1, 2, ..., k. (9)
ùÒÑ½ÂÝ
¦Èé«"·½Â
AB = C, §1j ´ A~b (j)
.
äN/§
 
c1j
 c2j  *(1) *(2) *(n)
 = b1j a +b2j a + · · · + bnj a
 
 ..
 . 
cmj
 
a11 b1j + a12 b2j + · · · + a1n bnj
 a21 b1j + a22 b2j + · · · + a2n bnj 
=  .
 
..
 . 
am1 b1j + am2 b2j + · · · + amn bnj
AO§
n
X
cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + ain bnj = ait btj , i = 1, ..., m; j = 1, ..., k. (10)
t=1
*j *(1) *(2) *(n)

c = b1j a +b2j a + · · · + bnj a ∈ Vc (A), j = 1, 2, ..., k.
47
¤±
Vc (AB) = Vc (C) ⊂ Vc (A).
ù§
rank AB = dim Vc (AB) ≤ dim Vc (A) = rank A.
,¡§d(10)ª§1þ
~ci = (ci1 , ci2 ..., cik )
Xn X n n
X
= ( ait bt1 , ait bt2 , ..., ait btk )
t=1 t=1 t=1
Xn n
X n
X
= ( ait bt1 , ait bt2 , ..., ait btk )
t=1 t=1 t=1
n
X Xn
= ait (bt1 , bt2 , ..., btk ) = ait~bt ∈ Vr (B).
t=1 t=1
¤±
Vr (AB) = Vr (C) ⊂ Vr (B).
Ïd§
rank AB = dim Vr (AB) ≤ dim Vr (B) = rank B.
ù·Òy²
µ
½n3 é?¿A ∈ M m×n (R) ÚB ∈ M n×k (R) §·kµ
rank AB ≤ min{rank A, rank B}.
d(9)ª§
ϕA ϕB = ϕAB .
é?¿A ∈ M m×n (R), Ú
B ∈ Mn×k (R) C ∈ Mk×` (R) §
ϕA(BC) = ϕA ϕBC = ϕA (ϕB ϕC ) = (ϕA ϕB )ϕC = ϕAB ϕC = ϕ(AB)C .
Ïd§
A(BC) = (AB)C,
=Ý
¦È÷v(ÜÆ"
2d(9)ªÚÝ
þ¦ÈV55§
A(λB1 + µB2 ) = λAB1 + µAB2 , (λA1 + µA2 )B = λA1 B + µA2 B,
=Ý
¦È÷vV55"
48
~6    
0 1 0 0 0 1
A =  0 0 1 , B =  0 0 0 .
0 0 1 0 0 0
K     
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
AB =  0 0 1   0 0 0  =  0 0 0 ,
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
    
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
BA =  0 0 0   0 0 1  =  0 0 0 .
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
¤±§AB = BA"Ý
¦ÈØ÷v5"
5¿
rank A = 2, rank B = 1
rank AB = 0, rank BA = 1.
km§Ún CÙg5§|¤A x= 0 §Ù¥A´m × nÝ * *
"T§)8¤ Rfm"NéÑ§|Äº
n
~7  
1 −3 4 −3 2 5
 3 −7 8 −5 8 9 
 
A= 0
 3 −6 6 4 −5 
.
 1 0 −2 3 6 0 
1 −2 2 −1 3 2
éÑ§|A x= 0 )m|Ä"
* *
) d~5§^Ð1CòAz¤F/µ
 
1 −3 4 −3 2 5

 0 1 −2 2 1 −3 

A→
 0 0 0 0 1 4 
.
 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0
2^Ð1CòAz¤{F/µ
   
1 0 −2 3 5 −4 1 0 −2 3 0 −24

 0 1 −2 2 1 −3 

 0 1 −2 2 0 −7 
 
→
 0 0 0 0 1 4 
 →  0 0
 0 0 1 4 .

 0 0 0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
49
¤±§|A x= 0 du§| * *
x1 −2x3 +3x4 −24x6 = 0,

x2 −2x3 +2x4 −7x6 = 0, (11)
x5 +4x6 = 0.
Ïd§x , x , x ´Ìê x , x , x ´gdCþ"l §§)þ

1 2 5 3 4 6
       
2x3 − 3x4 + 24x6 2 −3 24

 2x3 − 2x4 + 7x6 


 2 


 −2 


 7 

*  x3   1   0   0 
x=   = x3   + x4   + x6  ,

 x4 


 0 


 1 


 0 

 −4x6   0   0   −4 
x6 0 0 1
Ù¥x , x , x ´gdCþ"¤±§§|A x= 0 )md

3 4 6
* *
     

 2 −3 24 

2 −2 7

     

 
     
 1  
, 0  
, 0 
  (12)

 0  
  1  
  0 

0 0 −4

     

 

0 0 1
 
Ü¤"dù
þ12§3§6I§´5Ã'"ù(12)ªÒ´§
|A x= 0 )m|Ä§¡5Ä:)X"5¿ù
þ©O´(x , x , x ) =
* *
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)§(11)ª)"

3 4 6
§·¡àg5§|)mÄÄ:)X" àg5§|)m
5Ä:)X´lÙÐCe{F/¥4Ù¥gdCþu1 Ù§
u0¼"
~8
1 a 0 b c
A= .
0 0 1 β γ
éÑ§|A x= 0 5Ä:)X" * *
) §|A x= 0 ©þ/ª´ * *
x1 +ax2 +bx4 +cx5 = 0,

x3 +βx4 +γx5 = 0.
§|gdCþ´x , x , x "x 2 4 5 2 = 1, x4 = x5 = 0 )þ

 
−a
 1 
*  
x=  0 .

 0 
0
50
x 4 )þ
= 1, x2 = x5 = 0  
−b
 0 
*  
x= 
 −β .

 1 
0
x 5 )þ
= 1, x2 = x4 = 0  
−c
 0 
*  
x= 
 −γ .

 0 
1
¤±§|A x= 0 5Ä:)X´
* *
     

 −a −b −c 

1 0 0

 


 
 
 
 



 0 ,
  −β ,
  −γ  .

0 1 0

     

 

0 0 1
 
113ù
α´àg5§|A x= d A){u , u , ..., u }´àg5§|A x= 0
* * * * *
Ä:)X"é§|A x= d ?¿)µ§k
1 2 r
* * *
* * * * * * *
A( µ − α) = A µ −A α= d − d = 0 ,
=µ − α´§|A x= 0 )"Ïd·k
* * * *
§| A x= d )8 =α +Span{u , u , ..., u } = {α +w | w ∈ Span{u , u , ..., u }}.

* * *
1 2 r
*
1 2 r
Nàg5§|A)±lÙÐCe{F/¥4¤kgdC
þÑu0¼"
~9 ¦§|
x1 +ax2 +bx4 +cx5 = d1 ,
x3 +βx4 +γx5 = d2
Ü)"
51
) 4¤kgdCþx , x , x Ñu0A) 2 4 5
 
d1

 0 


 d2 .

 0 
0
â~8§§|Ü)´
       
d1 
 −a −b −c 

0 1 0 0
  
 
  

 
 
 
 



 d2  + Span 
  0 ,
  −β ,
  −γ  .

0 0 1 0
  
     

 

0 0 0 1
 
ϕ : n
R → mR ´5N"é?¿u, v ∈ RÚλ, µ ∈ R§ n
λϕ(u) + µϕ(v) = ϕ(λu + µv) ∈ ϕ(n R).
¤±§ϕ( R)¤ Rfm",¡§·½ÂϕØ(kernel):

n m
* *
kerϕ = ϕ−1 ( 0 ) = {u ∈ n R | ϕ(u) = 0 }.
é?¿u, v ∈ ker Úλ, µ ∈ R§

ϕ
* * *
ϕ(λu + µv) = λϕ(u) + µϕ(v) = λ· 0 +µ· 0 = 0 .
Ïd§ker /¤ Rfm" n
éA ∈ M (R)§dϕ (α) = A α
ϕ
* *
m×n A
* * *
ϕA (n R) = Vc (A), kerϕA = { α∈ n R | A α= 0 }.
¤±ker Ò´§|A x= 0 )m"/§)§|A x= b du¦ϕ

* * * *
−1
A b)
("
*
dpd{
ϕA
dim ϕA (n R) + dim kerϕA = rank A + dim kerϕA = n.
½n4 é?¿A ∈ M m×n (R) ÚB ∈ M n×k (R) §·k

rank AB ≥ rank A + rank B − n.
y² ·Äky²
\
kerϕAB = ϕ−1
B (kerϕA ϕB (k R)). (13)
52
é?¿α∈ ker §·k(AB) α=T 0 ∼ A(B α) = 0 "-B α= b "K b ∈ ker
*
ϕAB
* * * * * * *
ϕA
T
ϕB (k R) α∈ *
ϕ ( b )"¤±ker ϕ ( R))"L5§é?¿ d ∈ ϕ (ker ( R))Ú β ∈

* * *
−1 −1 k −1 k
T
⊂ ϕ (ker ϕB
ϕ ( d )§
B ϕAB B ϕA B B ϕA
*
−1
B
* * * *
ϕAB ( β ) = ϕA (ϕB ( β ) = ϕA ( d ) = 0 ,
=β ∈ Tker "Ïdker
*
"ù§ ª¤á"{u , u , ..., u }´
⊃ ϕ−1
B (kerϕA
T
ϕB (k R)) (13)
ϕ ( R)|Ä{v , v , ..., v }´ker |Ä"w ∈ ϕ (u ), w ∈ ϕ (u ), ...,
ϕAB ϕAB 1 2 r
k −1 −1
ker
w ∈ ϕ (u )"é?¿α , α , ..., α ∈ R§·k
ϕA B 1 2 s ϕB 1 B 1 2 B 2
−1
r B r 1 2 r
α u ´ ker ϕ ( R) ¥/ª"
X Xr X \ r r
k
ϕ ( Bαw)= α ϕ (w ) = i i i B i i i ϕA B
i=1 i=1 i=1
Ïd r
X r
X
ϕ−1
B ( αi ui ) = αi wi + kerϕB .
i=1 i=1
\
kerϕAB = ϕ−1
B (kerϕA ϕB (k R)) = Span{w1 , w2 , ..., wr , v1 , v2 , ..., vs }.
b3~êα , α , ..., α Úβ , β , ..., β ¦ 1 2 r 1 2 s
*
α1 w1 + α2 w2 + · · · + αr wr + β1 v1 + βr v2 + · · · + βs vs = 0 .
K
*
α1 u1 + α2 u2 + · · · + αr ur = ϕB (α1 w1 + α2 w2 + · · · + αr wr + β1 v1 + βr v2 + · · · + βs vs ) = 0 .
du{u , u , ..., u }5Ã'§·kα

1 2 r 1 = α2 = · · · = αr = 0 "ù
*
β1 v1 + βr v2 + · · · + βs vs = 0 .
{v , v , ..., v }5Ã'§β = β = · · · = β =0 "Ïd{w , w , ..., w , v , v , ..., v }

5Ã'"§´ker |Ä"¤±
1 2 s 1 2 r 1 2 r 1 2 s
ϕAB
\
dim kerϕAB = r + s = dim kerϕA ϕB (k R) + dim kerϕB
≤ dim kerϕA + dim kerϕB = n − rank A + k − rank B.
?Ú§·k
rank AB = k − dim kerϕAB ≥ k − (n − rank A + k − rank B) = rank A + rank B − n. 2
m × nÝ
 
a11 a12 ··· a1n
 a21 a22 ··· a2n 
A= .
 
.. .. ..
 . . . 
53
·½Â§=(transpose)n × mÝ
 
a11 a21 · · · am1
t
 a12 a22 · · · am2 
A= .
 
.. .. ..
 . . . 
a1n a2n · · · amn
Ý
AÚ A1?1
p ( A) = A"~X§
t t t
 
3 1
t 3 1 2
A= 1 2  =⇒ A = .
1 2 −1
2 −1
AO§rank A = rank A
t
 
α1
t **
 α2  * *
α α= (α1 α2 · · · αn )   = α12 + α22 + · · · + αn2 = 0 ⇔ α= 0 .
 
..
 . 
αn
é?¿A ∈ M m×n (R) ÚB ∈ M (R)§ n×k
(AB) (i, j)- = AB (j, i)- =

X n
t
a jt bti .
t=1

(i, j)- = X b a
n
t
BtA ti jt .
t=1
¤±§·k
t
(AB) = t B t A.
e¡·Ä1êÚêÝ
§¡
"é?¿üÝ
A, B ∈
M (R)§¦ÈAB k½ÂAB ∈ M (R)"¤±§M (R)'uÝ
¦È´µ
4"duT¦È´V5÷v(ÜÆ§M (R)'uÝ
¦È¤(Üê"
n×n n×n n×n
d §n × nÝ
n×n
···
 
a1 0 0
... .. 
0 a2 . 


 .. .. .. 
 . . . 0 
0 ··· 0 an
¡é
(diagonal matrix)§Pdiag(a , a , ..., a )"AO§·¡diag(λ, λ, ..., λ)
XþÝ
(scalar matrix)§{Pdiag (λ)" Ý
diag (1)n × nðÝ
§P
1 2 n
I "5¿I 1j´ e §=

n n
*j
n n
*1 *2 *n
In = ( e , e , ..., e ).
54
é?¿α∈ R§ * n
* * *1 *2 *n *
ϕIn ( α) = In α= α1 e +α2 e + · · · + αn e = α .
¤±ϕ In : nR → nR ´ðN(C)"Ïd§é?¿A ∈ M m×n (R) §·k

ϕIm A = ϕIm ϕA = ϕA = ϕA ϕIn = ϕAIn .
ùÒíÑ
Im A = A = AIn .
dudiag (λ) = λI §·k

n n
diagn (λ)B = λIn B = λB = B(λIn ) = Bdiagn (λ), ∀B ∈ Mn×n (R).
éα~ ∈ R ÚA ∈ M n
m×n (R) §½Â
m
X
α
~A = αi~a(i) .
i=1
dI mA =A §
~ei A = ~a(i) , i = 1, 2, ..., m.
2dAI n =A *j *(j)
A e =a , j = 1, 2, ..., n.
½n5 XJA ∈ M n×n (R) M n×n (R) ¥¤kÝ

§KA´XþÝ
"
y² 5¿ *1 *2 *n
diag(1, 2, ..., n) = ( e , 2 e , ..., n e ).
Ïd§
 
a1j
1 j = diag(1, 2, ..., n) a
n
*(j) X *t
 2a2j 
diag(1, 2, ..., n)A = tatj e =
 
.. 
t=1
 . 
nanj
 
ja1j
1 j = A(j e ) = j a *j *(j) ja2j

 
A diag(1, 2, ..., n) = .
 
..
 . 
janj
¤±§
iaij = jaij .
55

aij = 0, i 6= j,
=
A = diag(a11 , a22 , ..., ann ).
é?¿B ∈ M n×n (R) §
AB 1 i 1 = a ~e B = a ~b
ii i ii (i)
Ú
1 j =
n
X *(t) *(j)
BA atj b = ajj b .
¤±
t=1
aii bij = ajj bij .

¤kb 1j =1 §
a11 = ajj , j = 2, 3, ..., n.
Ïd§A = diag (a )´XþÝ
"
n 11 2
114ù
i, j ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}i 6= j"PF I 1i1Ú1j1¤Ý
"X§n =
3§
i,j n
 
1 0 0
F2,3 =  0 0 1  .
0 1 0
AO§
t
(Fi,j ) = Fi,j .
é?¿A = (a ij )n×n ∈ Mn×n (R) §
1 i 1 = ~e A = ~a ,
Fi,j A j
(j)
F A 1 j 1 = ~e A = ~a ,
i,j i
(i)
F A 1 k 1 = ~e A = ~a ,
i,j k 6= i, j. k
(k)
¤±§éNÝ
1i1Ú1j1du¦F "~X§n = 3§ i,j
    
1 0 0 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
F2,3 A =  0 0 1   a21 a22 a23  =  a31 a32 a33  .
0 1 0 a31 a32 a33 a21 a22 a23
56
5¿
AFi,j = t [t (AFi,j )] = t [t (Fi,j )tA] = t [Fi,j tA].
ÏdéNÝ
1iÚ1jdum¦F "
λ~ê"PF (λ)òI 1j1λ\1i1¤Ý
"X§n = 3§
i,j
i,j n
 
1 0 0
F2,3 (λ) =  0 1 λ  .
0 0 1
AO§
t
(Fi,j (λ)) = Fj,i (λ).
é?¿A = (a §
ij )n×n ∈ Mn×n (R)
F (λ)A 1 i 1 = (~e + λ~e )A = ~e A + λ~e A = ~a + λ~a

i,j i j i j (i) (j) ,
F (λ)A 1 k 1 = ~e A = ~a ,
i,j k 6= i. k (k)
òÝ
1j1λ\1i1du¦F (λ)"~X§n = 3§ i,j
    
1 0 0 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
F2,3 (λ)A =  0 1 λ   a21 a22 a23  =  a21 + λa31 a22 + λa32 a23 + λa33  .
0 0 1 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
5¿
AFi,j (λ) = t [t (AFij(λ) )] = t [t (Fi,j (λ))tA] = t [Fj,i (λ)tA].
ÏdòÝ
1iλ\1jdum¦F i,j (λ)"~X§n = 3§
    
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0 a11 a12 a13 + λa12
AF2,3 (λ) =  a21 a22 a23   0 1 λ  =  a21 a22 a23 + λa22  .
a31 a32 a33 0 0 1 a31 a32 a33 + λa32
0 6= a ∈ R"PF (a)òI 1i1¦±a¤Ý

"~X§n = 3§
i n
 
1 0 0
F2 (a) =  0 a 0  .
0 0 1
ùòÝ
1i1¦±adu¦F (a)"òÝ
1j1¦±adum¦F (a)"
Ý
F , F (λ)ÚF (a)©O¡1(I).§1(II).Ú1(III).ÐÝ
"Ïd§é
i j
Ý
1X1ÐCdu¦XAÐÝ
"ÓéÝ
i,j i,j i
1XÐCdum¦XAÐÝ
"
Ý
A ∈ M (R)¡_XJ3B ∈ M (R)¦BA = AB = I "XÓ_N
§_Ý
A_Ý
´"PA "~X§
n×n n×n n
−1
(Fi,j )−1 = Fi,j , (Fi,j (λ))−1 = Fi,j (−λ), (Fi (a))−1 = Fi (a−1 ).
57
½n6 Ý
A ∈ M (R)_¿©7^´rank A = n§d¡Aòz"
y² XJÝ
A_§Ké?¿ b ∈ R§·k
n×n
*
n
* *
A(A−1 b ) = b .
¤±V (A) = R§=rank A = n"

n
§rank A = n"Kϕ ( R) = V (A) = R§=ϕ ´÷"dudim ker = n −

c
n n
rank A = 0§=ker = { 0 }"XJϕ (u) = ϕ (v)§Kϕ (u − v) = ϕ (u) − ϕ (v) = 0 "

A c A ϕA
* *
¤±§u − v ∈ ker = { 0 }§=u = v"ϕ ´ü"ù§ϕ ´V§§k_N

ϕA A A A A A
*
ϕ "
ϕA A A
−1
é?¿u, v ∈ RÚλ, µ ∈ R§
A
n
ϕA (λϕ−1 −1 −1 −1 −1
A (u) + µϕA (v)) = λϕA ϕA (u) + µϕA ϕA (v) = λu + µv = fA (ϕA (λu + µv))
=⇒ λϕ−1 −1 −1
A (u) + µϕA (v) = ϕA (λu + µv),
=ϕ ´5N"3B ∈ M
−1
A n×n (R) ¦ϕ −1
A = ϕB "?Ú§
ϕAB = ϕA ϕB = ϕA ϕ−1 −1
A = ϕIn = ϕA ϕA = ϕB ϕA = ϕBA
=⇒ AB = In = BA =⇒ B = A−1 . 2
rank A = n"·^k1ÐCòÙz¤{F.§d§Ò
Í "kAÐÝ
F , ..., F , F ¦F F · · · F A = I "¤±§A = −1
F F · · · F "XÛ¢SâUéA ºEn × 2nÝ

(A I )"5¿
n 1 r−1 r r r−1 1 n
−1
r r−1 1 n
Fr Fr−1 · · · F1 (A In ) = (Fr Fr−1 · · · F1 A Fr Fr−1 · · · F1 In ) = (In A−1 ),
=éÝ
(A I )1ÓÐC§§òI C¤A "
n n
−1
~10 ¦Ý
 
1 0 1
A=  −1 1 1 
2 −1 1
_"
) éÝ
(A I )1ÐC: 3
   
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
F2,1 (1),F3,1 (−2)
(A I3 ) =  −1 1 1 0 1 0  −→  0 1 2 1 1 0 
2 −1 1 0 0 1 0 −1 −1 −2 0 1
   
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 −1 −1
F3,2 (1) F1,3 (−1),F2,1 (−2)
−→  0 1 2 1 1 0  −→  0 1 0 3 −1 −2  .
0 0 1 −1 1 1 0 0 1 −1 1 1
58
¤±  
2 −1 −1
A−1 =  3 −1 −2  .
−1 1 1
A , A , ..., A
1 2 r ∈ Mn×n (R) ´_Ý
§K
ϕA1 A2 ...Ar = ϕA1 ϕA2 · · · ϕAr
__
ϕ−1 −1 −1
Ar · · · ϕA2 ϕA1 = ϕA−1
r
· · · ϕA−1 ϕA−1 = ϕA−1 −1 −1 ,
r ···A2 A1
=A A ...A _

2 1
1 2 r
(A1 A2 ...Ar )−1 = A−1 −1 −1

r · · · A2 A 1 .
én×nòzÝ
A (rankA = n)§·®²3kÐÝ
F , ..., F , F ¦
A = F F · · · F "duÐÝ
_´ÐÝ
§A = (A ) =
1 r−1 r
−1 −1 −1
F F · · · F ´kÐÝ
¦È"ùé½Ý
¦_
r r−1 1
−1 −1 −1
Ý
½m¦_Ý
duéTÝ
1kg1ÐC½kgÐC
r r−1 1
§ÏdØUCÝ
"
B ∈ M (R)"KÝ
§AX = B)´
n×k
X = A−1 B = Fr Fr−1 · · · F1 B.
§Ñ
Ý
§){"
~11 )Ý
§
    
1 0 1 x1 y1 1 1
 −1 1 1   x2 y2  =  0 1  .
2 −1 1 x3 y3 −1 0
) éÝ
1ÐC:
   
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
F2,1 (1),F3,1 (−2)
 −1 1 1 0 1  −→  0 1 2 1 2 
2 −1 1 −1 0 0 −1 −1 −3 −2
   
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 3 1
F3,2 (1) F1,3 (−1),F2,1 (−2)
−→  0 1 2 1 2  −→  0 1 0 5 2 .
0 0 1 −2 0 0 0 1 −2 0
¤±    
x1 y1 3 1
 x2 y2  =  5 2  .
x3 y3 −2 0
59
r b ∈ w¤n × 1Ý
§Kþã{Ñ
5§|A x= b ){µ
*
n * *
* * *
Fr Fr−1 · · · F1 (A b ) = (Fr Fr−1 · · · F1 A Fr Fr−1 · · · F1 b ) = (Ib Fr Fr−1 · · · F1 b )
* *
=⇒ x= Fr Fr−1 · · · F1 b .
~X§)§     
1 0 1 x1 1
 −1 1 1   x2  =  0  .
2 −1 1 x3 −1
d~11§
   
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 3
F1,3 (−1)F2,3 (−2)F3,2 (1)F2,1 (1)F3,1 (−2)  −1 1 1 0 = 0 1 0 5 .
2 −1 1 −1 0 0 1 −2
¤±§    
x1 3
 x2  =  5  .
x3 −2
üm × nÝ
AÚB¡dXJ3m × m_Ý
P Ún × n_Ý
Q¦
B = P AQ"duP ±Ñkm × mÐÝ
¦È Q±Ñkn × nÐ
Ý
¦È"AÚBd¿©7^´·^1ÚÐCòC¤,
"
A´rm × nÝ
"A3Ð1Cedu{F/Ý
B"X§
d~7§  
1 −3 4 −3 2 5
 3 −7 8 −5 8 9 
 
A= 0
 3 −6 6 4 −5 

 1 0 −2 3 6 0 
1 −2 2 −1 3 2
Ú  
1 0 −2 3 0 −24

 0 1 −2 2 0 −7 
B=
 0 0 0 0 1 4 
.
 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0
B¥þ¥¹V (B)|Ä{ e , e , ..., e }; Xþ~¥r = 3§ b

*1 *2 *r *(1) *1 *(2)
=e , b
*2
=e Úb
*(5) *3
=e "
2^ÐCòBz¤e/GÝ

Ir 0
.
0 0
60
3þ~¥"^ÐCµ
   
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

 0 1 0 0 0 0 


 0 1 0 0 0 0 

B→
 0 0 0 0 1 0 →
  0 0 1 0 0 0 .

 0 0 0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ïd§3M m×n (R) ¥§k1 + min{m, n}da"
115ù
XJA ∈ M §·½Â
n×n (R)
A1 = A, A2 = AA, Ai+1 = AAi .
~12 Ý

cos θ − sin θ
A= .
sin θ cos θ
¦A "n
) kÁn = 2, 3"O

2 cos θ − sin θcos θ − sin θ
A =
sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ
2
2

cos θ − sin θ −2 sin θ cos θ
=
2 sin θ cos θ cos2 θ − sin2 θ

cos 2θ − sin 2θ
=
sin 2θ cos 2θ
Ú

3 2 cos θ − sin θ cos 2θ − sin 2θ
A = AA =
sin θ cos θ sin 2θ cos 2θ

cos θ cos 2θ − sin θ sin 2θ − sin θ cos 2θ − cos θ sin 2θ
=
sin θ cos 2θ + cos θ sin 2θ cos θ cos 2θ − sin θ sin 2θ

cos 3θ − sin 3θ
= .
sin 3θ cos 3θ
b
k cos kθ − sin kθ
A = .
sin kθ cos kθ
61
K
k+1 k cos θ − sin θ cos kθ − sin kθ
A = AA =
sin θ cos θ sin kθ cos kθ

cos θ cos kθ − sin θ sin kθ − sin θ cos kθ − cos θ sin kθ
=
sin θ cos kθ + cos θ sin kθ cos θ cos kθ − sin θ sin kθ

cos(k + 1)θ − sin(k + 1)θ
= .
sin(k + 1)θ cos(k + 1)θ
¤±§d8B{
n cos nθ − sin nθ
A = .
sin nθ cos nθ
3Ý
§rÝ
©¬¬5B"~X§
 
1 −2 4 1 3
 2 1 1 1 1  A11 A12
A=
  = ,
3 3 2 −1 2  A21 A22
4 6 2 2 4
Ù¥
1 −2 4 1 3 3 3 2 −1 2
A11 = , A12 = , A21 = , A22 = .
2 1 1 1 1 4 6 2 2 4
   
A11 A12 ··· A1n B11 B12 · · · B1k
 A21 A22 ··· A2n   B21 B22 · · · B2k 
A= , B = 
   
.. .. .. .. .. .. 
 . . .   . . . 
Am1 Am2 · · · Amn Bn1 Bn2 · · · Bnk
©¬Ý
§Ù¥A r × s Ý
B s × q Ý
"K
ij i j jt j t
 
C11 C12 ··· C1k
 C21 C22 ··· C2k 
AB = 
 
.. .. .. 
 . . . 
Cm1 Cm2 · · · Cmk
n
X
Ci` = Aij Bj` .
j=1
~X, A ∈ M m×n (R) ÚB ∈ M n×k (R) §·k

*(1) *(2) *(k) *(1) *(2) *(k)
AB = A( b ··· b
b ) = (A b A b ···A b ),
   
~a(1) ~a(1) B
 ~a(2)   ~a(2) B 
AB =  .. B =  .
   
..
 .   . 
~a(m) ~a(m) B
62
3wAÏ¹µ
   
a11 a12 a13 a14 b11 b12 b13 b14
 a21 a22 a23 a24 
 A11 A12  b21 b22 b23 b24  B11 B12
A=
 a31 = , B= = ,
a32 a33 a34  A21 A22  b31 b32 b33 b34  B21 B22
a41 a42 a43 a44 b41 b42 b43 b44
Ù¥

a11 a12 a13 a14 a31 a32 a33 a34
A11 = , A12 = , A21 = , A22 = ,
a21 a22 a23 a24 a41 a42 a43 a44

b11 b12 b13 b14 b31 b32 b33 b34
B11 = , B12 = , B21 = , B22 = .
b21 b22 b23 b24 b41 b42 b43 b44
A/§
C11 C12
AB = .
C21 C22
O
A21 B11 + A22 B21

a31 a32 b11 b12 a33 a34 b31 b32
= +
a41 a42 b21 b22 a43 a44 b41 b42

a31 b11 + a32 b21 a31 b12 + a32 b22 a33 b31 + a34 b41 a33 b32 + a34 b42
= +
a41 b11 + a42 b21 a41 b12 + a42 b22 a43 b31 + a44 b41 a43 b32 + a44 b42

a31 b11 + a32 b21 + a33 b31 + a34 b41 a31 b12 + a32 b22 + a33 b32 + a34 b42
= = C21 .
a41 b11 + a42 b21 + a43 b31 + a44 b41 a41 b12 + a42 b22 + a43 b32 + a44 b42
©¬Ý
¦Èúª/aqy²"
½n7 A ∈ M (R), B ∈ M (R), C ∈ M m×n n×k k×` (R) "K
rank AB + rank BC ≤ rank ABC + rank B.
y² E©¬Ý

AB 0m×`
D= ,
B BC
Ù¥0 L«¤k0m × `Ý
"{u , ..., u }AB1þN45Ã'
f8§ {v , ..., v }BC 1þN45Ã'f8"rankAB = rÚrankBC =
m×` 1 r
s"K{(u , ~0), ..., (u , ~0)}´Ý

D1þ", §3B 1þ~b , ..., ~b ¦
1 r
{(~b , v ), ..., (~b , v )}´Ý

D1þ"XJ3~êα , ..., α , β , ..., β ¦
1 r (i1 ) (is )
(i1 ) 1 (is ) s 1 r 1 s
α1 (u1 , ~0) + · · · + αr (ur , ~0) + β1 (~b(i1 ) , v1 ) + · · · + βs (~b(is ) , vs ) = (~00 , ~0),
Ù¥~0 ´R "þ"@o§
0 k
β1 v1 + · · · + βs vs = ~0 =⇒ β1 = · · · = βs = 0
63
=⇒ α1 (u1 , ~0) + · · · + αr (ur , ~0) = (~00 , ~0) ∼ α1 u1 + · · · + αr ur = ~00 =⇒ α1 = · · · = αr = 0.
Ïd§{(u , ~0), ..., (u , ~0), (~b ~

(i1 ) , v1 ), ..., (b(is ) , vs )}´Ý
D!5Ã'1þ"¤
±§
1 r
rank D = dim Vr (D) ≥ r + s = rank AB + rank BC.
,¡§

Im −A AB 0m×` 0m×k −ABC
D→ =
0n×k In B BC B BC

0m×k −ABC Ik −C 0m×k −ABC
→ = .
B BC 0`×k I` B 0n×`
5¿
−1 −1
Im −A Im A Ik −C Ik C
= , = .
0n×k In 0n×k In 0`×k I` 0`×k I`
¤±U1ãy²§·k

0m×k −ABC
rank ABC + rank B = rank = rank D ≥ rank AB + rank BC. 2
B 0n×`
gK
¦eÝ
_Ý
µ
···
 
1 0 0 0
 x2,1 1 0 ··· 0 

... ..
A =  x3,1 x3,2 1 ..
 
 . .. .. ..
 ..

. . . 0 
xn,1 xn,2 · · · xn,n−1 1
5ºµ þã_Ý
¥{x | 1 ≤ j < i ≤ n}õª§·^5ïÄ
þfõN.'õAÛ¼ê©5ÚÈ©L«"
i,j
13Ù 1ª
64
10 1ªEÚx
·®²ùL2Ú31ª§Ù¢§±w¤éAÝ
1þmõ¼
ê"Ú?p1ª§·ÄR n(kÈ n
(Rn )n = {(u1 , u2 , ..., un ) ∈ Rn }.
mR þn¼êf ´l(R ) RN"¼êf ¡õ5XJ

n n n
f (u1 , ..., ui−1 , λu + µv, ui+1 , ..., un )

= λf (u1 , ..., ui−1 , u, ui+1 , ..., un ) + µf (u1 , ..., ui−1 , v, ui+1 , ..., un ),
Ù¥u , ..., u , u , ..., u , u, v ∈ R λ, µ ∈ R§=§'uzCÑ´5¼ê"

n
mR þn¼êg ¡é¡XJ

1 i−1 i+1 n
n
g(u1 , ..., ui−1 , ui , ui+1 , ui+2 , ..., un ) = −g(u1 , ..., ui−1 , ui+1 , ui , , ui+2 , ..., un ),
Ù¥i = 1, 2, ..., n − 1¶=üCUC¼êÎÒ"XÓRþn

é¡¼ê§é?¿σ ∈ S ÚR þné¡¼êg§·k n
n
g(xσ(1) , xσ(2) , ..., xσ(n) ) = εσ g(u1 , u2 , ..., un ). (1)
AO§?¿üCUC¼êÎÒ"
éR þõ¼ê§·±½Â1þÐC"£ÁÝ
1ÐC
n
±ÏL¦ÐÝ
F , F (λ)ÚF (a)5¢y"éR þn¼êf §½Â
i,j i,j i
n
(Fi,j f )(u1 , ..., ui , ..., uj , ..., un ) = f (u1 , ..., uj , ..., ui , ..., un ),
(Fi,j (λ)f )(u1 , ..., ui , ..., uj , ..., un ) = f (u1 , ..., ui + λuj , ..., uj , ..., un ),
(Fi (a)f )(u1 , ..., ui , ..., un ) = f (u1 , ..., aui , ..., un ).
XJf ´õ5§K
f (u1 , ..., ui−1 , ~0, ui+1 , ..., un ) = f (u1 , ..., ui−1 , 0 · ~0, ui+1 , ..., un )
(2)
0 · f (u1 , ..., ui−1 , ~0, ui+1 , ..., un ) = 0,
(Fi,j (λ)f )(u1 , ..., ui , ..., uj , ..., un )

= f (u1 , ..., ui + λuj , ..., uj , ..., un ) (3)
= f (u1 , ..., ui , ..., uj , ..., un ) + λf (u1 , ..., uj , ..., uj , ..., un ),
(Fi (a)f )(u1 , ..., ui , ..., un ) = f (u1 , ..., aui , ..., un ) = af (u1 , ..., ui , ..., un ). (4)
,¡§·½Â
d(Fi,j ) = −1, d(Fi,j (λ)) = 1, d(Fi (a)) = a−1 . (5)
65
éR þné¡¼êg§d(1)ª
n
Fi,j g = −g =⇒ g = d(Fi,j )Fi,j g. (6)
AO§XJu = u i j =u §@o
i j i j
g(u1 , ..., u, ..., u, ..., un ) = −(Fi,j g)(u1 , ..., u, ..., u, ..., un )
i j
= −g(u1 , ..., u, ..., u, ..., un ),
d/ i j
g(u1 , ..., u, ..., u, ..., un ) = 0. (7)
2d(3)ªÚ(7)ª§
Fi,j (λ)g = g =⇒ g = d(Fi,j (λ))Fi,j (λ)g. (8)
â(4)ª§
g = a−1 Fi (a)g = d(Fi (a))Fi (a)g. (9)
Ún1 éR þ?¿né¡¼êgÚÐÝ
F §kg = d(F )F g"
n
½u , u , ..., u ∈ R "PU ±§1þn×nÝ

"K3ÐÝ
F , F , ..., F ¦
n
U = F · · · F F U Ú {F/"PU 1i1þu "gR þ?¿

1 2 n 1 2 r
0 0 0 n
né¡¼ê"XJrank{u , ..., u } < n§Ku = ~0"â(2)ªÚÚn1§

r 2 1 i
0
1 r n
r
Y r
Y
g(u1 , ..., un ) = [ d(Fi )](Fr · · · F2 F1 g)(u1 , ..., un ) = [ d(Fi )]g(u01 , ..., u0n ) = 0.
i=1 i=1
brank{u , ..., u } = n§KU

1 r
0
= In §=u = ~e "¤±§
0
i i
r
Y r
Y
g(u1 , u2 , ..., un ) = [ d(Fi )](Fr · · · F2 F1 g)(u1 , u2 , ..., un ) = [ d(Fi )]g(~e1 , ~e2 , , ..., ~en ).
i=1 i=1
ùpê[Q d(F )]u , u , ..., u k'gÃ'"ù·Òy²

µ
r
i=1 i 1 2 n
½n2 R þ?¿né¡¼êgdêg(~e , ~e , , ..., ~e )(½"

n
1 2 n
116ù
66
£Á21ª
a11 a12

= a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
a21 a22
·rüª1I11 I11"þã1ü
ªéAσ Ú1üªéAσ ©O
1 2

1 2 1 2
σ1 = , σ1 = .
1 2 2 1
Ïd§·±r21ª¤

a11 a12 X
= εσ a1σ(1) a2σ(2) .
a21 a22
σ∈S2
Ó331ª

a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23

a31 a32 a33
¥cnüªéA´ó

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
, ,
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2
nüªéA´Û

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
, , .
3 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 2
¤±§·±r31ª¤

a11 a12 a13
X
a21 a22 a23 = εσ a1σ(1) a2σ(2) a3σ(3) .

a31 a32 a33 σ∈S3
é?¿A = (a ij )n×n ∈ Mn×n (R) §·½ÂA1ª(determinant)

a11 a12 · · · a1n

a21 a22 · · · a2n X
det A = det(~a(1) , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) ) = = εσ a1σ(1) a2σ(2) · · · anσ(n) .

.. .. ..

. . .
σ∈Sn
an1 an2 · · · ann
du§'u½1þ~a I´g(=Úª¥a )§¼êdet(~a (1) , ~ ´R þ

a(2) , ..., ~a(n) ) n
nõ5¼ê"n = 2§
(i) iσ(i)

a a
det(~a(1) , ~a(2) ) = 11 12

= a11 a22 − a12 a21
a21 a22
67

a a
(F12 det)(~a(1) , ~a(2) ) = 21 22

= a21 a12 − a22 a11 = a12 a21 − a11 a22 = − det(~a(1) , ~a(2) ).
a11 a12
n = 3§
a11 a12 a13

det(~a(1) , ~a(2) , ~a(3) ) = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

a21 a22 a23

(F1,2 det)(~a(1) , ~a(2) , ~a(3) ) = a11 a12 a13
a31 a32 a33
= a12 a21 a33 + a13 a22 a31 + a11 a23 a32 − a12 a23 a31 − a11 a22 a33 − a13 a21 a32 = − det(~a(1) , ~a(2) , ~a(3) ).
én§Pé(i j) = σ "é∀σ ∈ S §σ = (σσ ij n ij )σij "ÏdS σ n ij = Sn "·k

X
(F1,2 det)(~a(1) , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) ) = εσ a2σ(1) a1σ(2) a3σ(3) · · · anσ(n)
σ∈Sn
X
= εσ a1σ(σ12 (1)) a2σ(σ12 (2)) a3σ(σ12 (3)) · · · anσ(σ12 (n))
σ∈Sn
X
= − εσσ12 a1(σσ12 )(1) a2(σσ12 )(2) a3(σσ12 )(3) · · · an(σσ12 )(n)
σ∈Sn
X
= − εσ0 a1σ0 (1) a2σ0 (2) a3σ0 (3) · · · anσ0 (n)
σ 0 ∈Sn
= − det(~a(1) , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) ).
é1 ≤ i < j ≤ n §
(Fi,j det)(~a(1) , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) )
i j
= det(~a(1) , · · · , ~a(j) , ..., ~a(i) , ..., ~a(n) )
X
= εσ a1σ(1) · · · ajσ(i) · · · aiσ(j) · · · anσ(n)
σ∈Sn
X
= εσ a1σ(1) · · · ajσ(σij (j)) · · · aiσ(σij (i)) · · · anσ(n)
σ∈Sn
X
= εσ a1σ(σij (1)) · · · ajσ(σij (j)) · · · aiσ(σij (i)) · · · anσ(σij (n))
σ∈Sn
X
= − εσσij a1(σσij )(1) · · · aj(σσij )(j) · · · ai(σσij )(i) · · · an(σσij )(n)
σ∈Sn
X
= − εσ0 a1σ0 (1) · · · ajσ0 (j) · · · aiσ0 (i) · · · anσ0 (n)
σ 0 ∈S n
= − det(~a(1) , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) ).
68
Ïd§det(~a , ~a , ..., ~a )´R þné¡¼ê§=det AÁ1þ
n
é¡õ5¼ê"XJ
(1) (2) (n)
a11 a12 · · ·
 
a1n
... ..
0 a22 .
 
A=
 
.. . . .. 
 . . . a(n−1)n 
0 ··· 0 ann
´þnÝ
§K
anσ(n) 6= 0, a(n−1)σ(n−1) 6= 0, ..., a1σ(1) 6= 0 =⇒ σ(n) = n, σ(n − 1) = n − 1, ..., σ(1) = 1.
Ïd§
a11 a12 · · · a1n

. ..
0 a22 . . .

det A = = a11 a22 · · · ann . (10)

.. . . ..

. . . a(n−1)n

0 ··· 0 ann
AO§det I = 1"ùâ½n2§·y²
µ
n
½n3 n × nÝ
A = (a ) 1ªdet A´Ù1þ÷vdet I = 1
é¡õ5¼ê"
ij n×n n
|^Ún1Ú(9)ª§·^(I).Ú(II).1ÐCò1ªz¤þn/=
Ù"
~1 ^½Â§·k
2 1
1 2 = 2 × 2 − 1 × 1 = 3.

^1ÐC§·k

2 1 F1,2 1 2 F2,1 (−2) 1 2
1 2 = − 2 1 = − 0 −3
= −1 × (−3).

~ ^½Â§·k
2

3 2 1
−1 −1 −3 = 3 −1 −3 + 2 1 + 4 2 1

= 3 · 8 − 1 + 4 · (−5) = 3.

4
3 1 3 1 −1 −3
3 1
^1ÐC§·k

−1 −1 −3
F2,1 (3),F3,1 (4) −1 −1 −3
3 2 1
F1,2
−1 −1 −3 = − 3 2 1 = − 0 −1 −8

4 3 1 4 3 1 0 −1 −11

−1 −1 −3
F3,2 (−1)
= − 0 −1 −8 = −(−1) · (−1) · (−3) = −3.
0 0 −3
69
^1ÐC§éOp1ªw`³"
~3 Oe1ªµ
−2 5 −1 3

1 −9 13 7
D = .
3 −1 5 −5

2 8 −7 −10
) ^1ÐC§·k

1 −9 13 7
1 −9 13 7

F12 −2
5 −1 3 F2,1 (2),F3,1 (−3),F4,1 (−2)
0 −13 25 17
D = − = −
3 −1 5 −5 0 26 −34 −26

2 8 −7 −10 0 26 −33 −24

1 −9 13 7

1 −9 13
7
F3,2 (2),F4,2 (2) 0 −13 25 17 F4,3 (−17/16) 0 −13 25
17
= − = −
0
0 16 8 0 0 16 8
0
0 17 10 0 0 0 3/2
3
= −(−13) · 16 · = 312.
2
11 1ªU1½UÐm
A = (a ) "·ÄkïÄdet AÚdet A'X"5¿ε t
= εσ−1 σ(σ −1
(i)) =
i"·Pb = a §= A = (b ) "¤±§
ij n×n σ
t
ij ji ij n×n
X
det A = εσ a1σ(1) a2σ(2) · · · anσ(n)
σ∈Sn
X
= εσ aσ−1 (1)1 aσ−1 (2)2 · · · aσ−1 (n)n
σ∈Sn
X
= εσ−1 aσ−1 (1)1 aσ−1 (2)2 · · · aσ−1 (n)n
σ −1 ∈Sn
X
= εσ0 aσ0 (1)1 aσ0 (2)2 · · · aσ0 (n)n
σ 0 ∈S n
X
= εσ0 b1σ0 (1) b2σ0 (2) · · · bnσ0 (n) = det tA.
σ 0 ∈Sn
Ïd§1ª'u15¤á¿©7^´'uéA5¤á!n × nÝ
A¡é¡XJ A = −A"~X§

n = 3§é¡Ý

t
0 −a −b
A=  a 0 −c  .
b c 0
5¿| − A| = (−1) |A|"¤±§éé¡Ý
A§·k
n
|A| = |tA| = | − A| = (−1)n |A| =⇒ (1 − (−1)n )|A| = 0 =⇒ XJ n ´Ûê, |A| = 0.

70
~X§
0 −a −b

a
0 −c = 0.
b c 0
PA( )lA¥y1i1Ú1j¤e(n − 1) × (n − 1)Ý
"X
i
j
   
a22 a23 · · · a2n a21 a23 · · · a2n
 a32 a33 · · · a3n   a31 a33 · · · a3n 
A(11 ) = 1
 , A(2 ) =  ,
   
.. .. .. .. .. ..
 . . .   . . . 
an2 an3 · · · ann an1 an3 · · · ann
   
a12 a13 · · · a1n a11 a12 ··· a1(n−1)
2
 a32 a33 · · · a3n 
n
 a21 a22 ··· a3(n−1) 
A ) =  , A(n ) =  .
   
1 .. .. .. .. .. ..
 . . .   . . . 
an2 an3 · · · ann a(n−1)1 a(n−1)2 · · · a(n−1)(n−1)
·¡M = |A( )|Ý
AéAua fª§ A
i
= (−1)i+j Mi,j a
ê{fª"
i,j j ij ij ij
~4 ¦Ý
 
−1 0 1
A= 2 1 0 
0 −3 1
Üê{fª"
) U½Âk

1+1
1 0 1+2
2 0
A11 = (−1) 0 1 = −2,
= 1, A12 = (−1)
−3 1

1+3 2 1
2+1
0 1
A13 = (−1) = −6, A21 = (−1) = −3,
0 −3 −3 1

2+2 −1 1 2+3 −1 0

A22 = (−1) = −1, A23 = (−1) = −3,
0 1 0 −3

3+1 0 1 3+2 −1 1

A31 = (−1) = −1, A32 = (−1) = 2,
1 0 2 0

3+3 −1 0

A33 = (−1) = −1.
2 1
XJa 12 = a13 = · · · = a1n = 0 §K
a1σ(1) 6= 0 =⇒ σ(1) = 1.
71
Ïd§
a11 0 · · · 0

a21 a22 · · · a2n
det A = det(a11~e1 , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) ) = ..

.. ..
. . .

an1 an2 · · · ann
X
= εσ a11 a2σ(2) a3σ(3) · · · anσ(n)
σ∈Sn ;σ(1)=1
X
= a11 εσ a2σ(2) a3σ(3) · · · anσ(n) = a11 A11 .
σ∈Sn ;σ(1)=1
Óé2 ≤ j ≤ n,

0 ··· 0 a1j 0 ··· 0

a21 · · · a2(j−1) a2j a2(j+11) · · · a2n
det(a1j ~ej , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) ) =

.. .. .. .. ..

. . . . .

an1 · · · an(j−1)
anj a2(j+1) · · · ann

a1j 0 · · · 0 0 · · · 0

a2j a21 · · · a2(j−1) a2(j+11) · · · a2n
= (−1)j−1 ..

.. .. .. ..
. . . . .

anj an1 · · · an(j−1) a2(j+1) · · · ann

a21 · · · a2(j−1) a2(j+11) · · · a2n

1+j .. .
. .
. .
.
= (−1) a1j . = a1j A1j .

. . .
an1 · · · an(j−1) a2(j+1) · · · ann
ùéA§·k
n
X
det A = det(~a(1) , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) ) det( a1j ~ej , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) )
j=1
n
X n
X
= det(a1j ~ej , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) ) = a1j A1j .
j=1 j=1
2 ≤ i ≤ n"K
det A = det(~a(1) , ..., ~a(i−1) , ~a(i) , ~a(i−1) ..., ~a(n) )
= (−1)i−1 det(~a(i) , ~a(1) , ..., ~a(i−1) , ~a(i−1) ..., ~a(n) )
Xn X n n
X
i−1 1+j i+j
= (−1) (−1) aij Mij = (−1) aij Mij = aij Aij .
j=1 j=1 j=1
ù§·Òy²
µ
½n4 Ý
A = (a ij )n×n "½1 ≤ i ≤ n§·k1Ðmúª
n
X
det A = air Air = ai1 Ai1 + ai2 Ai2 + · · · + ain Ain .
r=1
72
½1 ≤ j ≤ n§·kÐmúª
n
X
det A = asj Asj = a1j A1j + a2j A2j + · · · + anj Anj .
s=1
117ù
~5 Ý
 
−1 0 1
A= 2 1 0 .
0 −3 1
d~4§
A11 = 1, A12 = −2, A13 = −6, A21 = −3, A22 = −1,
A23 = −3, A31 = −1, A32 = 2, A33 = −1.
det A = a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 − a13 a22 a31 − a12 a21 a33 − a11 a23 a32
= −1 + 0 − 6 − 0 − 0 − 0 = −7.

a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13 = −1 · 1 + 0 · (−2) + 1 · (−6) = −7,
a21 A21 + a22 A22 + a23 A23 = 2 · (−3) + 1 · (−1) + 0 · (−3) = −7,
a31 A31 + a32 A32 + a33 A33 = 0 · (−1) − 3 · 2 + 1 · (−1) = −7,
a11 A11 + a21 A21 + a31 A31 = −1 · 1 + 2 · (−3) + 0 · (−1) = −7,
a12 A12 + a22 A22 + a32 A32 = 0 · (−2) + 1 · (−1) − 3 · 2 = −7,
a13 A13 + a23 A23 + a33 A33 = 1 · (−6) + 0 · (−3) + 1 · (−1) = −7.
~6 Ý
 
−1 1 1 0 1

 2 1 0 0 −1 

A=
 0 −1 0 0 0 
.
 0 0 0 −1 1 
1 0 0 0 2
O1ª|A|"
73
) U"õ1½Ðmµ

−1 1 1 0 1
−1 1 0 1
U1=3Ðm

2 1 0 0 −1

0 −1 0
3+2
2 0 0 −1
|A| = 0 0 (−1) · (−1)

0 0 −1 1

0 0 0 −1 1
1 0

1
0 2
0 0 0 2
U=2Ðm U=2Ðm −(−1)

2
0 −1

2 −1
1+2 2+2
(−1) 0 −1 1 · (−1) = 5.
1 1 2
0 2
~7 O(Vandermonde)1ª

1
1 1 ··· 1

x1
x2 x3 ··· xn

x2 x 2
x 2
··· x2n
∆(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = 1 .

2 3
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
n−1 n−1 n−1
· · · xn−1

x1 x2 x3 n

) ^1ÐCµ
∆(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = F21 )(−x1 )F32 )(−x1 ) · · · Fn(n−1) )(−x1 )∆(x1 , x2 , ..., xn )

1
1 1 · · · 1

0
x2 − x1 x3 − x1 ··· xn − x1

0 x2 (x2 − x1 ) x (x − x ) · · · x (x − x )
= 3 3 1 n n 1

.. .. .. ..
. . . .
n−2 n−2 n−2

0 x2 (x2 − x1 ) x3 (x3 − x1 ) · · · xn (xn − x1 )

x2 − x1 x3 − x1 ··· xn − x1
U=1Ðm

x2 (x2 − x1 ) x (x
3 3 − x 1 ) · · · x (x
n n − x 1 )

.. .. ..
n−2 . . .

x2 (x2 − x1 ) xn−2 n−2

3 (x3 − x1 ) · · · xn (xn − x1 )

1
1 · · · 1

x2 x3 · · · xn
= (x2 − x1 )(x3 − x1 ) · · · (xn − x1 ) ..

.. ..
. . .
n−2 n−2 n−2
x2 x3 · · · xn
= (x2 − x1 )(x3 − x1 ) · · · (xn − x1 )∆(x2 , x3 , ..., xn )
8B{
=
Y
(xj − xi ), ´ é¡¼ê"
n
1≤i<j≤n
1ªO¿©|^§A5¶X§é§4íúª§2^8B{"
74
~8 n × nÝ
··· b
 
a b b
 c a b ··· b 
. . . ..
 
An =  c c a . .
 
 . .. ..
 ..

. . b 
c ··· ··· c a
O1ªD = |A |"
) Ý
A A:´ÌéþÑá§îþnÑ´b îen
n n
Ñć"
n
5¿11´
(a, b, b, ..., b) = (a − b, 0, 0, ..., 0) + (b, b, b, ..., b).
â1ªõ55µ
a−b 0 · · · ··· b

0 0
b b b

c a b · · · b c a b ··· b
. . .. . . ..

Dn = c

c a . . + c c a . .

. ... ... .. ... ...
..

b
. b

c ··· ··· c a c ··· ··· c a
···

b 0 0 0
a b ··· b

. . .. c
a − c b − c ··· b − c
c a
. . . ..
= (a − b) . . + c 0 a − c .. .

.. . . . .. b .

. .. .. ..
c ··· c a .
. . . b−c

c 0 ··· 0 a−c

a−c b−c · · · b − c

... ..
0 a−c .

= (a − b)Dn−1 + b . .. ..
..

. . b − c
0 ··· 0 a−c
= (a − b)Dn−1 + b(a − c)n−1 ,
=·k4íúª
Dn = (a − b)Dn−1 + b(a − c)n−1 .
5¿ A lA ¥bÚc"
t
n n
Dn = |tAn | = (a − c)Dn−1 + c(a − b)n−1 .
b 6= c§lþãüª)D n
b(a − c)n − c(a − b)n

Dn = .
b−c
75
b = c§
Dn = (a − b)Dn−1 + b(a − b)n−1 = (a − b)[Dn−1 + b(a − b)n−2 ].
E|^Túª
Dn = (a − b)[(a − b)(Dn−2 + b(a − b)n−3 ) + b(a − b)n−2 ] = (a − b)2 [Dn−2 + 2b(a − b)n−3 ]
= (a − b)2 [(a − b)(Dn−3 + b(a − b)n−4 ) + 2b(a − b)n−3 ] = (a − b)3 [Dn−3 + 3b(a − b)n−4 ]
= · · · = (a − b)n−2 [D2 + (n − 2)b(a − b)] = (a − b)n−2 [a2 − b2 + (n − 2)b(a − b)]
= (a − b)n−1 [a + b + (n − 2)b] = (a − b)n−1 (a + (n − 1)b).
12 1ªA5
â·éR þné¡õ5¼êØã§n × nÝ
A1ª
n
det A 6= 0 ⇔ ran A = n ⇔ A _"
duR þné¡õ5¼êgdêg(~e , ~e , ..., ~e )(½ det(~a

n
(1) , ~ ´
a(2) , ..., ~a(n) )
÷vdet(~e , ~e , ..., ~e ) = 1R þné¡õ5¼ê, ·k
1 2 n
n
1 2 n
g(~a(1) , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) ) = g(~e1 , ~e2 , ..., ~en ) det(~a(1) , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) ). (11)
A = (a ij )n×n , B = (brs )m×m ÚC = (c is )n×m "Ä©¬Ý

A C
D= .
0 B
I½AÚC §Kdet D´B1þé¡õ¼ê"â(11)ª§

A C
det D = det B.
0 Im
ÅÚU1n + m, n + m − 1, n + m − 2, ..., n + 11Ðm§·

A C
= det A.
0 Im
ù§·Òy²

A C A C
det = det A · det B ∼ = |A| · |B|. (12)
0 B 0 B
A n × n Ý
§i = 1, 2, ..., r"|^8B{Ú(12)ª§·±y²±e©¬þn
/1ªêµ
i i i

A1 C12 · · · C1r

.. ..

0 A2 . .

= |A1 | · |A2 | · · · |Ar |. (13)

.. . . ..

. . . C(r−1)r

0 ··· 0 Ar
76
5¿éa, b, c, d ∈ Ra 6= 0§

1 0 a b a b
−1 = .
−a c 1 c d 0 d − ba−1 c
~9 A, B, C, D ∈ M n×n (R) A_§K

A B In 0 A B A B = |A| · |D − CA−1 B|.

= −1
=
C D −CA In C D 0 D − CA−1 B
duÐÝ
´éðÝ
A1ÐC§·k
|Fi,j | = −, |Fi,j (λ)| = 1, |Fi (a)| = a.
A, B ∈ M n×n (R) "XJrank A < n½rank B < n§K

rank AB ≤ min{rank A, rank B} < n.
¤±§|AB| = 0 = |A| · |B|"brank A = rank B = n"K3ÐÝ

F , F , ..., F
¦
1 2 r+s
A = F1 F2 · · · Fr , B = Fr+1 Fr+2 · · · Fr+s .
âé¡õ5¼êÐC5§
|A| = det(~a(1) , ~a(2) , ..., ~a(n) ) = (F1 F2 · · · Fr det)(~e1 , ~e2 , ..., ~en ) = |F1 | · |F2 | · · · |Fr |.
Ó
|B| = |Fr+1 Fr+2 · · · Fr+s | = |Fr+1 | · |Fr+2 | · · · |Fr+s |,
|AB| = |F1 F2 · · · Fr Fr+1 Fr+2 · · · Fr+s | = |F1 | · |F2 | · · · |Fr | · |Fr+1 | · |Fr+2 | · · · |Fr+s |.
Ïd§|AB| = |A| · |B|"ù·y²

µ
½n5 é?¿n × nÝ
AÚB§|AB| = |A| · |B|"
A, B, C, D, K ∈ M (R)"|^þã½n§·k
n×n

KA KB K 0 A B K 0 A B
= |K| · A B

= = · .
C D 0 In C D 0 In C D C D
±^ù(J"
e¡·ïÄ1ªAÛ¿Â"

a11 a12 *(1) *(2)
A= = (a a ).
a21 a22
77
-
cos θ − sin θ
Rθ = .
sin θ cos θ
K
|Rθ | = cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1.
du *(1) *(2) *(1) *(2) *(1) *(2)

Rθ A = Rθ ( a a ) = (Rθ a Rθ a ) = (ϕRθ ( a ) ϕ Rθ ( a )),
¦R Aduéþ a Ú a Ó^=Cϕ "Ïd§§± R¥± a Ú a

*(1) *(2) 2 *(1) *(2)
>²1o>/¡ÈØC"·θ¦
θ Rθ

b11 b12 *(1) *(2)
Rθ A = = (b b ).
0 b22
ýé

det b 11 b 12

= |b11 b22 |
0 b22
AÛþÒ´ R¥± b Ú b >²1o>/¡È"du

2
*(1) *(2)
det Rθ A = det Rθ · det A = det A,
| det A| AÛþÒ´ R¥± a Ú a >²1o>/¡È"

2 *(1) *(2)
Ó  
a11 a12 a13
*(1) *(2) *(3)
A=  a21 a22 a23  = ( a a a ).
a31 a32 a33
-    
cos θ − sin θ 0 1 0 0
Rθ =  sin θ cos θ 0  , Tθ =  0 cos θ − sin θ  .
0 0 1 0 sin θ cos θ
Kdet R = det T = 1" ¦R Aduéþ a , a Ú a Ó7 e ^= *(1) *(2) *(3) *
C"¦T Aduéþ a , a Ú a Ó7 e ^=C"Ïd§§

θ θ θ 3
*(1) *(2) *(3) *
± R¥± a , a Ú a >²18¡NNÈØC"·θ , θ Úθ ¦
θ 1
3 *(1) *(2) *(3)
1 2 3
 
b11 b12 b13 *(1) *(2) *(3)
Tθ1 Rθ2 Tθ3 A =  0 b22 b23  = ( b b b ).
0 0 b33
ýé  

b11 b12 b13
det  0 b22 b23  = |b11 b22 b33 |

0 0 b33
78
AÛþÒ´ R¥± b 3
*(1) *(2)
,b Ú b >²18¡NNÈ"du
*(3)
det(Tθ1 Rθ2 Tθ3 A) = det Tθ1 · det Rθ2 · det Tθ3 · det A = det A,
AÛþÒ´ R¥± a , a Ú a >²18¡NNÈ"

| det A| 3 *(1) *(2) *(3)
/§é?¿A = (a ) §| det A|AÛþÒ´ R¥± a , a , ..., a > n *(1) *(2) *(n)
²1õ¡NNÈ"dudet A = det A§| det A|AÛþ´R ¥±~a , ~a , ..., ~a

ij n×n
t n
>²1õ¡NNÈ"
(1) (2) (n)
118ù
A ∈ M (R)1 ≤ r ≤ min{m, n}ê"é1I1 ≤ i < i 2 < · · · < ir ≤
mÚI1 ≤ j < j < · · · < j ≤ n§·^
m×n 1
1 2 r

i1 i 2 · · · i r
A
j1 j2 · · · jr
L«dA¥?u1i , i , ..., i 1Ú1j , j , ..., j ?¤r × r

"X§
1 2 r 1 2 r
 
a11 a12 a13 a14
 a21 a22 a23 a24 
A= ,
 a31 a32 a33 a34 
a41 a42 a43 a44

1 3 a12 a14
A = .
2 4 a32 a34
·¡1ª
i1 i2 · · · i r i 1 i 2 · · · i r

A = A
j1 j2 · · · jr j1 j2 · · · jr
Arfª"
½n6 Ý
Au§"fª4"
y² A"fª4r

i 1 i 2 · · · ir
M =A 6= 0.
j 1 j2 · · · j r
Äk§~a (i1 ) , ~
a(i2 ) , ..., ~a(ir ) 5Ã'ÏÝ

i1 i2 · · · ir
A
j1 j2 · · · jr
79
1þ5Ã'"é?¿i ∈ {1, 2, ..., m}Új ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}§E1ª

aij aij1 aij2 · · · aijr

ai1 j ai1 j1 ai1 j2 · · · ai1 jr

M
f = ai2 j ai2 j1 ai2 j2 · · · ai2 jr .

.. .. .. ..

. . . .

air j air j1 air j2 · · · air jr
XJi ∈ {i , i , ..., i }½j ∈ {j , j , ..., j }§KMf¥kü1½üÓ§Mf = 0"Ä

K§MfÁ,r + 1fª±1"d45b§Mf = 0"Ïd§Mf = 0©ª¤
1 2 r 1 2 r
á"
P
a a ··· a

ij. 1 ij2 ijr

.. .
.. ..
.

a a · · · a

Ms = is−1 j1 is−1 j2 is−1 jr
.

ais+1 j1 ais+1 j2 · · · ais+1 jr
.. .. ..

. . .

a
ir j1 air j2 · · · air jr
UMf1Ðm r
X
aij M + (−1)s ais j Ms = 0,
s=1
d/§ r
X (−1)1+s Ms
aij = ais j .
s=1
M
¤± r
X (−1)1+s Ms
~a(i) = ~a(is ) ,
s=1
M
=
Vr (A) = Span{~a(i1 ) , ~a(i2 ) , ..., ~a(ir ) }.
ù§rank A = r. 2
13 Ý
Ú.%úª
Ý
A = (a ij )n×n "·®²U1Ðmúªµ
n
X
ai1 Ai1 + ai2 Ai2 + · · · + ain Ain = air Air = |A|.
r=1
80
XJi, j ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}i 6= j§KP a A L«r1ª|A|¥1i1^1j1O¤
n
1ª§=T1ª1i1Ú1j1Ñ´~a "X§
r=1 jr ir
(j)

a11 a12 ··· a1n
a21 a22 ··· a2n

n
X

a11 a12 ··· a1n n
X

a21 a22 ··· a2n

a1r A2r =
a31 a32 ··· a3n , a2r A1r =
a31 a32 ··· a3n .

r=1
.. .. .. r=1
.. .. ..

. . .
. . .

an1 an2 ··· ann an1 an2 · · · ann
Ïd§ n
X
aj1 Ai1 + aj2 Ai2 + · · · + ajn Ain = ajr Air = 0.
r=1
·½ÂÝ
AÝ
 
A11 A21 · · · An1
∨
 A12 A22 · · · An2 
A = .
 
.. .. ..
 . . . 
A1n A2n · · · Ann
u´
(j, i)- =
n
|A|, XJ j = i,
XJ j 6= i.
X
∨
AA ajr Air =
0
r=1
þãª¤/ª¤á"¤±§
AA∨ = A∨ A = |A| · In . (14)
Ý
 
−1 0 1
A= 2 1 0 .
0 −3 1
d~4§
A11 = 1, A12 = −2, A13 = −6, A21 = −3, A22 = −1,
A23 = −3, A31 = −1, A32 = 2, A33 = −1.
Ïd  
1 −3 −1
A∨ =  −2 −1 2 .
−6 −3 −1
O
       
−1 0 1 1 −3 −1 1 −3 −1 −1 0 1 −7 0 0
 2 1 0   −2 −1 2  =  −2 −1 2  2 1 0  =  0 −7 0 .
0 −3 1 −6 −3 −1 −6 −3 −1 0 −3 1 0 0 −7
ù·Òkµ
81
½n7 éòzÝ
A§·kµ
1 ∨
A−1 = A .
|A|
~X3þ¡~f¥§
 −1    1 3 1

−1 0 1 1 −3 −1 −7
1  7 7
 2 1 0  = −2 −1 2  =  72 1
7
− 27 .
−7 6 3 1
0 −3 1 −6 −3 −1 7 7 7
ad − bc 6= 0"â½n7§
−1 −1
a b 1 d −b
= .
c d ad − bc −c a
éòzn × nÝ
A§§|A x= b )´ * *
Pn
r=1 br Ar1
 
Pn |A|
r=1 br Ar2
 
* −1
* 1 ∨*  |A|

x= A b= A b=  ..
.
|A| 
 .


Pn
r=1 br Arn
|A|
5¿
a11 · · · a1(i−1) b1 a1(i+1) · · · a1n
P

n
X a21 · · · a2(i−1) b2 a2(i+1) · · · a2n
br Ari = = |Ai |.

.. .. .. .. ..
r=1

. . . . .

an1 · · · an(i−1) bn an(i+1) · · · ann
½n8 (.%(Crammer)úª) éòzÝ

A§§|A x= b k)µ * *
|A1 | |A2 | |An |

x1 = , x2 = , ..., xn = .
|A| |A| |A|
~10 ^.%úª)§|
2x1 +x2 −5x3 +x4 = 8,
x1 −3x2 −6x4 = 9,
2x2 −x3 +2x4 = −5,
x1 +4x2 −7x3 +6x4 = 0.
) ÄkOXê1ª

2 1 −5 1
1 −3 0 −6
|A| = = 27.
0 2 −1 2
1 4 −7 6
82
.%úªU^"2O1ª
8
1 −5 1
9 −3 0 −6
|A1 | = = 81,
−5 2 −1 2
0 4 −7 6

2
8 −5 1
1 9 0 −6
|A2 | = = −108,
0 −5 −1 2
1 0 −7 6

2 1 8 1

1 −3 9 −6
|A3 | = = −27,
0 2 −5 2
1 4 0 6

2
1 −5 8
1 −3 0 9
|A4 | = = 27.
0 2 −1 −5
1 4 −7 0
Ïd§§|)
|A1 | |A2 | |A3 | |A4 |
x1 = = 3, x2 = = −4, x3 = = −1, x4 = = 1.
|A| |A| |A| |A|
14 Laplace ÐmBinet-Cauchyúª
·®²1ªU1½UÐm"Laplacer§í2Uõ1½UõÐm"
Ý
A = (a ) "é1I1 ≤ i < i < · · · < i ≤ nÚI1 ≤ j < j < · · · <
j ≤ n§£Á·^
ij n×n 1 2 r 1 2
r
i 1 i 2 · · · ir
A
j1 j2 · · · jr
L«dA¥?u1i , i , ..., i 1Ú1j , j , ..., j ?¤r × r
" f
ª
1 2 r 1 2 r

i 1 i2 · · · ir
i1 i2 · · · i r
A = A .
j1 j2 · · · jr j1 j2 · · · jr
P
i 1 i2 · · · ir

A
j1 j2 · · · jr
L«dA¥y1i , i , ..., i 1Ú1j , j , ..., j ¤(n − r) × (n − r)
1
ª"
1 2 r 1 2 r
½n9 éÝ
A = (a ) Ú1I1 ≤ i < i < · · · < i ≤ n§·k
ij n×n 1 2 r

X
i1 +···+ir +j1 +···+jr i1 i2 · · · i r i 1 i 2 · · · ir
|A| = (−1) A A .
j1 j2 · · · jr j1 j2 · · · jr
1≤j1 <j2 <···<jr ≤n
83
y² ·yAÏ¹n = 4, r = 2Úi = 1, i2 = 2 "Ù§¹âq8B{
Ú15y"d§ªm>´
1

a11 a12 a33 a34 a11 a13 a32 a34 a11 a14 a32 a33
− +
a21 a22 a43 a44 a21 a23 a42 a44 a21 a24 a42 a43

a12 a13 a31 a34 a12 a14 a31 a33 a13 a14 a31 a32
+ − +
a22 a23 a41 a44 a22 a24 a41 a43 a23 a24 a41 a42

a33 a34 a32 a34 a32 a33
= a11 a22 − a23
a42 a44 + a24 a42 a43

a43 a44

a33 a34 a31 a34 a31 a33
−a12 a21 − a23
a41 a44 + a24 a41 a43

a43 a44

a32 a34 a31 a34 a31 a32
+a13 a21 − a22
+ a24

a42 a44 a41 a44 a41 a42

a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
−a14 a21 − a22
+ a23

a42 a43 a41 a43 a41 a42

a22 a23 a24 a21 a23 a24 a21 a22 a24 a21 a22 a23

= a11 a32 a33 a34 − a12 a31 a33 a34 + a13 a31 a32
a34 − a14 a31 a32 a33

a42 a43 a44 a41 a43 a44 a41 a42 a44 a41 a42 a43

a11 a12 a13 a14

a21 a22 a23 a24
=
. 2
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 34

a41 a42 a43 a44
aqUõÐm¤á"
~11 ^LaplaceÐm¦e1ª

1 1 3 4

2 0 0 8
D = .
3 0 0 2

4 4 7 5
) U12!31Ðm

2 8 1 3
D = = −20 × (−5) = 100.
3 2 4 7
·én × nÝ
AÚB§·k¦Èúª|AB| = |A| · |B|"e¡·ù§í
2"Äk§·w~fµ
 
b11 b12
a11 a12 a13
A= , B =  b21 b22  .
a21 a22 a23
b31 b32
84
·k
P3 P3 3 3 3 3

r=1 a1r br1 s=1 a1s bs2 X X a1r br1 a1s bs2 X X a1r a1s
|AB| = P3 P3 = a2r br1 a2s bs2 = a2r a2s br1 bs2
r=1 a2r br1 s=1 a2s bs2 r=1 s=1 r=1 s=1

a11 a12 a11 a13 a12 a13
= b b + b b + b b
a21 a22 11 22 a21 a23 11 32 a22 a23 21 32

a12 a11 a13 a11 a13 a12
+ b b + b b + b b
a22 a21 21 12 a23 a21 31 12 a23 a22 31 22

a11 a12 a11 a13 a12 a13
(b b − b21 b12 ) +
=
a21 a22 11 22 a21 a23 (b11 b32 − b31 b12 ) + a22 a23 (b21 b32 − b31 b22 )

a11 a12 b11 b12 a11 a13 b11 b12 a12 a13 b21 b22
= + +
a21 a22 b21 b22 a21 a23 b31 b32 a22 a23 b31 b32

X a1r a1s br1 br2
= a2r a2s bs1 bs2 .

1≤r<s≤3
119ù
/§·kµ
½n10 (Binet-Cauchy) êm, n÷vm ≤ nÝ
A = (a ij )m×n ÚÝ
B =
(bji ) "K
n×m

X 1 2 ··· m i1 i 2 · · · i r
|AB| = A B .
i1 i 2 · · · i m 1 2 ··· m
1≤i1 <i2 <···<im ≤n
y² d1ª'uþõ55
Pn Pn Pn
Pnr1 =1 a1r1 br1 1 Prn2 =1 a1r2 br2 2 · · · Prnm =1 a1rm brm m

r1 =1 a2r1 br1 1 r2 =1 a2r2 br2 2 ··· rm =1 a2rm brm m

|AB| =

.. .. ..
Pn . Pn . .

Pn
r2 =1 amr2 br2 2 · · ·
r =1 amr1 br1 1 rm =1 amrm brm m

1

a1r br 1 a1r br 2 · · · a1r br m
1 1 2 2 m m
X n a2r br 1 a2r br 2 · · · a2r br m
1 1 2 2 m m
=

.. .. ..

r1 ,r2 ,...,rm =1
. . .

amr1 br1 1 amr2 br2 2 · · · amrm brm m

a1r a1r · · · a1r
1 2 m
X n a2r a2r · · · a2r
1 2 m
= .. br1 1 br2 2 · · · brm m

.. ..
.
r1 ,r2 ,...,rm =1
. .
amr1 amr2 · · · amrm
85

a1i
1 a1i2 ··· a1im

X a2i
1 a2i2 ··· a2im
X
= εσ bi1 σ(1) bi2 σ(2) · · · bim σ(m)

.. .. ..

. . .
1≤i1 <i2 <···<im ≤n σ∈Sm
ami1 ami2 · · · amim

a1i
1 a1i2 · · · a1im bi1 1 bi1 2 · · · bi1 m
X a2i
1 a2i2 · · · a2im bi2 1 bi2 2 · · · bi2 m
=

.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .
1≤i1 <i2 <···<im ≤n
ami1 ami2 · · · amim bim 1 bim 2 · · · bim m

X 1 2 ··· m i 1 i2 · · · i r
= A B . 2
i1 i2 · · · im 1 2 ··· m
1≤i1 <i2 <···<im ≤n
m = 2§·Cauchyðªµ
Xn Xn Xn Xn X
( a1r br1 )( a2s bs2 ) − ( a1r br2 )( a2s bs1 ) = (a1i a2j − a1j a2i )(bi1 bj2 − bi2 bj1 ).
r=1 s=1 r=1 s=1 1≤i<j≤n
14Ù +..
ÔnÆ[`/3vàÔn¥§á¥fÚ>fØÓ.
ØÓ
S§dd)
á«´L5"LaudauuÐ
@~é¡5»"nØ
5£ãù
ØÓS"¦uyá¥ØÓS¢SéAuØÓé¡5".é
¡5u)Cz§Ò¬u)AC0"
êÆ3Ôn!)Ô&E!gÄ!ÅL§+ÑkA^"
15 +Ä½Â
+(semigroup)Ò´k÷v(ÜÆê$8Ü"X§·
`8ÜX 'u$∗ : X × X → X ¤+XJéa, b, c ∈ X §(ÜÆa ∗ (b ∗ c) =
(a ∗ b) ∗ c¤á"~X§é½ên§8ÜnN = {nm | m ∈ N}'uê¦{
¤+"8ÜSþC(SSN)N'uC¦È¤
+"M (R)'uÝ
¦È¤+",§¿¤k!g,ê$÷v
(ÜÆ"~X§nmÈµ
n×n
(a1~e1 + a2~e2 + a3~e3 ) × (b1~e1 + b2~e2 + b3~e3 )

= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )~e1 + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )~e2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )~e3

a1 a2 a3

= b1 b2 b3
~e1 ~e2 ~e3
86
Ø÷v(ÜÆ¶X§~e × (~e × ~e ) = ~e × ~e = −~e (~e × ~e ) × ~e "¯¢þ§n
= ~0
m'uÈ¤oê!
1 1 2 1 3 2 1 1 2
½+(X, ∗)Úξ ∈ X §½Â#$

a ◦ b = a ∗ ξ ∗ b.
K
(a ◦ b) ◦ c = (a ∗ ξ ∗ b) ∗ ξ ∗ c = a ∗ ∗ξ ∗ (b ∗ ξ ∗ c) = a ◦ (b ◦ c).
Ïd§X 'u$◦¤+"
+(X, ∗)¥e¡ü (identity element)XJ
e ∗ a = a ∗ e = a, ∀e ∈ X.
¹ü +¡N+(monoid)"~X§M (R)'uÝ
¦{¤
N+¶éên§8ÜnN'uê¦¤N+¿©7^ń = 1"g,
n×n
ê8ÜN'uê\{¤+§ØŃ+"±xC¢Xêõª
NR[x]'uõª¦È¤N+"
N+(X, ·, e)¥a ∈ X ¡_XJ3b ∈ X ¦a · b = b · a = e"
XÓN§_a_´§Pa "zÑ_N+¡ −1
+(group)"
~X§"knêêNQ 'uê¦¤+¶8ÜX þ_C ×
NS 'uC¦È¤+§X +"AO§|X| = n§k

+S 3êÆþå^"émσ ∈ S §Ù_σ = σ "
X
−1 m−1
n × n_Ý
N
n n
GLn (R) = {A ∈ Mn×n (R) | det A 6= 0}
'uÝ
¦È¤ÃëY+§¡5+(general linear group)"§´
AOo+"w,§GL (R)ü ÒÍ § A_Á = −1
|A| A "
n n
−1 ∨
{Bå§+G¦È$·~Ñ§X§a · b = ab"é+G¥?¿a§·
½Â§Kg
a0 = e, ai+1 = aai
½Â§Kg
a−m = (a−1 )m , m ∈ N.
XJ3êk¦a = e§·¡aäkkk; ÄK·¡a´Ã k
"XJaÚb´+Gü§=µab = ba§K
(ab)m = am bm , m ∈ Z.
87
?¿üÑ+¡+§¡C+(abelian group)"~X§
+(Z, +)Ú(Q , ·)Ñ´+"3
|Üe§·¦^\Ò+L«+$
×
"ùangP¤na"
y+´Ä¤+kk{"+(X, ·)e ¡
ü §XJ
l
el · a = a, a ∈ X.
é¹ü e +(X, ·)§a ∈ X ¡'ue _§XJ3b ∈ X ¦b · a = e "
l l l
½ n1 XJ+(X, ·)¹ü e ¿z'ue _§K(X, ·)¤

+"
l l
y² é?¿a ∈ X §3b ∈ X ¦b · a = e "5¿ l
b · (a · el ) = (b · a) · el = el · el = el = b · a.
db_§3c¦c · b = e "¤±§ l
c · [b · (a · el )] = (c · b) · (a · el ) = el · (a · el ) = a · el = c · (b · a) = (c · b) · a = el · a = a,
=a · e = a"e ´+(X, ·)ü "Ò´`§(X, ·, e )¤N+"

^±þPÒ§·k
l l l
a · b = el · (a · b) = (c · b) · (a · b) = c · [b · (a · b)] = c · [(b · a) · b] = c · [el · b] = c · b = el .
Ïda_§=N+X ¥z_"d/§(X, ·)¤+" 2

+Gf8H ¡f+(subgroup)XJé?¿a, b ∈ H §·kab −1
∈H "X
JH ´+Gf+§Ké?¿a, b ∈ H §·k
e = aa−1 ∈ H =⇒ b−1 = eb−1 ∈ H =⇒ ab = a(b−1 )−1 ∈ H.
+Gf8H ´f+¿©7^´§'u_Nµx 7→ x Ú+ −1
¦È´µ4"~X§{e}¤f+§¡²f+"é?¿ên§8
ÜnZ = {nm | m ∈ Z}´Z'u\{f+"+S ¥óNA ¤f+§
¡+(alternating group)"
n n
é?¿A ∈ GL (R)§·k n
1 = |In | = |AA−1 | = |A| · |A−1 | =⇒ |A−1 | = |A|−1 .
-
SLn (R) = {A ∈ Mn×n (R) | |A| = 1}.
KSL (R) ⊂ GL (R)"XJA, B ∈ SL (R)§·k
n n n
|AB| = |A| · |B| = 1 · 1 = 1, |A−1 | = |A|−1 = 1−1 = 1 =⇒ AB, A−1 ∈ SLn (R).
88
SL (R)¤GL (R)f+§¡AÏ5+(special linear group)"§
A¤éA5Cϕ ± R¥²1õ¡NNÈ§ù´Ïé?¿B ∈
n n
n
M (R)§k
A
n×n
*(1) *(2) *(n)

| det B| = | det A det B| = | det AB| = | det(A b A b ··· A b )|
*(1) *(2) *(n)
= | det(ϕA ( b ) ϕA ( b ) · · · ϕA ( b ))|.
l ^©¦4{±y²ϕ ± R¥?¿AÛNNÈ" A
n
120ù
P
On (R) = {A ∈ Mn×n (R) | tA · A = In }.
é?¿A, B ∈ O (R)§K n
t
(AB) · (AB) = tB · tA · A · B = tB · In · B = tB · B = In
A−1 = tA =⇒ t (A−1 ) = A =⇒ t (A−1 ) · A−1 = A · A−1 = In .

AB, A ∈ O (R)§=O (R)¤GL (R)f+§¡+(orthogonal group)"
−1
3 R¥§·kîApSÈ
n n n
n
n
* * * * X
( α | β ) = t ( α)· β = αn βn .
r=1
é?¿A ∈ O (R)§ n
* * * * * * * *
(ϕA ( α)|ϕA ( β )) = (A α |A β ) = r (A α) · A β = t ( α) · tA · A β
* * *
t * * *
= ( α) · In · β = t ( α)· β = ( α | β ).
Ïd§ϕ ± RîApSÈ" n
+O (R)f+
A
n
\
SOn (R) = On (R) SLn (R)
´ R¥^=CN¤éA+"~X§
n

cos θ − sin θ − cos θ sin θ
O2 (R) = , |θ∈R
sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ
y²gK),
(

cos θ − sin θ
SO2 (R) = |θ∈R .
sin θ cos θ
89
Ψ ´²¡þ%3:9k^é¡¶3y-¶þn>/"K
n
D2n = {A ∈ O2 (R) | ϕA (Ψn ) = Ψn }

cos 2rπ − sin 2rπ − cos 2rπ sin 2rπ

= n n , n n | r = 0, 1, ..., n − 1
sin 2rπ
n
cos 2rπ
n
sin 2rπ
n
cos 2rπ
n
¤O (R)f+§¡dihidral+(^ã[)ºD )"

XJS´+Gf8§·P
2 6
S −1 = {a−1 | a ∈ S}.
K [
hSi = {a1 a2 · · · ar | r ∈ S; ai ∈ S S −1 }
¤Gf+§¡dS)¤f+"~X, ·c¡®²y²+S ?Û

¤éσ = (1 2), σ = (2 3), ..., σ = (n − 1 n)¦È" σ = σ "Ïd§
n
−1
+S ´dσ , σ , ..., σ )¤f+§=S = hσ , σ , ..., σ i"d+¥a)¤

1 1 n−1 i i
f+hai¡Ì+(cyclic group)"XJaäkkk§K
n 1 2 n−1 n 1 2 n−1
hai = {e, a, a2 , ..., ak−1 }
¡kÌ+"ea´Ã§K
hai = {ai | i ∈ Z}
¡ÃÌ+"
3dihidral+D ¥- 2n
cos 2π − sin 2π

−1 0 n n
σ= , R= 2π .
0 1 sin n cos 2πn
Kϕ ´'uy-¶§σ 2
= I2 " ϕ Ú_=2π/n^=C"Rń
"ù§
σ R
D2n = {Ri , σRi | i = 0, 1, ..., n − 1} = hσ, Ri.
¯¢þ§
cos 2π − sin 2π − cos 2π sin 2π

−1 0 n n n n
σR = =
0 1 sin 2π
n
cos 2πn
sin 2π
n
cos 2π
n
cos 2π 2π
cos n − sin −2π
−2π

sin n −1 0
= n = −2π
n
−2π σ = R−1 σ,
− sin 2π
n
cos 2πn
0 1 sin n
cos n
½
σRσ = R−1 .
90
dd§
σR2 σ = σRσσRσ = R−1 R−1 = R−2 .
aq/§
σRi σ = R−i =⇒ Ri σ = σR−i .
é?¿a, b, c, d ∈ Z÷vad − bc = 1§
−1
a b d −b
= .
c d −c a
Ïd§
a b
SL2 (Z) = | a, b, c, d ∈ Z; ad − bc = 1
c d
¤SL (R)f+§¡+(modular group)¶§3êØ!onØÚÔnÑåé
^"-
2

1 1 0 −1
T = , S= ∈ SL2 (Z).
0 1 1 0
K
n 1 n
T = , n ∈ Z.
0 1
Ïd§T ´Ã§=hT i´ÃÌ+"

2 0 −1 0 −1 −1 0
S = = = −I2 =⇒ S 4 = I2 ,
1 0 1 0 0 −1
=S´4§hT i´4Ì+"
½n2 SL (Z) = hS, T i"
y²
2

a b
A= ∈ SL2 (Z).
c d
XJ|b| < |a|§·k
b −a
AS = .
d −c
·b0 < |a| ≤ |b|"d{Ø{§
b = na + r, n, r ∈ Z; 0 ≤ r < |a|.
u´§
−n a na + r 1 −n a r
AT = = .
c d 0 1 c d − nc
5¿0 ≤ r < |a|"d8B{§ÏLkgm¦SÚT òAz¤

0 b1
B= ∈ SL2 (Z).
c1 d1
91
?Ú§
−c1 −d1
SB = ∈ SL2 (Z).
0 b1
du1ªu1§·k
−c1 b1 = 1 =⇒ −c1 = b1 = 1 ½ − c1 = b1 = −1.
XJ−c 1 = b1 = 1 §KSB = T "ÄK§S B = T "¤±§A ∈ hS, T i.

−d1 3 d1
2
16 +Ó
H ´+Gf+"·3G¥½Â'X
a ∼ b XJ3 h ∈ H ¦ a = bh. H
w,
e ∈ H =⇒ a = ae =⇒ a ∼H a.
dua = bh =⇒ b = ah h ∈ H §·ka ∼ b =⇒ b ∼ a"XJa ∼ bÚb ∼
−1 −1
c§K3h , h ∈ H ¦a = bh Úb = ch "ùa = (ch )h = c(h h )§ h h ∈

H H H H
H "
1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1
a ∼H b, b ∼H c =⇒ a ∼H c.
¤±§/∼ 0´+Gd'X"@o§daóQºé?¿d ∈ G§·
½Â8(left coset)
H
dH = {ah | h ∈ H}.
½h 1 ∈H "é?¿h ∈ H §·kh = h (h
0 0
1
−1 0
1 h) ∈ h1 H "
h1 H = H.
XJa ∼ b§K3h ∈ H ¦a = bh "Ïd§aÚb3Ó8aH = bh H = bH ¥"

§XJa, b ∈ cH §K3h , h ∈ H ¦
H 1 1 1
1 2
a = ch1 , b = ch2 =⇒ c = bh−1 −1

2 =⇒ a = bh2 h1 =⇒ a ∼H b.
¤±§daÒ´8! =
P G/ ∼H = {aH | a ∈ G} = G/H,
¡+G'uf+H ûm(left quotient space)"5¿H = eH ∈ G/H "·

+A ´+S f+§S /A = {A , (1 2)A }"
Gó+ H óf+§G/H ±´ék^6/(Ú¡í2)§
n n n n n n
X§Einstein6/"~X§
cos θ − sin θ
SO2 (R) = |θ∈R
sin θ cos θ
92
AÛþdu"rSO (R)SO n n+1 (R) f+±eÓµ

A 0
A ∈ SOn (R) ↔ ∈ SOn+1 (R).
0 1
ù§ûmSO (R)/SO (R)AÛþdu3m¥¥¡"/§û

mSO (R)/SO (R)AÛþdun + 1m¥n¥¡"
3 2
, §·¡ê|G|+G§ é+GÚ§f+H §ØÓ8

n+1 n
ê|G/H| ¡H 3G¥I(index)§P[G : H]"X§[S : A ] = 2"duz

8cH ¥êÑ´|H|"·kµ
n n
½n3 (Lagrange) é+GÚ§f+H §|G| = [G : H] · |H|"

G´k+§ê|H|´ê|G|ÏfAOk+
Ø+"~X§S ¥ń!Ïf"15+¥U
´µ1, 3, 5, 15"
n
é+Gf8X ÚY §P
X · Y = {x · y | x ∈ X, y ∈ Y }.
5`§G/H ØU«G+$§=§aH·bH UØ´8"XJaH·bH ´

8§K
ab = ae · be ∈ aH · bH =⇒ aH · bH = abH.
bé?¿c, d ∈ G§cH · dH Ñ´8"K

bH ⊂ eH · bH =⇒ eH · bH = bH =⇒ Hb = eHbe ⊂ eH · bH = bH =⇒ b−1 Hb ⊂ H.
+Gf+K ¡5f+XJé?¿a ∈ GÚh ∈ H §aha ∈ H §=§aHa ⊂ −1 −1
H "·^K E GL«K ´G5f+"AO§XJG/H 'uf8¦Èµ4§

KH E G "
121ù
§bH E G"é?¿a, b ∈ GÚh , h , h ∈ H §·k 1 2
ah1 · bh2 = ah1 bh2 = ab(b−1 h1 bh2 ) ∈ abH, abh = ae · bh ∈ aH · bH =⇒ aH · bH = abH
Ú
(ah1 )−1 = h−1
1 a
−1
= a−1 (ah−1 −1 −1
1 a ) ∈ a H,
93
a−1 h = (h−1 a)−1 = [a(a−1 h−1 a)]−1 ∈ (aH)−1 =⇒ (aH)−1 = a−1 H.
ù3G/H þk¦È
aH · bH = abH
¿H = eH ´G/H ü aH _á H §=G/H 'uf8¦È¤+§ −1
¡GH û+(quotient group)"

+?¿f+´5f+"Xé?¿ên§nZ´\{+(Z, +)5f
+§ Z = Z/nZÒń{a"P
n
ī = i + nZ, in ∈ Z.
AO§
Zn = {0̄, 1̄, ..., n − 1}.
Zn û+$´µ
ī + j̄ = i + j, i, j ∈ Z.
~X§3Z ¥§1̄ + 1̄ = 2̄ = 0̄" 3Z ¥§1̄ + 2̄ = 3̄ = 0̄Ú2̄ + 2̄ = 4̄ = 1̄"3Z ¥§1̄ +

3̄ = 2̄ + 2̄ = 4̄ = 0̄2̄ + 3̄ = 5̄ = 1̄, 3̄ + 3̄ = 6̄ = 2̄"\{+Z ´d1̄)¤Ì+"
2 3 4
l+G+G Nϕ¡Ó(homomorphism)XJ
0
ϕ(a · b) = ϕ(a) · ϕ(b), a, b ∈ G.
ϕ : G → G +Ó(group homomorphism) e´Gü e ´G ü "

0 0 0
K
ϕ(e) = ϕ(e · e) = ϕ(e)ϕ(e) =⇒ ϕ(e) = ϕ(e)(ϕ(e))−1 = e0 .
é?¿a, b ∈ G§
e0 = ϕ(e) = ϕ(a · a−1 ) = ϕ(a)ϕ(a−1 ) =⇒ (ϕ(a))−1 = ϕ(a−1 ) ∈ ϕ(G)

ϕ(a)ϕ(b) = ϕ(ab) ∈ ϕ(G).
¤±§ϕ(G)´G f+"- 0
kerϕ = {a ∈ G | ϕ(a) = e0 }.
é?¿a, b ∈ ker Úc ∈ G§·k

ϕ
ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b) = e0 e0 = e0 =⇒ ab ∈ kerϕ ,

−1
ϕ(a−1 ) = (ϕ(a))−1 = e0 = e0 =⇒ a−1 ∈ kerϕ ,
ϕ(cac−1 ) = ϕ(c)ϕ(a)ϕ(c−1 ) = ϕ(c)e0 (ϕ(c))−1 = ϕ(c)(ϕ(c))−1 = e0 =⇒ cac−1 ∈ kerϕ .
94
Ïd§ker ´G5f+"XJϕ´ü§Kker = {e} "§eker = {e} §
·k
ϕ ϕ ϕ
ϕ(a) = ϕ(b) =⇒ ϕ(a)(ϕ(b))−1 = e0 =⇒ ϕ(a)ϕ(b−1 ) = e0
=⇒ ϕ(ab−1 ) = e0 =⇒ ab−1 = e =⇒ a = b,
=ϕ´ü"¤±§ϕ´üÓ¿©7^´ker = {e}"XJϕ´V§ ϕ
·¡ϕ´l+G +G Ó§PG ∼= G "Óü+±wÑÓ+Ø

0
ϕ
0
ÓNy"XJϕ´÷Ó§KNϕ̄ : a(ker ) 7→ ϕ(a)´lû+G/ker +G Ó 0
"
ϕ ϕ
½n4 ϕ : G → G +Ó"Kϕ(G)´G f+§ker ´G5f+

0 0
ϕ
G/ker ∼= ϕ(G)"
ϕ
ϕ̄
éüÓÌ+G = haiÚG = hbi§Na 7→ b , n ∈ Z´lG G Ó" n n
AO§?¿nÌ+7Ó\{+Z ÃÌ+7Ó\{+Z"
1 2 1 2
Nϕ : σ 7→ ε ´l+S 2¦{+{1, −1}÷Ó§ A = ker ´S

n
5f+"
1 σ n n ϕ1 n
ϕ1
Sn /An ∼
= {1, −1} ∼
= Z2 .
R "¢ê'uê¦¤+"Nϕ : A 7→ det A´5+GL (R)R
×
2 n
×
+Ó" SL (R) = ker ´GL (R)5f+"Ïd§GL (R)/SL (R) ∼= R " ϕ2

×
éA ∈ O (R)§
n ϕ2 n n n
|A|2 = |A| · |tA| = |A · tA| = |In | = 1 =⇒ |A| = ±1.
,¡§F (−1) ∈ O (R)|F (−1)| = −1"-ϕ = ϕ2 |On (R) (ϕ2 3O (R)þ)"
KSO (R) = ker Ó (R)5f+"?Ú§
1 n 1 3 n
n ϕ3 n
ϕ3
On (R)/SOn (R) ∼
= {1, −1} ∼
= Z2 .
H E G"Óa 7→ aH ¡l+Gû+G/H g,Ó"

½ n5 G´k+"XJa, b ∈ G´Øü2§Kf+H =
ha, biÓudihedral+"
y² -s = ab"duG´k+§säkkn" 5¿b 6= a § −1
=s 6= e"n ≥ 2"bn = 2§K

abab = e =⇒ a(abab)b = ab =⇒ a2 bab2 = ab =⇒ ba = ab,
gñ"Ïd§n ≥ 3"5¿
asa = aaba = ba = b−1 a−1 = (ab)−1 = s−1 ,
95
as2 a = asaasa = (asa)2 = s−2 =⇒ · · · =⇒ asi a = (asa)i = s−i =⇒ si a = as−i = asn−i .
ù§
H = {ai si | r = 0, 1; i = 0, 1, ..., n − 1}.
w,§f8{s | i = 0, 1, ..., n − 1}Úf8{as | i = 0, 1, ..., n − 1}g´ØÓ

i i
"e¡·`²§Ø"
Äk·äóéKêi§as 6= e" i
ÄK§·i÷vas = eKê"Ki > 0Ïa 6= e"XJi = 1§@

i
oe = as = a(ab) = a b = eb = b§gñ"i ≥ 2"5¿

2
e = asi = a(ssi−1 ) = a(absi−1 ) = a2 bsi−1 = bsi−1
=⇒ e = b2 = beb = b(bsi−1 )b = si−1 b = (si−2 ab)b = si−2 ab2 = si−2 a
=⇒ asi−2 = asi−2 a2 = a(si−2 a)a = aea = a2 = e,
i5gñ"¤±äó¤á"duas i
= aj =⇒ asi−j = e §·kas i
6= sj "
=|H| = 2n"
£Á
D2n = {Ri , σRi | i = 0, 1, ..., n − 1}, σ 2 = I2 , Rn = I2 , Ri σ = σR−i .
½Â
ϕ(ar si ) = σ r Ri , r = 0, 1; i = 0, 1, ..., n − 1.
é?¿r , r1 2 Ú
∈ {0, 1} i1 , i2 ∈ {0, 1, ..., n − 1} §·k
r
ϕ(ar1 si1 · ar2 si2 ) = ϕ(ar1 ar2 (ar2 si1 ar2 )si2 ) = ϕ(ar1 +r2 s(−1) 2 i1 si2 )
r r
= ϕ(ar1 +r2 s(−1) 2 i1 +i2 ) = σ r1 +r2 R(−1) 2 i1 +i2
r
= σ r1 σ r2 R(−1) 2 i1 Ri2 = σ r1 σ r2 (σ r2 Ri1 σ r2 )Ri2
= σ r1 (σ r2 )2 Ri1 σ r2 Ri2 = σ r1 Ri1 · σ r2 Ri2 = ϕ(ar1 si1 ) · ϕ(ar2 si2 ).
¤±§ϕ : H → D ´+÷Ó"du|H| = 2n = |D |§ϕ´+Ó" 2

2n 2n
{üA^§S ∼= D "
éuÃ+§§±Ùf+Ó"~X§Nn 7→ 2n´l\{+ZÙf+2Z
3 6
Ó"
+GgÓ¡gÓ(automorphism)"~X§½g ∈ G§·½ÂGþ
C
Ig (a) = gag −1 , a ∈ G.
K
Ig (ab) = gabg −1 = gag −1 gbg −1 = Ig (a)Ig (b).
96
I ´gÓ§¡SgÓ(inner automorphism)"+GgÓNAut(G)'
uN¦È¤+§¡GgÓ+(automorphism group)§§A5G
g
A5'"
122ù
½ n6 G´k+"XJGk2gÓϕ÷vϕ(a) = a =⇒ a = e§
KG´+"
y² a, b ∈ G÷vϕ(a)a = ϕ(b)b "m¦aÚ¦ϕ(b )
−1 −1 −1
ϕ(b−1 )ϕ(a) = ϕ(b−1 )ϕ(b)b−1 a =⇒ ϕ(b−1 a) = ϕ(b−1 b)b−1 a = ϕ(e)b−1 a = b−1 a.
Ïd§b −1
a = e =⇒ a = b "ù
|{ϕ(a)a−1 | a ∈ G}| = |G| =⇒ G = {ϕ(a)a−1 | a ∈ G}.
g = ϕ(a)a §Ù¥a ∈ G"K

−1
ϕ(g) = ϕ(ϕ(a)a−1 ) = ϕ2 (a)ϕ(a−1 ) = aϕ(a)−1 = (ϕ(a)a−1 )−1 = g −1 .
âcª§é?¿g ∈ G§ϕ(g) = g "¤±§é?¿g , g −1

1 2 ∈G §
g1 g2 = (g2−1 g1−1 )−1 = ϕ(g2−1 g1−1 ) = ϕ(g2−1 )ϕ(g1−1 ) = g2 g1 ,
=G´+" 2
17 +^38Üþ
+G38ÜX þ^´lG × X X N(g, x) 7→ g(x)÷v
e(x) = x, (g1 g2 )(x) = g1 (g2 (x)), g1 , g2 ∈ G, x ∈ X.
é?¿½g ∈ G§·½ÂX C

ϕ(g)(x) = g(x), x ∈ X.
Kcªdu
ϕ(e) = eX , ϕ(g1 g2 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(g2 ).
du
ϕ(g)ϕ(g −1 ) = ϕ(gg −1 ) = ϕ(e) = eX , ϕ(g −1 )ϕ(g) = ϕ(g −1 g) = ϕ(e) = eX ,
97
·kϕ(g) ∈ S "Ïd§ϕ : G → S ´+Ó"
§½+Óϕ : G → S §N(g, x) 7→ ϕ(g)(x)Ñ
+G38ÜX þ
X X
^"
X
~X§é?¿A ∈ GL (R)§ Rþ5Cϕ ∈ S "dué?¿A, B ∈ n
GL (R)kϕ = ϕ ϕ §NA 7→ ϕ ´lGL (R)S +Ó"Ïd§§½

n A nR
Â
RþGL (R)-^:
n AB A B A n nR
n
n
* * * *
A( α) = ϕA ( α) = A α, A ∈ GLn (R), α∈ n R.
Ó§GL (R)f+SL (R), O (R), SO (R)^3 R"3·1998cuLØ© n
¥§·é
Rþ¼ê3þã+ê¤k©ØCþ"G´k+"
n n n n
n
Pn = |G|"é?¿½g ∈ G§·½ÂGþ¦C
Lg (a) = ga, a ∈ G.
KL (e) = gÚ
g
Lg1 g2 (a) = (g1 g2 )(a) = g1 (g2 (a)) = Lg1 Lg2 (a).
¤±§Ng 7→ L ´lGS ∼= S üÓ(Ó´ü§monomorphism)"ù

Òy²
:
g G n
½n7 (Cayley) ?¿n+GÓué¡+S ,f+" n
+G^38ÜX þ"é?¿x ∈ X §f8

Ox = {g(x) | g ∈ G}
¡x3Gê;(orbit)§{¡xG-;"·¡
Gx = {g ∈ G | g(x) = x}
x½zf(stablizer)"Ný§¤f+§AÛþ¡§f+";
O ¥üg (x)Úg (x)g (x) = g (x)¿©7^´g g ∈ G §d −1
/g ∈ g G"ù§NgG 7→ g(x)Ñ
lûmG/G O 1-1éA"XJO ´
x 1 2 1 2 2 1 x
k8§K
1 2 x x x x
|Ox | = [G : Gx ]. (1)
, §XJ3w ∈ O x
T
Oy §K3g , g 1 2 ∈G ¦
w = g1 (x) = g2 (y) =⇒ g2−1 g1 (x) = y =⇒ Oy ⊂ Ox .
é¡/§O ⊂ O §l O = O §=ØÓ;Ø"¤±§X ¥G-;

8ÜÑX y©(Ø¿)"
x y x y
98
~X§S ^3X = {1, 2, ..., 10}þ"§f+
10
G = h(1 2), (3 6 9), (4 7 8 10)i
^3X þ"-
τ1 = (1 2), τ2 = (3 6 9), τ3 = (4 7 8 10).
K
G = hτ1 , τ2 , τ3 i = {τ1i1 τ2i2 τ3i3 | i1 ∈ {0, 1}; i2 ∈ {0, 1, 2}; i3 ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3}}.
·k
O1 = O2 = {1, 2}, O3 = O6 = O9 = {3, 6, 9},
O4 = O7 = O8 = O10 = {4, 7, 8, 10}, O5 = {5}.
2w½zf
G1 = hτ2 , τ3 i, G3 = hτ1 , τ3 i, G4 = hτ1 , τ2 i, G5 = G.
w,§·k
|O1 | = 2 = |hτ1 i| = |G/G1 | = [G : G1 ], |O3 | = 3 = |hτ2 i| = |G/G3 | = [G : G3 ],
|O4 | = 4 = |hτ3 i| = |G/G4 | = [G : G4 ], |O5 | = 1 = |G/G| = [G : G].
?Ú§
[ [ [ [ [ [
X = O1 O3 O4 O5 = {1, 2} {3, 6, 9} {4, 7, 8, 10} {5}
;L8Ü{1, 3, 4, 5} =6 X "
f8
é?¿ g ∈ G ÷v cg = gc}
C (G) = {c ∈ G |
¤f+§¡G¥%(center)"p´ê"XJ|G| = p n > 0§K· n
¡G´p+"
½n8 XJG´p+§K|C (G)|´pê"
y² 8Ü§X = G"·kG3X þÝ^µ
g(x) = gxg −1 , g ∈ G, x ∈ X.
â½Â§
x ∈ C (G) ⇔ Gx = G ⇔ |Ox | = 1.
ex 6∈ C (G)§K
|Ox | = [G : Gx ] = prx , rx ∈ N.
99
{O x1 , Ox2 , ..., Oxs } êu1ØÓG-;N"@o§
s
[ s
X
G = C (G) ∪ Oi =⇒ |G| = |C (G)| + prxi .
i=1 i=1
¤±§pØ|C (G)|. 2
ên = mp §Ù¥m, r ∈ Ng.c.d(m, p) = 1"bs ∈ Ns ≤ r"XJ1 ≤
r
i ≤ p − 1§Ki = j p §Ù¥j ∈ Nt < sÚg.c.d(j , p) = 1"5¿

s
i
ti
i i i
n − i = mpr − ji pti = pti (mpr−ti − ji ), ps − i = ps − ji pti = pti (ps−ti − ji ).
Ïd§
Qps −1 Qs Qs
mpr pi=1−1 pti (mpr−ti − ji ) mpr−s pi=1−1 (mpr−ti − ji )

n n i=1 (n − i)
= Qps −1 = Qs = Qps −1 s−t .
ps ps i=1 (ps − i) ps pi=1−1 pti (ps−ti − ji ) i=1 (p
i − j )
i
l
p

r−s n r−s+1 n
p | s 6| s . (2)
p p
½n9 (Sylow 1½n) XJGń = mp k+§Ù¥m, r ∈ Ng.c.d(m, p) = r
1"é?¿s ∈ Ns ≤ r§G¹kp f+" s
y² -
X = {S ⊂ G | |S| = ps }.
K
n
|X| = .
ps
Ný·k+G3X þ^µ
g(S) = {gs | S}.
X = S k
i=1 O Si ´G-;Ø¿"ù§
k
n X
= |X| = [G : GSi ].
ps i=1
â(2)ª§31 ≤ i ≤ k¦p 0 r−s+1

|[G : GSi ]"¤±§Lagrange½nw·p s
Ø|G |"
½a ∈ S "é?¿g ∈ G §
Si0
i0 Si0
g(Si0 ) = Si0 =⇒ ga ∈ Si0 .
100
Ïd§
ps ≤ |GSi0 | = |{ga | g ∈ GSi0 }| ≤ |Si0 | = ps .
¤±§|G | = p §=G ´p f+" 2

Si0
s
Si0
s
dup+¥ü ½´p§3½n9¥s = 1§·µ
Cauchy ½n XJêpØk+G|G|§KG¹kp"
3½n9¥§Gp f+¤GSylow p f+"r
123ù
½n10 (Sylow 1½n) XJGń = mp k+§Ù¥m, r ∈ Ng.c.d(m, p) = r
1"qP ´GSylow p f+§H ´Gp f+"K3g ∈ G¦gHg ⊂ s −1
P "AO§XJs = r§·kgHg = P §=G?¿üSylow p f+ÑÝ" −1
y² 3ûmG/P þ§g,·k+H ^µ

h(aP ) = (ha)P, ∀a ∈ G, h ∈ H.
G/P = S `
i=1 Oa i P ´H-;Ø¿"du
|Oai P | = [H : Hai P ] = psi .
·k ` `
X X
m = |G/P | = |Oai P | = p si .
i=1 i=1
Ïg.c.d(m, p) = 1§3i ¦s =0 §=H =H "Pg = a "Ké?¿h ∈ H §

−1
3b ∈ P ¦
0 i0 ai0 P i0
hai0 = ai0 b =⇒ a−1

i0 hai0 = b ∼ ghg
−1
= b.
¤±"gHg −1
= {ghg −1 | h ∈ H} ⊂ P "XJs = r,·k
|gHg −1 | = |H| = pr = |P | =⇒ gHg −1 = P. 2
½n11 (Sylow 1n½n) XJGń = mp k+§Ù¥m, r ∈ Ng.c.d(m, p) = r
1"qP ´GSylow p f+"Pk G¥Sylow p f+ê"Kk|mp|(k − 1)"A

O§P ´5f+¿©7^´k = 1"
101
y² -X G¥Sylow p f+8Ü"Äk§GÝ^3X þµ
g(P1 ) = gP1 g −1 = Ig (P1 ) ∈ X, g ∈ G, P1 ∈ X.
â½n10§X k;"¤±§P ´5f+¿©7^´k = 1"d

§
X = G(P ) =⇒ k = |X| = [G : GP ].
,¡§P ⊂ G ´G f+"m = [G : P ] = [G : G ][G : P ]"Ïd§k|m"

f+P ÓÝ^3X þ"XJé,P ∈ X §ÙP -;k§=
P P P p
bP1 b−1 = P1 , ∀b ∈ P.
â½n10§3g ∈ G¦P 1 = gP g −1 "\þª

bgP g −1 b−1 = gP g −1 , ∀b ∈ P,
d/§
g −1 bgP (g −1 bg)−1 = P, ∀b ∈ P.

g −1 bg ∈ GP , ∀b ∈ P =⇒ g −1 P g ⊂ Gp .
w,§P ⊂ GP "ù§P Úg −1
Pg Ñ´G Sylow p f+"2d½n10§3g ∈
G ¦
P 1
g −1 P g = g1 (P ) = P =⇒ P = gP g −1 = P1 .
ùÒy²XJ P 6= P §KP P -;O ê[P : P ]´pg"X =

O ´P -;Ø¿§K
1 1 P1 P1
s
S
{P } ∪ i=1 Qi
s
X Xs
k =1+ |OQi |, p|( |OQi |) =⇒ p|(k − 1). 2
i=1 i=1
18 k+,
(
·^½n8ÚnSylow½n5ïÄ,
k+("(G, ·, e)Ú(G , ·, e ) 0 0
ü+"3(kÈG × G þ/½Â¦È 0
(a, a0 ) · (b, b0 ) = (a · b, a0 · b0 ), a, b ∈ G, a0 , b0 ∈ G0 .
K(G×G , ·, (e, e ))¤+§Ù¥[(a, a )] = (a , a )"·¡+(G×G , ·, (e, e ))

0 0 0 −1 −1 0 −1 0 0
+(G, ·, e)Ú(G , ·, e )È"Ó·½Âõ+È"

0 0
½n12 p´êGp +"K G ∼= Z ½ Z × Z " 2

p2 p p
102
y ² XJG¹kp a§K G = hai ∼= Z "âLagrange½n§§
2
¤kðÑ´p"e 6= b ∈ C (G)§Khbi ∼= Z "?¿c ∈ G \ hbi§

p2
Kbc = cbÚhci ∼= Z "XJ30 < i, j < p¦b c = e"dug.c.d(j, p) = 1§

p
i j
3k, ` ∈ Z¦kj + `p = 1"ù

p
cj = b−i =⇒ c = ckj+`p = ckj = b−ki ∈ hbi,
cÀgñ"Ïd§
br cs = e ⇔ br = cs = e.
dd
bi1 cj1 = bi2 cj2 ⇔ bi1 −i2 cj1 −j2 = e ⇔ bi1 −i2 = cj1 −j2 = e ⇔ bi1 = bi2 , cj1 = cj2 .

|hb, ci| = p2 = |G| =⇒ G = hb, ci.
¤±§Nb c 7→ (ī, j̄)Ñ

lG Z × Z Ó" 2
i j
p p
~X§ØÓ4+kü§=Z ÚZ × Z "
½+H ÚK 9+Óϕ : H → Aut(K)"3(kÈK × H þ/½Â$
4 2 2
(a1 , b1 ) · (a2 , b2 ) = (a1 · ϕ(b1 )(a2 ), b1 · b2 ), a1 , a2 ∈ K, b1 , b2 ∈ H.
K
[(a1 , b1 ) · (a2 , b2 )] · (a3 , b3 ) = (a1 · ϕ(b1 )(a2 ), b1 · b2 ) · (a3 , b3 )
= (a1 · ϕ(b1 )(a2 ) · ϕ(b1 · b2 )(a3 ), b1 b2 b3 )
= (a1 · ϕ(b1 )(a2 ) · ϕ(b1 )ϕ(b2 )(a3 ), b1 b2 b3 )
= (a1 · ϕ(b1 )[a2 · ϕ(b2 )(a3 )], b1 b2 b3 )
= (a1 , b1 ) · (a2 · ϕ(b2 )(a3 ), b2 b3 )
= (a1 , b1 ) · [(a2 , b2 ) · (a3 , b3 )].
K × H 'uþã$¤+"·©Oe Úe L«K ÚH ü "Kϕ(e ) =

e "Ïd§
1 2 2
(e1 , e2 ) · (a1 , b1 ) = (e1 · ϕ(e2 )(a1 ), e2 · b1 ) = (a1 , b1 ),
(ϕ(b−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
1 )(a1 ), b1 ) · (a1 , b1 ) = (ϕ(b1 )(a1 ) · ϕ(b1 )(a1 ), b1 · b1 )
= (ϕ(b−1 −1 −1
1 )(a1 · a1 ), e2 ) = (ϕ(b1 )(e1 ), e2 ) = (e1 , e2 ).
103
â½n1§K × H 'uþã$¤+§¡K ÚH 'uϕÈ(semidirect
product)§PK o H "é?¿a, a ∈ K Úb ∈ H §·k 1 1
(a1 , b1 ) · (a, e2 )] · (a1 , b1 )−1 = (a1 ϕ(b1 )(a), b1 ) · (ϕ(b−1 −1 −1

1 )(a1 ), b1 )
= (a1 ϕ(b1 )(a) · ϕ(b1 )ϕ(b−1 −1

1 )(a1 ), e2 )
= (a1 ϕ(b1 )(a) · ϕ(b1 · b−1 −1

1 )(a1 ), e2 )
= (a1 ϕ(b1 )(a) · ϕ(e2 )(a−1 −1

1 ), e2 ) = (a1 ϕ(b1 )(a)a1 , e2 ).
Ïd§K̄ = {(a, e ) | a ∈ K}¤K o H 5f+K̄ ∼= K "3þãLª¥a =

e §XJK ÚH Ñ´+§KK o H ´+¿©7^´ϕ(H) = {e }"
2 1
Ä{a\{+(Z , +)"du
1 K
(i + nk1 )(j + nk2 ) = ij + (ik2 + jk1 + k1 k2 n)n.
·3Z þ½Â¦È$n
ī · j̄ = ij.
K(Z , ·, 1̄)¤N+"?Ú§
n
r̄ · (ī + j̄) = r̄ · i + j = ri + rj = ri + rj = r̄ · ī + r̄ · j̄.
ùü«$÷v©Æ"¤±§(Z , +, ·)¤kü §¡n{a
", §
n
j
z }| {
j ī =(i + nZ) + · · · + (i + nZ)= ji + nZ = ji = j̄ · ī, 0 ≤ i, j ≤ n − 1. (3)
g.c.d(i, n) = `"b3j ∈ Z¦ī · j̄ = 1̄"K3k ∈ Z¦

ij = 1 + kn =⇒ `|1 =⇒ ` = 1.
§XJg.c.d(i, n) = 1§·Q^{Ø{y²3r, s ∈ Z¦

ri + sn = 1 =⇒ ri = r̄ · s̄ = 1̄.
Ïd§Z ī'u¦{_¿©7^´g.c.d(i, n) = 1"

,¡§éϕ ∈ Aut(Z , +)"ϕ(1̄) = ī"Khϕ(1̄)i = Z "3j ∈ N¦
n
n n
j ī = 1̄ ∼ j̄ · ī = 1̄ =⇒ g.c.d(i, n) = 1.
é?¿r ∈ {0, 1, ..., n − 1}§d(3)ª

ϕ(r̄) = ϕ(r · 1̄) = rϕ(1̄) = r · ī = r̄ · ī = ī · r̄ = ϕ(1̄) · r̄. (4)
104
124ù
§XJg.c.d(i, n) = 1§½Â
ν(r̄) = ī · r̄, r = 0, 1, ..., n − 1.
du1̄ ∈ ν(Z)§ν ´÷"§´ü"2â©Æ§ν ∈ Aut(Z , +)"é?

¿ϕ, ψ ∈ Aut(Z , +)§d(4)ª
n
(ϕψ)(1̄) = ϕ(ψ(1̄)) = ϕ(1̄)ψ(1̄). (5)
¤±§Nϕ 7→ ϕ(1̄)´lAut(Z , +)dZ ¥'u¦{_|¤+ n n
Z∗n = {ī | i ∈ {1, 2, ..., n − 1}; g.c.d(i, n) = 1}
Ó"τ : Z m → Aut(Zn , +) ´+Ó"Ké0 ≤ k ≤ m − 1§

τ (k̄) = τ (k · 1̄) = (τ (1̄))k .
τ dτ (1̄) ∈ Aut(Z , +)(½"Pī = [τ (1̄)](1̄) ∈ Z "K[τ (k̄)](1̄) = ī "Ïd§

n
∗
n
k
[τ (k̄)](r̄) = īk · r̄ = ik · r̄, r̄ ∈ Zn .
AO§n = p´ê§Z = {1̄, ..., p − 1}§=Z ¥"'u¦{Ñ_"Ï

∗
d§Z ¤"
p p
¤ê½n é?¿i ∈ Z§p|(i − i)" p
y² XJp|i§Kw,¤á"bp 6 |i"@o§ī ∈ Z "du+Ø+ ∗
(Lagrange ½n)§·k
p
īp−1 = 1̄ ∼ īp = ī ∼ ip − ī = 0̄ ∼ p(ip − i). 2
½ n13 K ´+Gmf+ÚH ´+Gnf+§g.c.d(m, n) = 1"·

k|KH| = |K| · |H|"XJK E G§Kf+KH ∼= K o H "
y² a , a ∈ K Úb , b ∈ H ÷va b = a b "K
1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2
\
a−1 −1
2 a1 = b 2 b 1 = c ∈ K H.
Ïd§cØmÚn"dug.c.d(m, n) = 1§§Ø1¶c´1§=c = e"l §

a−1 −1
2 a1 = b2 b1 = e =⇒ a1 = a2 , b1 = b2 .
105
ùÒy²
|KH| = |K| · |H|"
XJK G§·½Â
ϕ(b)(a) = bab−1 , a ∈ K, b ∈ H.
Kϕ : H → Aut(K)´+Ó"K o H K ÚH 'uϕÈ"½ÂNν :
KH → K o H
ν(ab) = (a, b), a ∈ K, b ∈ H.
Kéa , a 1 2 ∈K Úb , b
1 2 ∈H §·k
ν(a1 b1 · a2 b2 ) = ν(a1 (b1 a2 b1−1 )b1 b2 ) = (a1 (b1 a2 b−1
1 ), b1 b2 )
= (a1 ϕ(b1 )(a2 ), b1 b2 ) = (a1 , b1 ) · (a2 , b2 ) = ν(a1 b1 ) · ν(a2 b2 ).
ν ´+Ó"duν ´V§KH ∼= K o H " 2 ν
½n14 p, q´êq < p"XJqØØ(p − 1)§K?¿pq+Óu(Z , +)"

q|(p − 1)§küØÓpq+µ(Z , +)Ú+Z o Z "
pq
y ² Gpq+"PH GSylow q f+ K GSylow p f+"

pq p q
KH = hai´qÌ+ K = hbi´pÌ+"âSylow1n½n§Sylow p f+

êk÷vk|qÚp(k − 1)"dup, q´êq < p§k = 1"K ´G5f+"â
½n13§GÓuK ÚH 'ugÓϕÈK o H ∼= Z o Z §Ù¥ ÓN
´b a 7→ (ī, j̄)"A/·rϕw¤¤lZ Aut(Z )+Ó"
p q
i j
duZ = {1̄, ..., p − 1}§ī = [ϕ(1̄)](1̄)7LØp − 1(Lagrange½n)"

q p
∗
â(5)ª§
p
īq = ([ϕ(1̄)](1̄))q = [ϕ(1̄)]q (1̄) = [ϕ(q · 1̄)](1̄) = [ϕ(0̄)](1̄) = eZp (1̄) = 1̄.
ī´1½q"XJqØØ(p − 1)§Kī´1§=ī = 1̄"Ïd[ϕ(1̄)](1̄) = 1̄"2

d(4)ª§ϕ(1̄) = e "ÏZ = h1̄i§·kϕ(Z ) = {e }"l 5ϕ : H →
Aut(K)÷vϕ(H) = {e }"
Zp q q Zp
ϕ(H) = {e }(éqv¦)§d10SK5§
K
G∼
=K oH =K ×H ∼
= Zp × Zq ∼
= Zpq .
bϕ(H) 6= {e }§d/ϕ(1̄) 6= e "l ī = [ϕ(1̄)](1̄) 6= 1̄"ī ∈ Z ´q"Ï ∗
d§q|(p − 1)"
K Zp p
·bq|(p − 1)"Cauthy½n`§Z kq`¯"du1̄, `,¯ ..., `¯ ´§x = ∗ q−1 q
1̄3Z ¥q ØÓ)§·k

p
q−1
Y
q
x − 1̄ = (x − `¯i ).
i=0
106
Ïd§{`,¯ ..., `¯ }´Z ¥¤kq"¤±§ϕ(H) 6= {e }§3m ∈ {1, ..., q −
q−1 ∗
1}¦[ϕ(1̄)](1̄) = `¯ "£5ϕ : H → Aut(K)§A/·k

p K
m
m
aba−1 = ϕ(a)(b) = b` . (6)
·½ÂG = Z 0
p × Zq þ$µ
(r̄1 , s̄1 ) · (r̄2 , s̄2 ) = ((r̄1 + `s1 r̄2 , s̄1 + s̄2 ), r̄1 , r̄2 ∈ Zp , s̄1 , s̄2 ∈ Zq .
KG ´Z ÚZ ½È+§AÓψ : Z → Aut(Z )d[ψ(1̄)](1̄) = `¯(

0
½"dum̄ ∈ Z §3n̄ ∈ Z ¦m̄ · n̄ = 1̄"-c = a "KH = hai = hci¿d(6)ª§

p q q p
∗ ∗ n
q q
m
cbc−1 = ϕ(c)(b) = ϕ(an )(b) = (ϕ(a))n (b) = (ϕ(a))n−1 (b` )
m mn
= [(ϕ(a))n−1 (b)]` ) = · · · = b` = b` .
ùNb c 7→ (r̄, s̄)Ò´lGG +Ó" 2

r s 0
du3 6 |(5 − 1)§?¿15+7Ì+" 3|(7 − 1)¿ÐküØÓ21

+µZ ÚZ o Z §Ù+$µ
21 7 3
(r̄1 , s̄1 ) · (r̄2 , s̄2 ) = (r̄1 + 2s1 r̄2 , s̄1 + s̄2 ), r̄1 , r̄2 ∈ Z7 , s̄1 , s̄2 ∈ Z3 .
e¡´k+(C+)(½n"
½n15 XJG´k+§K3ên , n , ..., n ÷vn 1 2 l i+1 |ni §¦
G∼
= Zn1 × Zn2 × · · · × Znl .
AO§n ´é?¿a ∈ G§a = e" n1
y ² Gn = p p · · · p §Ù¥p , p , ..., p ´rØÓêÚ` , ` , ..., ` ∈

1
`1 ` 2 `r
N"âSylow1½n§G¥¹p Sylow p f+G §p Sylow p f

1 2 r 1 2 r 1 2 r
`1 `2
+G ,..., p Sylow p f+G "5¿XJü+È´+§Kùü+

1 1 1 2 2
`r
Ñ´+ÈÒ´È(11041ã")"d½n13Ú8B{
2 r r r
G = G1 G2 · · · Gr ∼
= G1 × G2 × · · · × Gr .
ùÒrk+(¯K=zkp+(¯K"
K ´p p+"·^8B{y²K ÓuÌ+È"XJ` = 1§
`
KK w,´pÌ+§(Ø¤á"b(Øé` = k¤ák ∈ N"Ä¹` = k + 1"

âSylow1½n§K ¹p f+H "d8Bb§3Ìf+H = ha i ∼= k
Z ¦
i i
pki
H = H1 H2 · · · Ht ∼
= Zpk1 × Zpk2 × · · · × Zpkt . (7)
107
duK ´+§H ´§5f+"û+K/H ´pÌ+"b ∈ K \ H "KK/H =
hbHi"b ∈ H ÚK = hb, Hi"·k
p
bp = aj11 aj22 · · · ajt t . (8)
P
J1 = {i ∈ {1, ..., t} | g.c.d(ji , p) = 1}, J2 = {m ∈ {1, ..., t} | p|jm }.
XJ §é
J2 6= ∅ m ∈ J2 §
j m = im p "^ Q
5 §·±bj
−im
b m∈J2 am b =
0, m ∈ J "J = ∅§K^#b§â(7)ª§·khbi´pÌ+
m
2 1
K = hbiH ∼
= Zp × Zpk1 × Zpk2 × · · · × Zpkt .
(Ø¤á"J 1 6= ∅ "ÏL#üS§·b
k1 = max{km | m ∈ J1 }.
5¿d
g.c.d(j1 , p) = 1 =⇒ g.c.d(j1 , pk1 ) = 1 =⇒ j1 ∈ Z∗pk1 =⇒ hj1 i = Zpk1
§ha i = ha i", §d(8)ª§

1
j1
1
aj11 = bp a−j
2
2
· · · a−j
2
t
∈ hb, a2 , ..., at i =⇒ H1 = ha1 i = haj11 i ⊂ hb, a2 , ..., at i.

K = hb, a2 , ..., at i = hbiH2 · · · Ht .
du a ´p §â(8)ªÚk 45§b p "l §b´p
j1 k1
"X p k1 k1 +1
Jhbi (H · · · H ) 6= {e}§K
1 1
T
2 t
|K| = |hbiH2 · · · Ht | < |hbi| · |H2 · · · Ht | = pk11 +1 pk22 · · · pkt t = |K|,
gñ"¤±§
\
hbi (H2 · · · Ht ) = {e} =⇒ cd = e, c ∈ hbi, d ∈ H2 · · · Ht =⇒ e = d.
Ncd 7→ (c, d), c ∈ hbi, d ∈ H · · · H Ñ 2 t
K = hbiH2 · · · Ht ∼
= hbi × (H2 · · · Ht ) ∼
= Zpk1 +1 × Zpk2 × · · · × Zpkt .
â8B{§é?¿` ∈ NÚp +K §3p Ìf+K §p Ìf+K , ..., p

` ι1 ι2 ιs
Ìf+K ¦
1 2
K = K1 K2 · · · Ks ∼
= Zpι1 × Zpι2 × · · · × Zpιs .
¤±§K (d©
ι1 + ι2 + · · · + ιs = `
108
(½"~X§3¤k©3 = 2 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1¶k±e3ØÓ
5 = 125+µ
3
Z53 = Z125 , Z25 × Z5 , Z5 × Z5 × Z5 .
( ½n y²Y)
125ù
½n15y²(Y)
é?¿+G §·kG × hei ∼= G "·b
0 0 0
Gi = hai1 ihai2 i · · · hail i ∼

= Zpì1 × Zpì2 × · · · × Zpìl (9)
i i i
Ù¥|ha im i| = pì im
ì1 ≥ ì2 ≥ · · · ≥ ìl ≥ 0, i = 1, ..., r (10)
Ú
ì1 + ì2 + · · · + ìl = ì . (11)
P
cm = a1m a2m · · · arm , nm = p`11m p`22m · · · p`rrm . (12)
d10SK5§
hcm i ∼
= ha1m iha2m i · · · harm i, |hcm i| = nm . (13)
â(9)ªÚ(13)ª§
G = G1 G2 · · · Gr ∼
= hc1 ihc2 i · · · hcl i ∼
= Zn1 × Zn2 × · · · × Znl .
2d(10)ªÚ(12)ª§n i+1 |ni "ég = c k1 k2

1 c2 · · · ckl l Úk , k , ..., k ∈ Z§·k
1 2 l
g n1 = (cn1 1 )k1 (cn2 1 )k2 · · · (cnl 1 )kl = e.
ùÒ¤
½ny²" 2
5¿n ´G¥§=c " n ´G/hc i¥"
±daí§G(d(n , n , ..., n )(½§Ù¥n > 1"é{`§éØÓ
1 1 2 1
(n , n , ..., n )§+Z × Z × · · · × Z ´ØÓ"£Áp(k)L«rk¤g,ê

1 2 l l
1 2 l n1 n2 nl
109
Úê§¡k©¼ê(partition function)"½n¥Gd(11)ª(½§Ïd
p p · · · p +êÐ´p(` )p(` ) · · · p(` )"
`1 ` 2
1 2
`r
r 1 2 r
~1 (½¤kØÓ432+"
) ©)432 = 2 · 3 "·k© 4 3
4 = 3 + 1 = 2 + 2 = 2 + 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1, 3 = 2 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1.
p(4) = 5Úp(3) = 3"Ïdk15ØÓ432+"G´432+"

éu©4Ú3§G ∼= Z ¶éu©3 + 1Ú3§G ∼= Z × Z ¶éu©
2 + 2Ú3§G ∼= Z × Z ¶éu©2 + 1 + 1Ú3§G ∼= Z × Z × Z ¶éu©
432 216 2
1 + 1 + 1 + 1Ú3§G ∼= Z × Z × Z × Z "
108 4 108 2 2
éu©4Ú2 + 1§G ∼= Z × Z ¶éu©3 + 1Ú2 + 1§G ∼= Z × Z ¶é

54 2 2 2
u©2 + 2Ú2 + 1§G ∼= Z × Z ¶éu©2 + 1 + 1Ú2 + 1§G ∼= Z × Z × Z ¶

144 3 72 6
éu©1 + 1 + 1 + 1Ú2 + 1§G ∼= Z × Z × Z × Z "

36 12 36 6 2
éu©4Ú1 + 1 + 1§G ∼= Z × Z × Z ¶éu©3 + 1Ú1 + 1 + 1§G ∼=

18 6 2 2
Z ×Z ×Z ¶éu©2+2Ú1+1+1§G ∼ = Z ×Z ×Z ¶éu©2+1+1Ú1+
48 3 3
1 + 1§G = Z × Z × Z ¶éu©1 + 1 + 1 + 1Ú1 + 1 + 1§G ∼

= Z ×Z ×Z ×Z "
24 6 3 12 12 3
∼ 12 6 6 6 6 6 2
XJ{e}ÚG´+G¤k5f+§K·¡Gü+"+´ü¿
©7^´§´êÌ+"
~2 bG´30ü+"âSylow1n½n§G¹65f+"duü
ØÓ5f+´{e}§G¹245"Ó§G¹103f+"Ïd§G¹203
"ù§G¹45§|G| = 30gñ"¤±§30+½Ø´ü+
~3 bG´36ü+"âSylow1n½n§G¹49f+{P , P , P , P } =
X " ·±eGS Óϕµ
1 2 3 4
ϕ(g)(Pi ) = {gag −1 | a ∈ Pi }, g ∈ G.
USylow1½n§X kG-;"ker 6= G´G5f+"dGü

5§ker = {e}§=ϕ´üÓ"Ïd§GÓuϕ(G) ⊂ S "|ϕ(G)| = |G| = 36§
ϕ
S = S = 4! = 24§gñ"¤±§36+½Ø´ü+
ϕ X
X 4
19 Ú
(ring)´8ÜRkü$+Ú·÷vµ(R, +)¤+§(R, ·)
¤+"¿©Æ
(a + b) · c = a · c + b · c, c · (a + b) = c · a + c · b
110
¤á"·¡(R, +)R\{+§ ¡(R, ·)R+"XJ(R, ·)Ń+§·
¡Rkü "N+(R, ·)ü Ï~{P1(3rN§P1 )"d
R©Æµé?¿a ∈ R§
R
0 · a = (0 + 0) · a = 0 · a + 0 · a =⇒ 0 · a = 0,
a · 0 = a · (0 + 0) = a · 0 + a · 0 =⇒ a · 0 = 0.
~X§é?¿n ∈ N§nZ'uê\{Ú¦{¤§§kü ¿©7
^ń = 1"ÓQÚR'uê\{Ú¦{¤kü ", §·k
{a"±þ¦{´§§¡"
n ≥ 2´ê"8ÜM (R)'uÝ
\{Ú¦{¤kü I
"
n×n n
(G, ·)´k+"PR[G]´lGRN(¼ê)N"éf , f ∈ R[G]§

·½Â5$
1 2
(λf1 + µf2 )(a) = λf1 (a) + µf2 (a), λ, µ ∈ R, a ∈ G.
K(R[G], +)¤+"½g ∈ G§·½Â¼êδ g
1 XJ a = g,

0 XJ a 6= g,
δ (a) = g a ∈ G.
duG´k8¬§é?¿f ∈ R[G]§
X
f= f (b)δb
g∈G
´kÚ"¤±§
R[G] = Span{δg | g ∈ G}.
·½ÂR[G]þ¦Èµ
X X X
( ka δa ) · ( lb δb ) = ka lb δa·b .
a∈G b∈G a,b∈G
Ný(G, ·)(Ü5
(R[G], ·)(Ü5§ \{©Æ¤á"(R[G], +, ·)
¤§¡+"G´+§R[G]¡'uþã5$Ú¦{+
ê(group algebra)"
Rf8L¡Rf§XJ(L, +)´(R, +)f+(L, ·)´(R, ·)f+"~
X§nZ´êZf§Z´Qf§ Q´Rf"du
√ √ √
(a1 + b1 2) · (a2 + b2 2) = a1 a2 + 2b1 b2 + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) 2, a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 ∈ Z,
8Ü √ √
Z[ 2] = {a + b 2 | a, b ∈ Z}
111
¤Rf"
XJRa, b 6= 0÷va · b = 0§Ka"Ïf§ bm"Ïf"~X§
3Z ¥§2̄ · 3̄ = 0̄" 3Ý
M (R)¥§
6 2×2

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
= , = .
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 0
Ra¡"XJ3k ∈ N¦a = 0"~X§ k
´"§Ï 0 0 = 0 0 00
2
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
= .
0 0 0 0 0
XJRkü 1 6= 0 a ∈ R÷va = 0 and m ∈ N§K m
(1 + a + · · · + am−1 )(1 − a) = 1 − am = 1,
=(1 − a)'u¦{_§(1 − a) = 1 + a + · · · + a " −1 m−1
XJR¹k 1 6= 0¿Ã"Ïf§K¡R"X§Z, Z[√2], Q, RÑ

´"
½ n16 R´§n ∈ N Úf (x)´Xê3R¥ngõª"Kf (x) =
03R¥õkn"
y² f (x) = a + a x + · · · + a x a , a , ..., a ∈ R"b§f (x) = 03R¥
n
kn + 1x , x , ..., x "ra , a , ..., a w¤þ§·k§|µ

0 1 n 0 1 n
0 1 n 0 1 n
a0 + a1 x0 + · · · + an xn0 = 0,
a0 + a1 x1 + · · · + an xn1 = 0,
·········
a0 + a1 xn + · · · + an xnn = 0.
P    
1 x0 · · · xn0 a0
 1 x1 · · · xn1  *
 a1 
A= ..  , a=  .
   
.. .. ..
 . . .   . 
1 xn · · · xnn an
@o§§|¤A a= 0 "d1ª * *
X
|A| = |tA| = (xs − xr ) 6= 0.
0≤r<s≤n
Ïd§ * * * * * * * * * *
A∨ (A a) = A∨ 0 ∼ (A∨ A) a= 0 ∼ |A|In a= 0 ∼ |A| a= 0 ∼ a= 0 ,
=f (x)ðu"§gñ"¤±§f (x) = 03R¥õkn" 2
112
126ù
þã½n(ØéØ½¤á"~X§3Z ¥§§1̄ − x 2
k
= 0̄ 4
µ1̄, 3̄, 5̄, 7̄"
8
RÚR ´kü "Nϕ : R → R ¡ÓXJ

0 0
ϕ(a + b) = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b), ϕ(a · b) = ϕ(a) · ϕ(b), ϕ(1R ) = 1R0 , a, b ∈ R.
~X§Ni 7→ ī´lêZ{aZ Ó" n
~4 Ø3lZ[√√2]Z[√√3]Ó"
eØ,§3lZ[ 2]Z[ 3]Óν "K
ν(1) = 1 =⇒ ν(2) = ν(1 + 1) = ν(1) + ν(1) = 1 + 1 = 2.
,¡§ √ √ √ √ √
2 = ν(2) = ν( 2 · 2) = ν( 2) · ν( 2) = (ν( 2))2 .
P √ √
(ν( 2) = a + b 3 §Ù¥
a, b ∈ Z "K
√ √
(a + b 3)2 = a2 + 3b2 + 2ab 3 = 2 ∼ ab = 0, a2 + 3b2 = 2 ∼ b = 0, a2 = 2.
Ïd§a = 2c´óê§´(2c) = 2 ∼ 2c = 1§gñ" 2 2
XJϕ : R → R ´kü Ó§w,ϕ(R)¤R kü f"

0 0
ker (qkoAOQº
Rf8I ¡Rn(ideal)XJ§'uR\{¤f+
ϕ
é?¿a ∈ RÚb ∈ I §·ka · b, b · a ∈ I "AO§I ´Rf§ {0}ÚR´R

n"XJR¹ü 11 ∈ I §KI = R"
I ´Rn§R/I 'u\{û+"éa, b ∈ RÚc , c ∈ I §·k 1 2
(a + c1 ) · (b + c2 ) = a · b + a · c2 + c1 · b + c1 · c2 ∈ a · b + I .
·3R/I þ½Â¦{
(a + I ) · (b + I ) = a · b + I , a, b ∈ R.
Ný(R/I , +, ·)¤§¡R'unû"?Ú§Na 7→ a + I ´
lRR/I g,Ó"R¹ü 1 6= 0ÚI 6= R§RI ´¹ü
"~X§é?¿2 ≤ n ∈ N§nZ´Zn§ ûZ/nZÒ´{aZ "X
JRá ∈ R§KRa = {ba | b ∈ R}¤Rn§¡RÌn
n
(principal ideal)"
113
Ó¡ÓXJ§´V"éuÓϕ : R → R §ker ´R\{ 0
f+" §éa ∈ RÚb ∈ ker §·k

ϕ
ϕ(a · b) = ϕ(a) · ϕ(b) = 0 · ϕ(b) = 0, ϕ(b · a) = ϕ(b) · ϕ(a) = ϕ(b) · 0 = 0,
=a · b, b · a ∈ ker "¤±ker ń"Na + ker 7→ ϕ(a)´lR/ker ϕ(R)

Ó"
ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ
XJ"¹ü ¤k"Ñ_, ·¡Ù
(field)§Ï~^F5L«"~X§QÚR´"p´ê§{aZ ´"3 p
√ √
Q[ 2] = {a + b 2 | a, b ∈ Q}
¥§éa + b√2 6= 0§
√ √
1 a−b 2 a−b 2 √
√ = √ √ = 2 2
∈ Q[ 2].
a+b 2 (a + b 2)(a − b 2) a − 2b
¤±§Q[√2]'uê\{Ú¦{¤"
M (R)f8 2×2
a b
C
b= | a, b ∈ R
−b a
w,´\{f+"

a1 b 1 a2 b 2 a1 a2 − b 1 b 2 a1 b 2 + a2 b 1
= ∈C
b
−b1 a1 −b2 a2 −a1 b2 − a2 b1 a1 a2 − b1 b2
Ú −1 a b

a b a b a2 +b2
− a2 +b2
6= 0 =⇒ = b a ∈ C.
b
−b a −b a a2 +b2 a2 +b2
¤±§Cb¤"P
0 1
E= .
−1 0
KE = −I Cb = aI + bE | a, b ∈ R"¤±§N
2
aI + bE 7→ a + bilC
bEê
C = {a + bi | a, b ∈ R}Ó§Ù¥i = −1"ù`²§Eê3êþg,3
2 2 2
√
½´§ Ø½´"X§Z´ Ø´

"
1 ´Fü "KNϕ : m 7→ m1 ´lZFÓ"XJker = {0}§·
¡FA0"dé?¿0 6= n ∈ ZÚ0 6= a ∈ F§·k
F F ϕ
n1F 6= 0 =⇒ na = n1F · a 6= 0.
bker 6= {0}"K§´Z"n"duker ´"\{+§ker T

N 6=
∅"-
ϕ ϕ ϕ
p = min{m ∈ kerϕ | m > 0}.
114
é?¿n ∈ ker §â{Ø{§3q, r ∈ Z¦n = qp + r0 ≤ r < p"dn½
Â§r = n − qp ∈ ker "dp45§r = 0"¤±§ker = pZ(ù¢Sþy²
Zn
ϕ
Ñ´Ìn)"
ϕ ϕ
ϕ
Zp = Z/pZ ∼
= ϕ(Z).
´§ϕ(Z)"Ñ_"Ïd§Z "Ñ_"ù§p½´
ê§ ϕ(Z)´FÓuZ f"dup1 = 0, ·k
p
p F
pa = p1F · a = 0 · a = 0, ∀a ∈ F.
·¡FAp"c¡5ênØ´3Rþ§¯¢þ3?¿Fþ·^"
15Ù õª
20 üCõª
R´"PF(R)RRN(¼ê)N"3F(R)þ½Â$
(f + g)(a) = f (a) + g(a), (f · g)(a) = f (a) · g(a), f, g ∈ F(R), a ∈ R.
Ný§F(R)¤ü §Ù¥0 : a 7→ 0, a ∈ RÚ1 : a 7→ 1 , a ∈ R"

Xêa , a , ..., a ∈ RüCõª¼ê(polynomial function)f (x) = a + a x +
R
· + a x Ń
0 1 n 0 1
n
n
b 7→ f (b) = a0 + a1 b + · + an bn , b ∈ R.
XJa 6= 0§K¡f (x)ngõª§Pdeg f = n" ½Âdeg 0 = −∞"RkÃ
§âþÙ½n16§f (x) ≡ 0¿©7^á = a = · · · = a = 0"d§
n
·PR[x]Rþõª¼êN"§¤F(R)ü f§¡Rþ
0 1 n
üCõª"
bR´k"K§´k(K)"d§(Ø/f (x) ≡ 0¿
©7â = a = · · · = a = 00Ø½¤á"Xf (x) = x + x 3Z þ´"¼ê" 2
·rx¤Ø½§ ¡a + a x + · + a x Rþõª(polynomial)( Ø´¼

0 1 n 2
n
ê)5½a + a x + · + a x ≡ 0¿©7^á = a = · · · = a = 0"d§·

0 1 n
n
PR[x]RþõªN§Ù\{Ú¦{Uõª¼ê\{Ú¦{5½Â"ù§
0 1 n 0 1 n
§¤§¡RþüCõª"
õªpg¡Ä(leading term)"ÏLÄõªÄ§±y²µ
XJR´§KR[x]´"p´ê"KI = {pf (x) | f (x) ∈
Z[x]}´Z[x]n§ Z[x]/I ∼ = Z [x]"¤±§Z [x]w¤õª¼ê
û"
p p
115
127ù
±e§·ÌÄFþõªF[x]"~X§F = Q, R, CÚZ §Ù¥p´
ê"¯¢þ§õªF[x]êkNõ5"£Áé?¿m, n ∈ Zm > 0§·
p
k{Ø{n = qm + r§Ù¥q, r ∈ Z0 ≤ r < m"éuF[x]üf (x)Úg(x)§

·±{Ø{"~X§F = Q§
f (x) = 3x3 + 4x2 − 5x + 6, g(x) = x2 − 3x + 1.
·±U±eª?1Ø{µ
x2 − 3x + 1 3x3 + 4x2 − 5x + 6 3x + 13
3x3 − 9x2 + 3x
13x2 − 8x + 6 .
13x2 − 39x + 13
31x − 7
ù§¦û3x + 13§{ª31x − 7"¤(J¤

3x3 + 4x2 − 5x + 6 = (3x + 13)(x2 − 3x + 1) + 31x − 7.
/§·kµ
½n1 (õª{Ø{) éf (x), g(x) ∈ F[x]g(x) 6= 0§3q(x), r(x) ∈
F[x]¦f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x)§Ù¥deg r(x) < deg g(x)"
y ² Äk·y²35"Pdeg f (x) = nÚdeg g(x) = m"XJn < m§·
q(x) = 0, r(x) = f (x)§(Ø¤á"b(Øén < k¤á§Ù¥k ≥ m"
Än = k"-ax f (x)Ä§ bx g(x)Ä"4
n m
f1 (x) = f (x) − ab−1 xn−m g(x).
duf (x)Úab ÄÑáx §deg f (x) < k"â8Bb§f (x) =

−1 n−m
x g(x) n
q (x)g(x) + r(x)§Ù¥q (x), r(x) ∈ F[x]deg r(x) < m"·k

1 1
1 1
f (x) = f1 (x)+ab−1 xn−m g(x) = q1 (x)g(x)+r(x)+ab−1 xn−m g(x) = (q1 (x)+ab−1 xn−m )q(x)+r(x).
Pq(x) = q (x) + ab x §Kf (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x)"ùÒy²

35"
−1 n−m
b·kf (x) = q (x)g(x) + r (x)§Ù¥q (x), r (x) ∈ F[x]deg r (x) < m"@o
1
0 0 0 0 0
q(x)g(x) + r(x) = f (x) = q 0 (x)g(x) + r0 (x) =⇒ (q(x) − q 0 (x))g(x) = r0 (x) − r(x).
XJq(x) 6= q (x)§Kdeg (q(x) − q (x))g(x) ≥ m§ deg (r (x) − r(x)) < m§þªg

0 0 0
ñ"
q(x) = q 0 (x) =⇒ 0 = r0 (x) − r(x) =⇒ r(x) = r0 (x).
116
5
y²" 2
·§êZ?¿n´Ìn§=äk/ªnZ"aq/§·k:
½n2 I ´F[x]n"K3g(x) ∈ F(x)¦
I = g(x) · F[x] = {g(x)f (x) | f (x) ∈ F[x]},
=I ´F[x]Ìn"
y ² XJI = {0}§Kg(x) = 0§½n¤á"I 6= {0}"g(x)I ¥gê
"õª"é?¿f (x) ∈ I §3q(x), r(x) ∈ F[x]¦f (x) = q(x)g(x) +
r(x)deg r(x) < deg g(x)"dur(x) = f (x) − q(x)g(x) ∈ I g(x)I ¥gê
"õª§·kr(x) = 0§=f (x) = q(x)g(x)" 2
f (x), g(x) ∈ F[x]"·¡g(x)Øf (x)XJ3q(x) ∈ F[x]¦f (x) = g(x)q(x)§
Pg(x)|f (x)"·Q3g,ê8ÜNþ½Â
Ø S§=m ≺ nXJm|n"·
r§í2õªþ"
"õª¡Äõª(monic polynomial)XJ§pgXê1"~
X§x + x − 1Úx − 2x + x − 1Ñ´Äõª§ 1 − 2xØ´"PM [x]F[x]¥
2 3 2
ÄõªN"KM [x]'uF[x]¦{¤Nf+"§/ ÒXÓN3Z¥
F
/ "éf (x), g(x) ∈ M [x]§·½Âg(x) ≺ f (x)XJg(x)|f (x)"Ný/≺0

F
´M [x]þ S"£Á§ém.n ∈ Z§XJg.c.d(m, n) = d§K3r, s ∈ Z¦

F
rm + sn = d"éF[x]¥õª"·kaq(J"
F
õªh(x)¡õªf (x)Úg(x)úÏªXJh(x)|f (x)Úh(x)|g(x)"f (x)Úg(x)

úÏªd(x)¡úÏªXJ?Ûf (x)Úg(x)úÏªh(x)Ñ÷vh(x)|d(x)"
½ n3 f (x), g(x) ∈ F[x]"K3f (x)Úg(x)úÏªd(x)§9ξ(x), ζ(x) ∈
F[x]¦d(x) = ξ(x)f (x) + ζ(x)g(x)"
y ² XJg(x) = 0§Kd(x) = f (x)´f (x)Úg(x)úÏª§½n¤á"b
g(x) 6= 0"-r (x) = f (x)Úr (x) = g(x)98B{Ø{
0 1
ri (x) = qi+1 (x)ri+1 (x) + ri+2 (x),
Ù¥i ≥ 0Údeg r (x) < deg r (x)"K3ên¦r n+2 (x) = 0 "d

5§r (x) 6= 0r (x) = q (x)r (x)"K
i+2 i+1
n+1 n n+1 n+1
rn−1 (x) = qn (x)rn (x)+ri+1 (x) = qn (x)qn+1 (x)rn+1 (x)+ri+1 (x) = (qn (x)qn+1 (x)+1)rn+1 (x).
br i+1 (x) Ú

= h1 (x)rn+1 (x) ri+2 (x) = h2 (x)rn+1 (x) §Ù¥h (x), h (x) ∈ F[x]"·k
1 2
ri (x) = qi+1 (x)ri+1 (x) + ri+2 (x) = (qi+1 (x)h1 (x) + h2 (x))rn+1 (x).
â8B{§
rn+1 (x)|ri (x), i = n + 1, n, n − 1, ..., 1, 0.
117
AOr (x)´f (x) = r (x)Úg(x) = r (x)úÏª"
L5§·b3ξ (x), ξ (x), ζ (x), ζ (x) ∈ F[x]¦
n+2 0 1
1 2 1 2
ri (x) = ξ1 (x)f (x) + ζ1 (x)g(x), ri+1 (x) = ξ2 (x)f (x) + ζ2 (x)g(x).
þªi = 0w,¤á"·k
ri+2 (x) = ri (x) − qi+1 (x)ri+1 (x) = (ξ1 (x) − qi+1 (x)ξ2 (x))f (x) + (ζ1 (x) − qi+1 (x)ζ2 (x))g(x).
â8B{§3ξ(x), ζ(x) ∈ F[x]¦r (x) = ξ(x)f (x)+ζ(x)g(x)"Ïdf (x)Úg(x)

?ÛúÏª´r (x)Ïª"¤±§r (x)´f (x)Úg(x)úÏª" 2
n+1
n+1 n+1
´Ø"~ê §üØ"õªf (x)Úg(x)úÏª´§

·PÄXê1úÏªg.c.d(f (x), g(x))"þãy²¥¦úÏª{
¡Î=Ø{"
~1
f (x) = x4 + 3x3 − x2 − 4x − 3, g(x) = 3x3 + 10x2 + 2x − 3.
¦g.c.d(f (x), g(x))Úξ(x), ζ(x) ∈ Q[x]¦

g.c.d(f (x), g(x)) = ξ(x)f (x) + ζ(x)g(x).
) Äk§
1 1
3x3 + 10x2 + 2x − 3 x4 + 3x3 − x2 − 4x − 3 3
x − 9
x4 + 10
3
x3 + 23 x2 − x
− 13 x3 − 53 x2 − 3x − 3 .
− 31 x3 − 109
x2 − 92 x + 13
− 9 x − 25
5 2
9
x − 10
3
Ïd§ 1 1 5 25 10
q1 (x) = x − , r2 (x) = − x2 − x −
3 9 9 9 3
f (x) = q1 (x)g(x) + r2 (x) "2O
− 59 x2 − 25
9
x − 10
3
3x3 + 10x2 + 2x − 3 − 27
5
x+9
3x3 + 15x2 + 18x
−5x2 − 16x − 3 .
−5x2 − 25x − 30
9x + 27
27
q2 (x) = − x + 9, r3 (x) = 9x + 27
5
118
Úg(x) = q (x)r (x) + r (x)"?ÚO
2 2 3
9x + 27 − 59 x2 − 259
x − 10
3
5
− 81 x− 10
81
5 2 5
−9x − 3x
− 10
9
x − 10
3
.
− 10
9
x − 10
3
0
¤±§ 5 10
q3 (x) = − x− , r4 (x) = 0
81 81
r (x) = q (x)r (x)"ù ´ Ú úÏª"Ïd§g.c.d(f (x), g(x)) =
r3 (x) = 9x+27 f (x) g(x)
x + 3"
2 3 3

27 5 2 25 10
9x + 27 = r1 (x) − q2 (x)r2 (x) = g(x) − − x + 9 − x − x−
5 9 9 3

27 1 1
= g(x) − − x + 9 f (x) − x− g(x)
5 3 9

27 27 1 1
= x − 9 f (x) + 1 + − x + 9 x− g(x)
5 5 3 9

27 9 2 18
= x − 9 f (x) + − x + x g(x).
5 5 5
- 3 1 2
ξ(x) = x − 1, ζ(x) = − x2 + x.
5 5 5
K "
g.c.d(f (x), g(x)) = ξ(x)f (x) + ζ(x)g(x) 2
üõªf (x), g(x) ∈ F[x]¡pXJg.c.d(f (x), g(x)) = 1"d½n3§f (x)Úg(x)p

¿©7^´3ξ(x), ζ(x) ∈ F[x]¦ξ(x)f (x) + ζ(x)g(x) = 1"
½n4 f (x), g(x)F[x]ph(x), η(x) ∈ F[x]÷vf (x)|g(x)h(x)9f (x)|η(x), g(x)|η(x)"
K3f (x)|h(x)Úf (x)g(x)|η(x)"
y² ξ(x), ζ(x) ∈ F[x]¦ξ(x)f (x) + ζ(x)g(x) = 1"§ü>Ó¦h(x)
ξ(x)f (x)h(x) + ζ(x)g(x)h(x) = h(x).
df (x)|g(x)h(x)§3h (x) ∈ F[x]¦g(x)h(x) = f (x)h (x)"Ïd§

1 1
ξ(x)f (x)h(x)+ζ(x)f (x)h1 (x) = h(x) =⇒ (ξ(x)h(x)+ζ(x)h1 (x))f (x) = h(x) =⇒ f (x)|h(x).
dg(x)|η(x)§3h (x) ∈ F[x]¦η(x) = h (x)g(x)"lf (x)|η(x)f (x)|h (x)g(x)"

âþã(Ø§f (x)|h (x)"33h (x) ∈ F[x]¦h (x) = h (x)f (x)"ùη(x) =
2 2 2
h (x)f (x)g(x)§=f (x)g(x)|η(x)"

2 3 2 3
3 2
Ó§·½ÂõõªúÏª§aq½n3Ú½n4(Ø¤á"
119
21 Ïª©)
gêu0õªϕ(x) ∈ F[x]¡ØõªXJ§Ø´ügê
u0F[x]¥õª¦È"~X§F[x]¥gõª½´Øõª"ù
p§Få^"X§ x − 2Úx + 2Ñ´Qþ(Q[x])Øõª§
2 2
x − 2 = (x + 2)(x − √2)Ø´R√þØõª
2
√
x + 2´QþØõ 2
ª"3EêCþ§x + 2 = (x + i 2)(x − i 2)Ø´Øõª"£Áéêp§

2
√
{aZ = Z/pZ¤"
p
½ n5 ϑ(x)´FþØõªI = ϑ(x) · F[x]´F[x]¥dϑ(x))¤Ìn

"KûF[x]/I ¤"
y² Ø5§·±bϑ(x)´Äõª"é?¿g(x) ∈ F[x]÷vϑ(x) -
g(x)§duϑ(x)gêu0ÄõªÏªk§gC§·kg.c.d(g(x), ϑ(x)) =
1"â½n3§3ξ(x), ζ(x) ∈ F[x]¦ξ(x)g(x)+ζ(x)ϑ(x) = 1"5¿ζ(x)ϑ(x) ∈ I "
Ïd§
(ξ(x) + I ) · (g(x) + I ) = 1 + I ,
=F[x]/I ¥?¿"'u¦{_"l F[x]/I ¤" 2
128ù
F = QÚϑ(x) = x 2
"Pf (x) = f (x) + I "K
−2
x̄2 − 2̄ = x2 − 2 = 0̄ ∼ x̄2 = 2̄ =⇒ x̄2m = 2̄m , x̄2m+1 = 2̄m x̄, m ∈ N.
Ïd§ "ù§N
Q[x]/I = {ā + b̄x̄ | a, b ∈ Q} ´l ê √
ā + b̄x̄ 7→ a + b 2 F[x]/I
Ó"/§½n¥
√
Q[ 2] 3 þV\ 3¹ f
F[x]/I F ϑ(x) F
¥¤Ó§~X§ "§2g`²§Eê
R[x]/[(x + 1) · R[x]] ∼
2
=C
lêÝ5`g,3
£ÁéêpÚêm, n§p|mn =⇒ p|m½p|n"aq/§·kµ
½n6 ϑ(x)´FþØõªf (x), g(x) ∈ F[x]÷vϑ(x)|f (x)g(x)"Kϑ(x)|f (x)
½ϑ(x)|g(x)"
y² bϑ(x) - f (x)§Kg.c.d(f (x), ϑ(x)) = 1"â½n4§ϑ(x)|g(x)" 2
·?¿u1ê©)¤ê¦È"
½n7 F[x]¥?Ûgêu0õªÑ©)¤Øõª¦È§
Ø"~êÚÏªgS §©)´"
120
y ² f (x)´F[x]¥?Ûgêu0õª"·k^8B{y²Ø©
)35"XJdeg f (x) = 1§U½Âf (x)Ò´Øõª§=Ø
©)¤á"bØ©)éF¥gêunõª¤á"Ädeg f (x) = n"X
Jf (x)Ø§K(Øg,¤á"ÄK§f (x) = f (x)f (x)deg f (x), deg f (x) > 0"
ddeg f (x) + deg f (x) = n§·kdeg f (x), deg f (x) < n"â8Bb§3Ø
1 2 1 2
õªϑ (x), ϑ (x), ..., ϑ (x)¦f (x) = ϑ (x) · · · ϑ (x)Úf (x) = ϑ (x) · · · ϑ (x)"
1 2 1 2
Ïd§
1 2 r 1 1 r1 2 r1 +1 r
f (x) = f1 (x)f2 (x) = ϑ1 (x) · · · ϑr1 (x)ϑr1 +1 (x) · · · ϑr (x)
´Øõª¦È"â8B{§F[x]¥?Ûgêu0õªÑ©)¤Ø
õª¦È"
bf (x) = ϑ (x)ϑ (x) · · · ϑ (x)Úf (x) = θ (x)θ (x) · · · θ (x)Ñ´Øõª¦
È"d½n6§3,i ∈ {1, 2, ..., s}¦ϑ (x)|θ (x)"duϑ (x)Úθ (x)Ñ´Øõ
1 2 r 1 2 s
ª§·kϑ (x) = c θ (x)"^c θ (x)Oϑ (x)θ (x), θ (x), ..., θ (x)gS§

1 i 1 i
−1
·±bϑ (x) = θ (x)"ù·kϑ (x) · · · ϑ (x) = θ (x) · · · θ (x)§ØäEþ

1 1 i 1 1 1 1 2 s
ãØy§·r = sϑ (x) = c θ (x), m = 1, 2, ..., r" 2

1 1 2 r 2 s
m m m
Øõªϑ(x)¡õªf (x)kÏªXJϑ (x)|f (x) ϑ (x) - f (x)"X k k+1
Jk ≥ 2§·{¡ϑ(x)f (x)Ïª"½Âõªf (x) = a +a x+a x +· · ·+a x 2 n
êf (x) = a + 2a x + · · · + na x "K(f (x)g(x)) = f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x)"

0 1 2 n
0 n−1 0 0 0
1 2 n
½n8 FA0"FþØõªϑ(x)´õªf (x)Ïª¿©7

^´ϑ(x)´f (x)Úf (x)úÏª" 0
y² ϑ(x)´f (x)kÏªk ≥ 2"K3g(x) ∈ F[x]¦f (x) = g(x)ϑ (x)" k
5¿
f 0 (x) = [g(x)ϑk (x)]0 = g 0 (x)ϑk (x) + kg(x)ϑk−1 (x)ϑ0 (x) = (g 0 (x)ϑ(x) + kg(x)ϑ0 (x))ϑk−1 (x).
¤±§ϑ (x)´f (x)Úf (x)úÏª"

k−1 0
L5§bϑ(x)´f (x)Úf (x)úÏª"XJf (x) = ϑ(x)g(x)g.c.d(ϑ(x), g(x)) = 0
1§K
f 0 (x) = ϑ0 (x)g(x) + ϑ(x)g 0 (x) =⇒ ϑ(x)|(f 0 (x) − ϑ(x)g 0 (x)) ∼ ϑ(x)|ϑ0 (x)g(x).
â½n6§ϑ(x)|ϑ (x)§deg ϑ (x) = deg ϑ(x) − 1gñ"¤±§ϑ (x)|f (x)" 2

0 0 2
3Z [x]¥§(x − x + 2) = 2px − px = 0"·ØUydeg ϑ (x) =

2p p 0 2p−1 p−1 0
deg ϑ(x) − 1"

p
XJ"Xêõªf (x) = a x + a x + · · · + a ¡õªX n n−1
Jg.c.d(a , a , ..., a ) = 1"

n n−1 0
n n−1 0
½n9 (pdÚn) üõª¦È´õª"

121
y² õª
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 , g(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b0 .
P
h(x) = f (x)g(x) = dm+n xm+n + dm+n−1 xm+n−1 + · · · + d0 .
bh(x)Ø´õª§K3Ø¤kXêd êp"duf (x)Úg(x)Ñ´õ

ª§3rÚs¦
i
p - ar , p|ai , i < r; p - bs , p|bj , j < s.
ù§
p - (ar bs +
X
ai bj ) = dr+s , gñ"
i+j=r+s;i<r ½ j<s
¤±§h(x)´õª" 2
½ n10 é?¿"knXêõªf (x)§3knêaÚÄXê
õªf (x)¦f (x) = af (x)"
y² m´f (x)¤kXê©1úêε´ÄXêÎÒ"Kmf (x)´
1 1
Xêõª"kmf (x)¤kXêúÏf"Kmf (x) = εkf (x)f (x)´

ÄXêõª"-a = εk/m"·kf (x) = af (x)"ùÒy²
35"
1 1
b3knêbÚÄXêõªg(x)¦f (x) = bg(x)"af (x) =

1
f (x) = bg(x) ∼ b af (x) = g(x)"

1
−1
1
f1 (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 , g(x) = bn xn + bn−1 xn−1 + · · · + b0 .
·ka , b
> 0 g.c.d(an , an−1 , ..., a0 ) = 1 = g.c.d(bn , bn−1 , ..., b0 ) "Ïd§3c , ..., c n−1 , cn ∈
Z¦
n n 0
cn an + cn−1 an−1 + · · · + c0 a0 = 1 =⇒ cn b−1 aan + cn−1 b−1 aan−1 + · · · + c0 b−1 aa0 = b−1 a.
du
b−1 aai = bi ∈ Z, i = 0, 1, ..., n,
·kb −1
a∈N §l
(b−1 a)|(g.c.d(bn , bn−1 , ..., b0 )) ∼ (b−1 a)|1 ∼ a = b =⇒ f1 (x) = g(x). 2
íØ11 XJ"Xêõªf (x)©)¤ü$gknXêõª¦È§

K§©)¤ü$gXêõª¦È"
y² f (x) = g(x)h(x)©)¤ü$gknXêõª¦È"â½n10§
3knêa, b, cÚÄXêõªf (x), g (x), h (x)¦ 1 1 1
f (x) = af1 (x), g(x) = b1 g1 (x), h(x) = ch1 (x).
122
d½n9§g (x)h (x)´ÄXêõª"?Ú§
1 1
f (x) = g(x)h(x) ∼ af1 (x) = bcg1 (x)h1 (x).
2â½n10¥5§a = bc"Ïf (x)´Xêõª§a ∈ Z"¤±§f (x) =

(ag (x))h (x)ü$gXêõª¦È"
1 1 2
n ∈ NÚb , b , ...., b ńØÓê"-

1 2 n
f (x) = (x − b1 )(x − b2 ) · · · (x − bn ) − 1.
XJf (x)´Qþõª§âíØ11y²§f (x) = g(x)h(x)´ü$gÄ

Xêõª¦È", §
g(b )h(b ) = f (b ) = −1 =⇒ g(b ) = 1, h(b ) = −1 ½ g(b ) = −1, h(b ) = 1.
i i i i i i i
ù§"õªg(x)+h(x)knb , b , ..., b §ù§gê< ngñ"¤±§f (x)´Qþ

Øõª"
1 2 n
½n12 (MÜd"(Eisenstein)O{) f (x) = a x + a x + · · · + a ´ n n−1
Xêõª"XJ3êp¦p - a , p|a , ..., p|a Úp - a §Kf (x)´QþØ

n n−1 0
2
õª"
n n−1 0 0
y² bf (x)3Qþ§=§©)¤ü$gknXêõª¦È"
âíØ11§f (x)©)¤eü$gXêõª¦Èµ
f (x) = (bk xk + bk−1 xk−1 + · · · + b0 )(cm xm + cm−1 xm−1 + · · · + c0 ),
Ù¥k, m < nk + m = n"dup|a , p 0

2
- a0 Úa 0 = b0 c 0 §
p|b0 c0 , p2 - b0 c0 .
p|b , p - c ½p|c , p - b "âõª¦È5§·Øbp|b , p - c "

,¡§
0 0 0 0 0 0
p - an ∼ p - bk cm =⇒ p - bk .
Ïd§30 < r ≤ k¦

p - br , p|bi , i = 0, ..., r − 1.
u´ min{m,r}
X
p - (br c0 + br−i ci ) ∼ p - ar ,
i=1
·bp|a gñ"¤±§f (x)´QþØõª"

r 2
123
~2 éên§x + 2´QþØõª"éõª5x + 4x − 2x + 6§
n 3 2
½n12^'up = 2÷v§§´QþØõª"p´êÚg(x) =
xp−1
+x + · · · + 1"du
p−2
p
p−1 p−2 (x + 1)p − 1 X p i−1
g(x + 1) = (x + 1) + (x + 1) + ··· + 1 = = x
(x + 1) − 1 i=1
i
÷v½n12^§g(x + 1)´QþØõª"l §g(x)´QþØõ

ª"
129ù
22 õª
f (x) ∈ F[x]"a ∈ F¡f (x)XJf (a) = 0"âõª{Ø
{§é?¿b ∈ F§3g(x) ∈ F[x]Úc ∈ F¦
f (x) = (x − b)g(x) + c =⇒ f (b) = c.
Ïd§
´f (x) ⇔ (x − b)|f (x).
b
êÄ½n gêu0EXêõª3Eê¥k"
þã½nL²§C[x]¥Øõª´g"ù?¿gêu0f (x) ∈
C[x]©)¤
f (x) = a(x − b1 )r1 (x − b2 )r2 · · · (x − bm )rm , a, bi ∈ C; ri ∈ N.
g(x) = b x + b x + · · · + b ´gêu0¢Xêõª"XJg(x)kE
m m−1
c = a + bi§Ù¥a, b ∈ Rb 6= 0§Kc̄ = a + bi = a − bi

m m−1 0
bm cm + bm−1 cm−1 + · · · + b0 = 0 =⇒ bm cm + bm−1 cm−1 + · · · + b0 = 0̄ = 0
∼ bm c̄m + bm−1 c̄m−1 + · · · + b0 = 0 ∼ g(c̄) = 0.
¤±§(x − c)(x − c̄)|g(x)"

(x − c)(x − c̄) = (x − a − bi)(x − a + bi) = (x − a)2 + b2 .
Ïd§R[x]¥Øõªäk/ªx − a½(x − a) 2
+ b2 §Ù¥a, b ∈ Rb 6= 0"
124
~3 ©O3¢êÚEêþòõªf (x) = x 6
+ 27 ©)¤Øõª¦
È"
) Äk
f (x) = (x2 )3 + 33 = (x2 + 3)(x4 − 3x2 + 9).
?Ú§
x4 − 3x2 + 9 = x4 − 6x2 + 9 − 9x2 = (x2 + 3)2 − (3x)2 = (x2 + 3x + 3)(x2 − 3x + 3).
O
√ ! √ !
√ √ 3 − 3i 3 + 3i
x2 + 3 = (x − 3i)(x + 3i), x2 + 3x + 3 = x+ x+ ,
2 2
√ ! √ !
3 + 3i 3 − 3i
x2 − 3x + 3 = x− x− .
2 2
Ïd§3¢êØ©)´
f (x) = (x2 + 3)(x2 + 3x + 3)(x2 − 3x + 3)
3EêØ©)´
√ ! √ ! √ ! √ !
√ √ 3 − 3i 3 + 3i 3 + 3i 3 − 3i
f (x) = (x− 3i)(x+ 3i) x + x+ x− x− .
2 2 2 2
½ n13 f (x) ∈ R[x]÷vé?¿a ∈ R§f (a) > 0"K3f (x), f (x) ∈ R[x]¦
f (x) = f (x) + f (x)"
1 2
2 2
y² f (x)¤÷v^`²§ÄXêb > 0§vk¢"XJdeg f (x) = 0§

1 2
Kf (x) = b¤ü¢ê²Ú§½n¤á"bdeg f (x) > 0"d§§3¢ê

þ©)¤
f (x) = bg1 (x)g2 (x) · · · gm (x),
Ù¥g (x)ÄÚgØõª"?Ú§g (x)´éÝEêc Úc §

=g (x) = (x − c )(x − c )"¤±
r r r r
r r r
f (x) = b(x − c1 )(x − c1 )(x − c2 )(x − c2 ) · · · (x − cm )(x − cm ).
P √
b(x − c1 )(x − c2 ) · · · (x − cm ) = f1 (x) + if2 (x), f1 (x), f2 (x) ∈ R[x].
K √
b(x − c1 )(x − c2 ) · · · (x − cm ) = f1 (x) − if2 (x).
¤±§
f (x) = (f1 (x) + if2 (x))(f1 (x) − if2 (x)) = f12 (x) + f22 (x). 2
125
½n14 f (x) = a x + a x + · · · + a ´Xêõª§ r/s´f (x)
n n−1
kn§g.c.d(r, s) = 1"Kr|a Ús|a "

n n−1 0
y² d
0 n
r r n r n−1 r

0=f = an + an−1 + · · · + a1 + a0
s s s s

an rn + an−1 rn−1 s + · · · + a1 rsn−1 + a0 sn = 0.
Ïg.c.g(r, s) = 1§þãªÑr|a Ús|a " 2 0 n
~4 ¦f (x) = 2x − x + 2x − 3kn"
4 3
) âþã½n§§Ukn´µ
1 3
±1, ±3, ± , ± .
2 2
O
f (1) = 2 − 1 + 2 − 3 = 0, f (−1) = 2 + 1 − 2 − 3 = −2, f (3) = 162 − 27 + 6 − 3 = 138,

1 1 1
f (−3) = 162 + 27 − 6 − 3 = 180, f = − + 1 − 3 = −2,
2 8 8

1 1 1 15 3 81 27 27
f − = + −1−3=− , f = − +3−3= ,
2 8 8 4 2 8 8 4

3 81 27 15
f − = + −3−3= .
2 8 8 2
¤±§1´f (x)kn"
~5 y²f (x) = x − 5x + 1´QþØõª"
3
y² XJf (x)3Qþ§K§½kgÏª"§¹kn"â½
n14§f (x)Ukn´±1"´§f (1) = 1−5+1 = −3Úf (−1) = −1+5+1 = 5§
f (x)vkkn§gñ"Ïd§f (x)´QþØõª"
£Á
(ν ◦ f )(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = f (xν(1) , xν(2) , ..., xν(n) ), ν ∈ Sn .
é?¿êr÷v1 ≤ r ≤ n§·½Â
X
σr (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = xm1 xm2 · · · xmr .
1≤m1 <m2 <···<mr ≤n
Kσ (x , x , ..., x )´é¡õª(XJF´Ã§K§Ò´é¡¼ê)§¡Ð
é¡õª"~X§
r 1 2 n
σ1 (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = x1 + x2 + · · · + xn , σn (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = x1 x2 · · · xn .
126
n = 4§
σ2 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x1 x4 + x2 x3 + x2 x4 + x3 x4 ,
σ3 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = x1 x2 x3 + x1 x2 x4 + x1 x3 x4 + x2 x3 x4 .
úª
f (x) = xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 = (x − c1 )(x − c2 ) · · · (x − cn ) ∈ F[x],
Ù¥c r ∈F "K
an−m = (−1)m σm (c1 , c2 , ..., cn ), m = 1, ..., n.
é{`§
n
X
n
(x − c1 )(x − c2 ) · · · (x − cn ) = x + (−1)m σm (c1 , c2 , ..., cn )xn−m .
m=1
~X§'x Xê§·k n−1
n
X
an−1 = − cr = −σ1 (c1 , c2 , ..., cn ).
r=1
'~ê
a0 = (−1)n c1 c2 · · · cn = (−1)n σn (c1 , c2 , ..., cn ).
~6 n > 1´ê"Pω = e "K{ω | r = 0, 1, ..., n − 1}´õªx

2πi/n r n
−
13Cþn§¡ngü (root of unity)"âúª§
n n
Xê) = 0.
n−1
X
ωnr = σ1 (1, ωn , ..., ωnn−1 ) = −(xn−1
r=0
ù¯¢3êÆþk2A^"
~7 p > 2´ê"·Z "N¤p − 1¦{+" p
r̄p−1 = 1̄, r = 1, 2, ..., p − 1.
¤±3Z [x]¥§p
xp−1 − 1̄ = (x − 1̄)(x − 2̄) · · · (x − p − 1).
Ïd§
−1̄ = (−1)p−1 σp−1 (1̄, 2̄, ..., p − 1) = 1̄ · 2̄ · · · p − 1 = (p − 1)! =⇒ (p − 1)! + 1 = 0̄.
127
ù·Òµ
Wilson ½ n p > 2´ê"Kp|((p − 1)! + 1)"
e¡·2ùA^~fµ
~8 n ∈ N"y²
n
X
2 kπ n(2n − 1)
cot = .
k=1
2n + 1 3
y² -
kπ

2
ξk = cot .
2n + 1
d1 + cot z = 1/ sin z§
2 2

2 kπ 1
sin = .
2n + 1 1 + ξk
l r s
kπ 1 kπ ξk
sin = , cos = .
2n + 1 1 + ξk 2n + 1 1 + ξk
âEulerúªe iθ
= cos θ + i sin θ,
s r
kπi kπ kπ ξk 1
e 2n+1 = cos + i sin = +i .
2n + 1 2n + 1 1 + ξk 1 + ξk
Ïd§ s r !2n+1
ξk 1
+i = ekπi = (−1)k ,
1 + ξk 1 + ξk
d/§ p 2n+1
( ξk + i)2n+1 = (−1)k (1 + ξk ) 2 .
'JÜ§
n n
X 2n + 1 X 2n + 1 m
ξkm i2n+1−2m =0∼ (−1) m
ξk = 0.
m=0
2m m=0
2m
ξ , ..., ξ ´õª
1 n
n
X 2n + 1 m
m
(−1) x
m=0
2m
n" õªÄXê´ (−1)n 2n+1

2n

= (−1)n (2n + 1) "¤±§
n
X
m 2n + 1 m
(−1) x = (−1)n (2n + 1)(x − ξ1 )(x − ξ2 ) · · · (x − ξn ).
m=0
2m
128
âúª
n
n
X
n−1 2n + 1 n−1 2n + 1
−(−1) (2n + 1) ξk = (−1) = (−1)
k=1
2(n − 1) 3
(2n + 1)2n(2n − 1) (2n + 1)n(2n − 1)
= (−1)n−1 = (−1)n−1 .
6 3
ù§ n n
X
2 kπ X n(2n − 1)
cot = ξk = .
k=1
2n + 1 k=1
3
. K F ½ n(Lagrange’s Interplation Theorem) n > 1´ê

a , a , ..., a ∈ FńØÓ"é?¿nb , b , ..., b §3gêØ
un − 1õªf (x) ∈ F[x]¦f (a ) = b , r = 1, 2, ..., n"
1 2 n 1 2 n
y² -
r r
(x − a2 ) · · · (x − an ) (x − a1 ) · · · (x − ar−1 )(x − ar+1 ) · · · (x − an )

f (x) = b1 + · · · + br
(a1 − a2 ) · · · (a1 − an ) (ar − a1 ) · · · (ar − ar−1 )(ar − ar+1 ) · · · (ar − an )
(x − a1 ) · · · (x − an−1 )
+ · · · + bn .
(an − a1 ) · · · (an − an−1 )
Kf (a ) = b , r = 1, ..., n"
XJkgêØun − 1õªg(x) ∈ F[x]¦g(a ) = b , r = 1, 2, ..., n§@
r r
of (x) − g(x)kn"âþÙ½n16§f (x) = g(x)" 2

r r
~9 EQþõªf (x)¦f (1) = 4, f (2) = −1, f (3) = 6"

) U.KF½ny²,
(x − 2)(x − 3) (x − 1)(x − 3) (x − 1)(x − 2)
f (x) = 4 − +6
(1 − 2)(1 − 3) (2 − 1)(2 − 3) (3 − 1)(3 − 2)
= 2(x − 2)(x − 3) + (x − 1)(x − 3) + 3(x − 1)(x − 2)
= 6x2 − 23x + 21.
ÆÏÆd(å"±3eÆÏ1±"6Ó
ÆÏ"Á¤õ§S!¯W
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5ê(Linear Algebra)

y  n â(Goldbach)ß ÿ(1742c): ?¿u2óêÑ±¤üê

Azc5§¢Sþ´ßÿ"ª§Andrew Wiles u1995cy²

bx + c = 0No5¦)Q? Äk-x = y − a/3, ·k

ÃëY+( <¡o+)"oóvkÚå<AO5¿" 5²LElie

m^Ù:IN5L«R = {(a, b, c) | a, b, c ∈ R}"êÆþ, nm´

Rn = {(a1 , a2 , ..., an ) | a1 , a2 , ..., an ∈ R},

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,

(1) )¶(2) Ã¡õ)¶(3) Ã)"

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · a1n xn = b1 ,

Ù¥, ā ā ā · · · ā 6= 0, 1 < k < l < · · · < s.

(3) 5§|(∗)kÃ¡õ)¿©7^´r < n b̄ = · · · = b̄ = 0"

a12 a21 − a11 a22 6= 0.

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1 ,

XJa 6= 0Úa 6= 0§·aq/Ó(J"

"·Ï~^M (R)L«m × n¢êÝ

XJ8ÜT ¥Ñ´,8ÜS¥§·¡T Sf8§P

Ún3 é8ÜR, SÚT §eª¤áµ

=x ∈S R \ S½x ∈ R \ T "Ïd§x ∈ (R \ S) S(R \ T ), d/R \ (S T T ) ⊂

ü8ÜX ÚY (kÈ(Cartesian product):

XJX ´k8Ü§·^|X|L«X ¥ê"SÚT ´ü

l8ÜX 8ÜY N(map)f ´ùéA{K: ?X x§Ò

Nf "éy ∈ Y §·¡8Ü

y(inverse image)"XJy 6∈ f (X)§@of −1

Nf : X → Y ¡ü(injection)XJé?¿üØÓx , x ∈ X §Ñkf (x ) 6=

Ng : Y → X ¡Nf : X → Y _(m_)§XJgf = e (f g = e )" X Y

Ún4 XJNf : X → Y k_(m_)§@o§§´ü(÷)"

ÏdY = f (X)§=f ´÷" 2

¤±§_Nf k_§Pf " −1

½n5 Nf : X → Y ´_¿©7^´§´V"

lY X N" f (x ) = y¤y = f (g(y)) = (f g)(y)§=f g = e ",¡§

f [(gf )(x)] = f [g(f (x))] = (f g)[f (x)] = f (x).

du§f ´ü§·k(gf )(x) = x§=gf = e "¤±f _" 2 X

½n6 XJNf : X → Y Úg : Y → Z _§@ogf _ (gf ) −1

(gf )(f −1 g −1 ) = g[f (f −1 g −1 )] = g[(f f −1 )g −1 ] = g[eY g −1 ] = gg −1 = eZ . 2

Ún7 X ´k8 f : X → X ´C"XJf ´ü½÷§K§´

k1 < k2 < · < kn < kn+1 < · · · .

Ún9 XJf ´lê8X Ã8Y ÷§@oY ´ê8"

f8D"âÚn8§3Vσ : N → D"u´f σ ´lNY V" 2

Ún10 XJX ÚY ´ê8§KX × Y ´ê8"

σ3 [(i, j)] = (σ1 (i), σ2 (j)), i, j ∈ N.

@o§σ ´lN × NX × Y V"

XJki , i , j , j ∈ N¦i < i ¿ 2 3 = 2 3 §@o3 = 2 3 "§>

´Ûê§ m>´óê"gñ"¤±§σ ´lN × NNü"Ïdσ (N ×

N)´NÃf8"L3Vσ : N → σ (N × N)"5¿σ ´lN × Nσ (N × N)

V"ùσ σ σ lNX × Y V" 2

Ñ"¯¢þ§XJa, b ∈ R§Ka < b¿©7^´(a, b) ∈ ω"

ω = {(x1 , x2 ), (x2 , x1 ), (x3 , x1 ), (x2 , x3 ), (x4 , x2 ), (x4 , x3 )}.

3²¡R þL«¼êy = f (x)ã"

¤±§(a , b ) ∼ (a , b )¶=^iii)¤á"'X∼ ´d'X"

x ∼f x0 ⇐⇒ f (x) = f (x0 ). (3)

XJx ∼ x Úx ∼ x §Kf (x) = f (x )Úf (x ) = f (x )"¤±§f (x) = f (x ) = f (x ),

¿ X = S S ; =X ´{S | i ∈ I}Ø¿"

∼´8ÜX þd'X"éx ∈ X §½Âxda

x̄ = {x0 ∈ X | f (x0 ) = f (x)}.

~X§3~7¥§Nϕ[(a, b)] = ´lΨQ÷" ∼ Ò´∼ §Ï a

8ÜX þ'X≺¡ S(partial ordering)XJ§÷v^µ

8ÜX þ S≺¡S(total ordering)XJé?¿x, y ∈ X §kx ≺ y½y ≺

1641398216 518432 2016 线性代数讲义中科院

1641398216 518432 2016 线性代数讲义中科院

1641398216 518432 2016 线性代数讲义中科院

5ê(Linear Algebra)

y n â(Goldbach)ß ÿ(1742c): ?¿u2óêÑ±¤üê

Azc5§¢Sþ´ßÿ"ª§Andrew Wiles u1995cy²

bx + c = 0No5¦)Q? Äk-x = y − a/3, ·k

ÃëY+( <¡o+)"oóvkÚå<AO5¿" 5²LElie

m^Ù:IN5L«R = {(a, b, c) | a, b, c ∈ R}"êÆþ, nm´

(1) )¶(2) Ã¡õ)¶(3) Ã)"

(3) 5§|(∗)kÃ¡õ)¿©7^´r < nb̄ = · · · = b̄ = 0"

XJa 6= 0Úa 6= 0§·aq/Ó(J"

"·Ï~^M (R)L«m × n¢êÝ

XJ8ÜT ¥Ñ´,8ÜS¥§·¡T Sf8§P

Ún3 é8ÜR, SÚT §eª¤áµ

=x ∈S R \ S½x ∈ R \ T "Ïd§x ∈ (R \ S) S(R \ T ), d/R \ (S T T ) ⊂

ü8ÜX ÚY (kÈ(Cartesian product):

XJX ´k8Ü§·^|X|L«X ¥ê"SÚT ´ü

l8ÜX 8ÜY N(map)f ´ùéA{K: ?X x§Ò

Nf "éy ∈ Y §·¡8Ü

y(inverse image)"XJy 6∈ f (X)§@of −1

Nf : X → Y ¡ü(injection)XJé?¿üØÓx , x ∈ X §Ñkf (x ) 6=

Ng : Y → X ¡Nf : X → Y _(m_)§XJgf = e (f g = e )" X Y

Ún4 XJNf : X → Y k_(m_)§@o§§´ü(÷)"

ÏdY = f (X)§=f ´÷" 2

¤±§_Nf k_§Pf " −1

½n5 Nf : X → Y ´_¿©7^´§´V"

lY X N" f (x ) = y¤y = f (g(y)) = (f g)(y)§=f g = e ",¡§

du§f ´ü§·k(gf )(x) = x§=gf = e "¤±f _" 2 X

½n6 XJNf : X → Y Úg : Y → Z _§@ogf _(gf ) −1

Ún7 X ´k8f : X → X ´C"XJf ´ü½÷§K§´

Ún9 XJf ´lê8X Ã8Y ÷§@oY ´ê8"

f8D"âÚn8§3Vσ : N → D"u´f σ ´lNY V" 2

Ún10 XJX ÚY ´ê8§KX × Y ´ê8"

@o§σ ´lN × NX × Y V"

XJki , i , j , j ∈ N¦i < i ¿2 3 = 2 3 §@o3 = 2 3 "§>

´Ûê§ m>´óê"gñ"¤±§σ ´lN × NNü"Ïdσ (N ×

N)´NÃf8"L3Vσ : N → σ (N × N)"5¿σ ´lN × Nσ (N × N)

V"ùσ σ σ lNX × Y V" 2

Ñ"¯¢þ§XJa, b ∈ R§Ka < b¿©7^´(a, b) ∈ ω"

3²¡R þL«¼êy = f (x)ã"

¤±§(a , b ) ∼ (a , b )¶=^iii)¤á"'X∼ ´d'X"

¿X = S S ; =X ´{S | i ∈ I}Ø¿"

∼´8ÜX þd'X"éx ∈ X §½Âxda

~X§3~7¥§Nϕ[(a, b)] = ´lΨQ÷" ∼ Ò´∼ §Ï a

8ÜX þ'X≺¡ S(partial ordering)XJ§÷v^µ

8ÜX þ S≺¡S(total ordering)XJé?¿x, y ∈ X §kx ≺ y½y ≺

n8Üþé¡+þ´"±e·ÄX = {1, 2, ..., n}§

·¡σrÌ§{¡r-Ì(r-cycle)"·Pσ = (i i2 ... ir ). ·±^

üσ, ν ∈ S ØXJX £Ä7,½"XJ

é§K½n¤á"bk < `½n¤á"Äk = `"?¿σ£Ä

XJσ = ν §K½n¤á"bσ 6= ν "·PY = X \ {i , i , ..., i }"5¿

σ(i ) =Tν(i ), s = 1, ..., r"4σ = ν σ§Kσ (i ) = i , s = 1, ..., r"dσ´ü

§σ(Y ) {i , i , ..., i } = ∅"¤±§σ(Y ) = Y "Ïd§σ | = σ| "k = r + k §

=k < `"â8Bb§σ = σ · · · σ ´Ýu1ØÌ¦È"d

uσ ν Ø§σ , · · · , σ ν Ø"Ïd§σ = σ · · · σ ν ´Ýu1ØÌ

½n14 τ , ..., τ , ν , ..., ν ∈ S é

σ = (s t)"XJσ = (s t)§@oσ σ = e"Ïd§σ σ · · · σ = σ σ · · · σ "

bσ = (s j)j 6= s, t"·k

XJσ = (i j)i, j 6= s, t§@oσ k−1 σk = σk σk−1 "o§XJσ σ · · · σ ØU

Ù¥σ̄ ´¹sé σ̄ ´Ø¹sé"

oþãª`²σ σ · · · σ σ̄ ØU¤k − 3é¦È"ù

Xd?1e§XJσ σ · · · σ ØU¤k − 2é¦È§K 1 2 k

Ù¥σ̃ ´¹sé σ̃ , ..., σ̃ ´Ø¹sé"´§

íÑσ̃ Ø´é"gñ"¤±§σ σ · · · σ ¤k − 2é¦È" 2

σ = (i i · · · i )´rÌ"Kσ = (i i )(i i ) · · · (i i )"¤±ε = (−1)r−1 "

=m = 3` = 5, ` = 4, ` = 2"¤±ε = (−1) = 1" 4+3+1

PA ¤kóN9Ā ¤kÛN"½ÂNψ : S → S ψ(σ) =

(1 2)σ "duσ = (1 2)[(1 2)σ]§ψ ´÷"Ïd§´V"5¿ψ(A ) ⊂

¼êf (x ,Px , ..., x )¡é¡¼êXJé?¿σ ∈ S §·kσ ◦ f = f "~X§x 3

f ´é¡¿©7^´σ ◦ f = −f, i = 1, ..., n − 1"XJ1 ≤ i < j ≤ n§·

AOé1 ≤ s < r ≤ n§·k

, §küÌ5"éσ ∈ S §·½Âσ = σ, σ = σσ, ..., σ =

σσ "{` | 1 ≤ i ≤ r, 1 ≤ j ≤ s} ⊂ {1, 2, ..., n}´rsØÓ§K

ØÓêa , a , ..., a ∈ N"

¤±§S 'u¦{´µ4"S u1¡[êXJ§ØU¤S ¥ü

½n15 8ÜS ¹Ãõê" 0

Ä½n§N ´S ¥ê¦È"´S 'u¦{´µ4"¤±N ∈ S §gñ"ùÒ 0

½n16 ({Ø{) ½êaÚb > 0§3êéqÚr¦

Ka − b(−|a|) = a + b|a| ∈ S"S"r = a − bq´¥"XJr ≥ b§