CHAPTER 1.

UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

1.1 Standards of length, mass and time

The values of physical quantities are expressed in terms of some standards or units. Using the
standards or units measurements of physical quantities can be compared and quantities
distinguished. Physical quanties can be expressed in terms of three fundamental quantities: mass(M),
length (L) and time (T).

In the SI system (Système Internationale) the basic units are:

Mass (M) = kilograms (kg)

Length (L) = metre (m)

Time (T) = second (s)

Other basic units are as follows:

temperature = Kelvin (K)

electric current= ampere (A)

luminous intensity = candela (cd)

Each of these base units has a precise reproducible standard.

The combination of base units gives rise to the derived units:

Examples: velocity (m/s), acceleration (m/s2), force (kg.m/s2= N), density (kg.m-3)
volume (m3) and so forth.

The definitions of some base units follow:

Mass, the kilogram (kg), is the mass of a specific platinum-iridium (Pt-Ir) alloy kept at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, France.

Time, the second(s), is time required for cesium-133 (133Cs) atom to undergo 91 192 631
770 vibrations. This is a new standard which has a distincnt advantage of being
indestructible and reproducible.

Length, the metre, the distance travelled by light in vacuum during a time of 1/299 792 458 s
This in effect establishes the speed of light in a facuum as 299 792 458 m/s.

These are some prefixes for power of ten shown in Table 1.1.1

Table 1.1.1 Prefixes for powers of ten

Power Prefix Abbreviation

10-18 Atto a
10-15 Fento f
10-12 pico p
10-9 nano n
10-6 micro 𝜇
10-3 milli m
10-2 centi c
10-1 deci d

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 103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G
1012 tera E
1015 peta P
1018 exa E

Note that 10-3 m is equivalent to 1mm and 103 m is equivalent to 1km, and likewise 1 megavolt
(MV) is 106volts (106V)

1.2. Density and Atomic Mass

The fundamental property of any substance is its density 𝜌 (Greek letter 𝜌 (rho)). It is defined as
mass per unit volume.
𝑚
𝜌= (1.2.1)
𝑉

For example, copper has a density of 8.93g/cm3 or 8.93 x 103 kg.m3 and lead 11.3g/cm3. A piece of
copper of volume 10cm3 has mass 89.3g.

The difference in density is due in part to the difference in atomic weights. For example the atomic
weight of lead is 207(density = 11.3g/cm3) and that of aluminium is 27. The ratio of atomic weights
207 ⁄ 27 = 7.67 is different from the ratio of densities, 11.3 ⁄ 2.70 = 4.19. This discrepancy is due
to the differences in atomic spacing and atomic and atomic arrangements in their crystal structures.

All ordinary matter consists of atoms while atoms are made up of electrons and a nucleus (made up
of protons and neutrons). Practically all the mass of an atom is contained in the nucleus. The
nuclear masses are measured relative to the mass of the atom of the carbon-12 (12C) isotope (6
protons and 6 neutrons).

The mass of 12C is defined to be exactly 12 atomic mass units (u), where

1𝑢 = 1.6605402 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

In these units, the proton and neutron have masses of 1u. Precisely,

mp = 1.0073 u

mn = 1.0087 u

The mass of the nucleus of 27Al in approximately 27u, for example. In all cases the mass of the
nucleus is slightly less than the combined mass of the protons and neutrons that make the nucleus.
This mass difference is responsible for fission and fusion processes.

One mole of an element contains an Avogadro’s number NA of molecules of the substance.

Avogadro’s number NA is defined so that one mole of 12C atoms has mass of 12g, where

𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

One mole of Al has a mass of 27g and one mole of Pb, a mass of 207g. The number of atoms in
each of these two species is the Avogadro’s number.

Therefore, the mass per atom m is

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 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑚=
𝑁𝐴

Example

The mass of Al atom is

27 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝐴𝑙 = 6.02 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 4.5 × 10−23 𝑔/𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

Note that

1𝑢 = 𝑁𝐴 −1 𝑔

Examples

1. A solid cube of aluminium (density 2.7 g/cm3) has a volume of 0.2cm3. How many atoms
are contained in the cube.

Solution:

Given
𝑔
𝐴𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 ⇒ 𝜌𝐴𝑙 = 2.7 𝑐𝑚3

𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 0.2𝑐𝑚3

? Number of atoms, N

We need to find the mass of the Al cube and then the number of atoms

Mass of Al cube

𝑚 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

= 2.7 𝑔⁄𝑐𝑚3 × 0.2𝑐𝑚3

= 0.54 𝑔

Since 1 mole of Al has mass of 27g it follows that

27𝑔 of Al contains 6.02 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

∴ 0.54𝑔

6.02 ×1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 ×0.54𝑔

27𝑔

= 1.2 × 1022 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

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1.3. Dimensional Analysis
A dimension is the physical nature of a quantity. For example, distance has length as its physical
quantity or dimension.

The symbols for length, mass and time are respectively, L, M and T. The dimensions of distance, d,
𝐿
can be represented as[𝑑] = 𝐿; for velocity v we have [𝑣] = 𝑇 and so forth. Dimension analysis
treats dimensions as algebraic quantities. Like quantities can be added or subtracted. Algebraic rules
are followed in dimensional analysis.

Let a car move with constant acceleration from rest. The distance x is given by

1 2
𝑥= 𝑎𝑡
2
Let us carry out dimensional analysis. We have

[𝑥] = [𝑎][𝑡 2 ]

𝐿
𝐿= 𝑇2
𝑇 2.
1
Since LHS = RHS, this means that the expansion 𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑡 2 is valid.

Examples:

1. Investigate the velocity of the following by carrying out dimensional analysis,

𝑥 ∝ 𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑚

where a represents acceleration and t represents time.

[𝑥] = [𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑚 ] (1)

𝐿 = [𝑎𝑛 ][𝑡 𝑚 ] (2)

Since:
𝐿
[𝑎] = and [𝑡] = 𝑇, Eqn (2) can be written as
𝑇2

𝐿 = (𝐿𝑛 𝑇 −2𝑛 )𝑇 𝑚

= 𝐿𝑛 𝑇 𝑚−2𝑛 (3)

We can introduce the dimension of time on LHS of Eqn (3) through inspection

𝐿𝑛 𝑇 𝑚−2𝑛 = 𝐿𝑇 0

⇒𝑛=1

𝑚 − 2𝑛 = 0

𝑚=2

Or

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 𝐿 = 𝐿1 . 𝑇 2−2 = 𝐿

We therefore have

𝑥 ∝ 𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑚

It follows that the expression is valid when n = 1 and m = 2.

2. Suppose the acceleration of a particle moving in a circle of radius r with uniform velocity v
is proportional to some power of r, say rn, and some power of v, say vm. How can the power
of v and r be determined?

Solution:

Let the acceleration be a. The acceleration can be written as:

𝑎 ∝ 𝑟𝑛𝑣𝑚

or

𝑎 = 𝑘𝑟 𝑛 𝑣 𝑚 , k is constant

[𝑎] = [𝑘𝑟 𝑛 𝑣 𝑚 ] = [𝑘][𝑟 𝑛 ][𝑣 𝑚 ]

𝐿
LHS = 𝑇 2

𝐿
RHS =[𝑘]0 𝐿𝑛 (𝑇)𝑚

=𝐿𝑛+𝑚 𝑇 −𝑚

Equating LHS and RHS

𝐿𝑇 −2 = 𝐿𝑛+𝑚 𝑇 −𝑚

𝑛+𝑚 =1

−𝑚 = −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 2 and n = -1

We have
𝑣2
𝑎 = 𝑘𝑟 −1 𝑣 −2 = 𝑘 𝑟

For comparable units, k = 1.

1.4 Conversion of Units

Apart from the SI system of units there are other systems which are still in use. These systems are
usually referred to as conventional systems, namely the Gausian system (cgs system) - based on cm,
g and s. The other system, especially used in engineering and industry (USA, UK, etc) is the British
system based on foot (ft), pound (lb) and second (s).

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The conversion factors are as follow:

1ft = 0.3048m = 30.48cm

1m = 39.37in = 3.281ft

1in (inch) = 0.0254m = 2.54cm

In trying to go about converting 15in to centimetres we proceed as follows

1in = 2.54cm (exactly)

2.54𝑐𝑚
Therefore, 15.0in = × 15𝑖𝑛
1𝑖𝑛

= 38.1cm

Examples:

1.4.1 The mass of a solid cube is 856g and each edge has a length of 5.35cm. Determine the
density 𝜌 of the cube in SI units.

A cube as sketched
5.35cm

5.35cm

5.35cm

Mass, m = 856g

The volume V of the cube is

V = L3 = (5.35cm)3

But 1cm = 10-2m

The volume in m3 becomes

V = (5.35)3 𝑐𝑚3 × (10−2 𝑚⁄𝑐𝑚)3

3
=(5.35)3 𝑐𝑚3 × 10−6 𝑚 ⁄𝑐𝑚3

=(5.35)3 × 10−6 𝑚3

Now mass, m = 8.56 × 102 𝑔

1𝑔 = 10−3 𝑘𝑔

𝑘𝑔⁄
m = 8.56𝑔 × 102 × 10−3 −1
𝑔 = 8.56 × 10 𝑘𝑔

Density 𝜌 is

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 𝑚 8.56 ×10−1 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = (5.35)3 ×10−6 𝑚3 = 5.60 × 103 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
𝑣

1.5 Order of Magnitude Calculations

These are calculations that estimate quantities usually to within a factor of 10. This calculation is
useful as it gives a first orientation before a more standard calculation can be performed. It is
important that realistic assumptions are made.

Examples

1.5.1 Estimate the number of atoms in 1cm3of a solid.

Solution:

Given is a volume V = 1cm3, nature is a solid

Assumptions

1. The size of an atom diameter, d = 10-10m

2. Atoms are spherical in shape => Volume of sphere

We determine the volume of an atom

4𝜋𝑟 3
𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 3

In terms of diameter, d
𝜋𝑑3 𝑑
𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟 =
6 2

Substitute for d = 10-10m

10−30
𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝜋 𝑚3
6

The number of atoms in 1cm3volume can now be found

𝑉
𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑉
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

1𝑐𝑚3 ×(103 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑐𝑚)3

= 3
𝜋×10−30 𝑚 ⁄𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

10−6 𝑚3
= 3
𝜋×10−30 𝑚 ⁄𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

≈ 1024 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

This is closer to what one might expect.

A more accurate calculation requires the knowledge of the density of the solid so that mass
of the solid can be determined. In addition, knowledge of the mass of one atom would also
be needed.

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