2022 IEEE 22nd International Conference on Software Quality, Reliability and Security (QRS)
EWDLL: Software Aging State Identification based on LightGBM-LR Hybrid Model
Xueyong Tan and Jing Liu∗
2022 IEEE 22nd International Conference on Software Quality, Reliability and Security (QRS) | 978-1-6654-7704-8/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/QRS57517.2022.00117
College of Computer Science, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
cstxy@mail.imu.edu.cn, liujing@imu.edu.cn
*corresponding author
Abstract—Android systems are prone to software aging due to
the accumulation of numerical errors and storage-related bugs
during long-term operation, resulting in gradual performance
degradation and sudden system hang-ups. Thus, it is very critical
to accurately identify the aging state for improving the running
reliability of Android systems. In this paper, we propose a novel
software aging state identification method, named EWDLL. It
first introduces the exponential Weibull distribution to simulate
the aging state transfer process of the Android system, then it
uses Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process (FAHP) to weight the
model parameters and resource utilization parameters. Finally,
the weighted dataset is fed into the LightGBM-LR model to
identify the software state. The experimental results show that
our EWDLL method performs better in identifying the software
aging state for Android system, i.e., it is 0.86% to 1.09% higher
in identification accuracy than the pure LightGBM-LR model,
about 10.00% and 4.54% to 4.95% higher than the traditional
models KNN and RF, and 1.97% to 3.09% higher than single
LightGBM model. Compared with the LR model, it has a
maximum accuracy improvement of about 33.29% to 35.64%.
Keywords—software aging state identification; LightGBM-LR
model; exponential Weibull distribution; Android system
I. I NTRODUCTION
During the long-term use of an Android device, it tends
to experience response delays, performance degradation and
sudden hang-ups, which may be caused by aging software.
These problems greatly degrade the user experience, so it
is necessary to conduct software aging studies on Android
systems, thereby improving the reliability of the Android
system. Software aging refers to the phenomenon of system
performance degradation, system shutdown, or even complete
software failure in a long-running software system. Software
aging occurs due to the lack of allocable resources, severe
fragmentation of software systems, and the long-term accumu-
lation of internal errors such as memory leaks and improperly
released threads, which are difficult to detect and eliminate
during the software development and testing phases [1]. The
Android system itself has a complex architecture, and the
application and release of computing resources in the system
are relatively frequent. Especially when performing high-load
and high-power applications such as live video streaming
and mobile games, software aging is prone to occur, which
seriously affects the user experience.
To avoid software aging, Huang et al. proposed software
rejuvenation. It is a proactive and preventive fault-tolerant
technology that cleans the system operating environment and
resets the internal state of the system to prevent major failures
of the system in the future [2]. However, frequent software
2693-9177/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE
DOI 10.1109/QRS57517.2022.00117
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rejuvenation operations will bring additional system overhead,
so the core of software aging and rejuvenation research is
to accurately identify the software aging state. It improves
the accuracy of identifying the aging state of the software.
Then, software rejuvenation is carried out in time to reduce
operational risks and costs, and to improve system reliability
and availability. In the scenario for Android systems, accu-
rately detecting and identifying the occurrence of Android
software aging is of great significance for improving the
system’s reliability and user experience. However, with the
continuous development of the Android operating system and
the more complex application types, it becomes more difficult
to identify the software aging phenomenon under the Android
system.
The commonly used software aging identification methods
include model-based, measurement-based, and hybrid meth-
ods. The model-based method usually uses Petri nets [3],
Markov models [4], Stochastic Processes [5], Probability The-
ory [6] and other mathematical tools to establish the system
state transition model according to the running state of the
software system, and then calculates the occurrence probability
of software aging state to arrange the rejuvenation operation
of the software. It is difficult to establish an accurate state
transition model for large software systems, and as the size of
the software system increases, the number of states constructed
in this way grows exponentially, which leads to an explosion of
the state space [7]. At present, the software aging identification
methods based on measurement mainly select the historical
data of system performance as aging indicators, such as CPU
usage, free memory, swap memory, etc., and then set the
system aging threshold, and use time series analysis, machine
learning and other methods to predict the changing trend of the
historical data of aging indicators, and software rejuvenation
operation is performed before the predicted value reaches the
aging threshold. It was found that model-based approaches
tend to have lower identification accuracy due to their lack
of flexibility as they ignore the real operating conditions of
the system. The measurement-based method is not suitable
for wide application because of its different adaptability to
different software. The hybrid method based on model and
measurement can better deal with these problems. For exam-
ple, the hybrid model based on Artificial Neural Network and
Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model
[8], and the hybrid model based on Long Short-Term Memory
(LSTM) model and ARIMA model [9], the experimental
results show that the identification accuracy of the hybrid
model is higher than that of a single model. However, these
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methods all need to define the system state by artificially
dividing the boundary, which is not universal in the actual
operating environment.
In this paper, we propose a novel software aging state
identification method, named EWDLL, based on exponential
Weibull distribution (EW) and the Light Gradient Boosting
Machine-Logistic Regression (LightGBM-LR) for software
aging state identification of Android system. Our method
includes the following three highly related parts. First, we in-
troduce EW distribution to simulate various influencing factors
in the software aging state transfer process, and then introduce
the Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP) to weight the
model parameters and resource utilization parameters. At last,
the LightGBM model is used as the learning layer [10]. The
processing result of LightGBM for the dataset is input to LR
as the feature set, and the identification operation is executed
at the specific state transfer time point calculated by the EW
distribution. The final recognition result of Android system
software aging is obtained. When the system is identified as
being in an aging state, reasonable rejuvenation operations
can be performed in time, such as restarting the system to
restore the system to the robust state, thus greatly reducing
the shutdown of the Android system caused by software aging
and improving the reliability of the Android system.
The main contributions of this paper are as follows.
• A software aging state identification method is well
constructed for the Android system, which integrates EW
distribution, FAHP and LightGBM-LR. It uses the EW
distribution to simulate the operating state of the Android
system to obtain the possible time and model parameters
of software aging. While the FAHP is integrated to weight
the model parameters and resource utilization parameters.
Finally, the weighted data is fed into the LightGBM-
LR model for classification. The classification model
improves the learning capability of the LR model by
feeding the feature data processed by the LightGBM
model into the LR model.
• We performed effective experiments to show that our
EWDLL method has higher identification accuracy than
the traditional models KNN and RF. In addition, the
hybrid model has indeed improved the identification ac-
curacy compared to the single LightGBM and LR models.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Sec-
tion II introduces the related work. Section III describes the
detailed process of establishing the EWDLL model. Section
IV analyzes the experimental results. We conclude the paper
in the last section.
II. R ELATED W ORK
With the widespread use of mobile devices and the rapid
development of Android and its applications, there has been an
increasing amount of research into software aging for Android.
Users will experience lag and program crashes when using
mobile devices for a long time, so in 2013, a related study
[11] firstly proposed that the software aging phenomenon
exists in the Android system, selected virtual memory and
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resident memory as the indexes to observe software aging,
and proposed that the virtual memory and resident memory
will gradually decrease during the long operation of Android
system. Y. Qiao et al. showed that the software aging caused
by memory leakage is reflected in the perspective of users.
Memory leakage in different heap areas has different perfor-
mances through injection memory leakage [12].
Model-based methods and measurement-based methods are
also prevalent in the study of software aging and rejuvenation
in mobile systems. Model-based methods construct system
state transition models with probabilistic characteristics to
represent the software aging process. C. Weng et al. used
a linear regression model to analyze the usage of available
memory under time series and used Markov chains to classify
the Android system into four states: initial state, healthy state,
sub-healthy state, and aging state. It was also pointed out
that mild rejuvenation could not effectively mitigate software
aging [13]. J. Xiang et al. modeled the usage behavior and
aging process by stochastic Petri nets, then combined them
into a continuous-time Markov chain and proposed an active
rejuvenation strategy based on the model where the Android
system was in sleep mode and restarted before the aging state
[14]. Y. Qiao et al. constructed a Markovian regeneration
process for evaluating steady-state system availability and
optimizing the trigger time of regeneration strategies for the
Android system [15].
Although the model-based method is more generalized,
these models simplify the design of the system will af-
fect the detection accuracy due to the constant iterations of
Android and hardware differences among mobile devices.
Measurement-based methods focus on the collection and anal-
ysis of data from real operating environments. D. Cotroneo
et al. designed and wrote the Android aging detection and
repair tool the ADaRTA, which detects the aging state and
estimates the aging time by selectively monitoring the trends of
the departmental performance metrics through heuristic rules,
and arranges and implements rejuvenation according to the
expected aging time [16]. D. Cotroneo et al. used the Mann
Kendall test and the Sen process system to analyze whether
there is an aging trend in the time series of system resources,
and pointed out that the software aging problem is due to
the specific processes and services within the Android system.
The system User Interface process was found to consume a
lot of system resources through experiments, and low-quality
applications can easily lead to software aging, at the same
time, it is pointed out that the performance degradation is
related to the kernel resource utilization, and a series of kernel
resource utilization indexes are proposed to judge whether the
current system is aging and perform rejuvenation operation
accordingly. Finally, from the perspective of users, launch time
is used to indicate software aging [17]. V. Yakovyna et al.
proposed two user-perceived metrics for the Android software
aging, namely frame drawing time and number of Jankey
frames, which the authors used to detect software aging trends
in relation to traditional metrics such as launch time [18].
D. Cotroneo et al. proposed a rejuvenation strategy that uses
customized software for software rejuvenation by identifying
and cleaning up bloated data structures, reducing the cost
of application or system reboots [19]. With the development
of machine learning and deep learning, software aging has
been predicted using machine learning algorithms and neural
networks. C. Wang et al. used Random Forest (RF) algorithm
to classify system states in the area of the Android system
[20]. S. Huo et al. used deep learning for the first time
to predict launch time and page fault, and compared with
Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Decision Tree to obtain
better accuracy [21]. Y. Qiao et al. used the Long Short-Time
Memory (LSTM) to predict Heap Memory aging metrics for
prediction and compared with traditional statistical models
such as the ARIMA model and Multilayer Perceptron to obtain
better accuracy [22].
Through the analysis of the related work, we found that the
software aging indicators of Android systems mainly include
memory, lack of pages and start-up time, which ignore the
situation that the system is performing tasks and the cost
of software rejuvenation, so the selection of software aging
indicators needs to be added. In addition, the widely used
model-based and measurement-based methods for identifying
the aging state of software are limited in their adaptability,
which affects the accuracy of the model identification. How-
ever, hybrid models can effectively solve this problem, so we
propose the EWDLL hybrid model to identify the software
aging state of Android systems.
III. C ONSTRUCTION OF THE EWDLL M ODEL
At present, the widely used software aging state identi-
fication methods model-based and measurement-based have
the problem of low flexibility and adaptability. The hybrid
method of model-based and measurement-based is proposed.
This paper proposes the EWDLL hybrid model to identify
the aging state of the Android system. Figure 1 shows the
construction flow chart of the EWDLL model.
As can be seen from Figure 1, the EWDLL model mainly
includes three steps.
1) Software state transition model construction: The
Weibull distribution is one of the most widely used distri-
butions in reliability analysis and is often used to estimate
important life characteristics of products. However, since the
Weibull distribution does not effectively address the case
where the image of the failure rate function is of the bathtub
and inverted bathtub type, the EW distribution was proposed
and its distribution function applies to more types of data.
The EW distribution is used to construct an aging state
transition model for the Android system. This transition model
allows the current state task completion rate to be obtained,
which is one of the important parameters used to identify the
aging state of the software. Since software aging identification
requires time and model running costs, it is not necessary to
determine the software state at each unit point in time during
the continuum of software system operation. Therefore, when
the state transition model reaches the aging state for software
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aging identification, this will greatly improve the overall model
execution and reduce the time required for rejuvenation.
2) Parameter weighting: As identifying the aging state of
software involves many model parameters and system resource
parameters, but these parameters are not the same for software
aging identification. AHP method is widely used due to its
characteristics of combining qualitative and quantitative pro-
cessing of various evaluation factors, as well as the advantages
of being systematic, flexible and concise, but the biggest
problem of AHP is that when the evaluation index reaches
4, its consistency is difficult to achieve ensure. In this case,
FAHP is proposed, which combines the advantages of the
fuzzy method and AHP, which can effectively reduce excessive
subjectivity and ensure consistency. The FAHP is used to
weight model parameters and the real-time hardware resource
utilization in the dataset. The use of FAHP enhances the
degree of control over the various factors in the software aging
process.
3) Software aging status identification: We will use the
model to classify the weighted data. The LR model is one
of the most widely used classification models due to its
simplicity, efficiency and ease of interpretation. However, the
LR model has the problem of low learning ability, so if
LightGBM is used as the learning layer and then the results
of its processing dataset are fed into the LR model as the
feature set, this can overcome the problem of low model
learning ability of the LR model and effectively improve
the software aging state identification accuracy. We use the
LightGBM-LR model to obtain the software aging status of the
Android system, according to which we can arrange software
rejuvenation operations in time.
A. State Transition Model of Software System.
The state transition model of the Android system is shown
in Figure 2. In the figure, r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 and r5 are the
transition rates between states, state S0 represents the normal
operation state, state S1 represents the aging state, state S2
represents the failure state, and state S3 represents the software
rejuvenation state. When the program starts to run, the system
is in the S0 state, and the state S0 is a state that will not fail.
After a period of operation, aging occurs with the extension
of time, and it enters the S1 state that may fail. The use
of rejuvenation technology can make the system enter the
S3 state with a high probability in the S1 state, and enter
the S2 state with a very small probability. The distribution
model for the system state transition mainly includes the
Gamma distribution, Weibull distribution and EW distribution.
Table 1 compares the changing trends of the failure rate
functions of the Gamma distribution, Weibull distribution and
EW distribution.
Considering that the EW distribution is more flexible than
the Weibull distribution and the Gamma distribution has a
more flexible failure function. Since the most popular two-
parameter Weibull does not characterize the non-monotonic
failure rate well, the EW distribution is introduced to simulate
the influencing factors in the process of software aging state
 Figure 1. Flow chart of construction of the EWDLL model

Table 1. Comparison of Function Failure Rates of Different Distribution.

Parameter Gamma distribution Weibull distribution EW distribution
α=γ=1 Constant Constant Constant
γ>1, increase from 0 to λ γ>1, increase from 0 to ∞ γ>1, increase from 0 to ∞
α=1
γ<1, decrease from ∞ to λ γ <1, decrease from ∞ to 0 γ<1, decrease from ∞ to 0
α>1, increase from 0 to λ α>1, increase from 0 to λ α>1, increase from 0 to ∞
γ=1
α<1, decrease from ∞ to λ α<1, decrease from ∞ to λ α<1, decrease from ∞ to 0
α,γ>1 increase from 0 to λ increase from 0 to ∞ increase from 0 to ∞
α,γ<1 decrease from ∞ to λ decrease from ∞ to 0 decrease from ∞ to 0

 α
x−λ
F (x) = 1 − exp −( ) , x ≥ λ, α, λ, γ > 0 (1)
γ
The corresponding probability density function is as fol-
lows.

 α  α−1
α x−λ x−λ
f (x) = × exp −( ) × (2)
γ γ γ
Where α is the first shape parameter, γ is the second shape
parameter, and λ is the scale parameter. This distribution
Figure 2. Software system state transition diagram can be recorded as EW (α, γ, λ), also known as the three-
parameter EW distribution.
The cumulative distribution function, also known as the
aging function, actually marks the probability that a software
system will age from 0 to t. The probability that a software
transition, and then combined with the real-time changes of system will not age is called the reliability function and is
resource utilization parameters to analyze the process changes expressed as follows.
of the software system more accurately [23]. Therefore, this  α
x−λ
paper uses the EW distribution to simulate the software aging r(x) = 1 − F (x) = exp −( ) (3)
of Android systems. The combination model is based on the γ
EW distribution, the distribution function of EW distribution The mathematical expression for the failure rate function is
is as follows. as follows.

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  α−1
f (x) α x−λ
= ×
η (x) = (4)
r(x) γ γ
According to Figure 2, the Android system also includes
four states, the normal operation state, the aging state, the
failure state, and the software rejuvenation state. The time
distribution function of mutual transformation between each
state is set as a three-parameter EW distribution.
In the aging state transition model of software systems, re-
juvenation cost, system reliability and system state are mainly
considered. The rejuvenation cost is used to grasp the overall
rejuvenation time cost, it cost mainly includes the computing
and storage resources consumed by the rejuvenation. The
number of rejuvenation operations performed by the system
in a state is used to grasp the rejuvenation situation of the
system in each state, and the maximum rejuvenation times
of the system is used to limit the number of rejuvenation
operations performed and reduce rejuvenation costs as far as
possible. Especially for the system to perform key tasks, it is
particularly necessary to consider the reliability of the system
and the probability of being able to complete the current task.
Since the time cost of performing rejuvenation operations in
different states is different. The parameters involved in the
model calculations are described in Table 2.
Table 2. Description of Model Parameters
Paramater Description
T Maximum processing time allowed by the system
N Number of tasks operated by the system
M Maximum number of rejuvenation sessions
ki System task processing speed in state i
mi Number of rejuvenation performed by the system in state i
ci Rejuvenation cost of the system in state i
cu Rejuvenation unit cost
C Total rejuvenation cost
Based on the software system aging state transition model,
this paper makes the following task settings. The number of
task operations to be completed by the software system is set
to N . Due to the real-time requirements of the task, this paper
sets the maximum processing time allowed by the system to
T . Once the task is not completed after this time, it will
be judged as a task failure. In the rejuvenation operation,
as the rejuvenation operation will cause a certain degree of
time loss, for the convenience of calculation, this paper sets
several parameter values. The total rejuvenation cost C is
used to capture the overall rejuvenation time cost, the number
of rejuvenations performed by the system in state i is used
to capture the rejuvenation situation of the system in each
state, and the maximum number of rejuvenation operations
M is used to limit the number of rejuvenation operations. The
formula for calculating the maximum number of rejuvenations
in the current state is as follows.
T − N × ki
M= (5)
cu
C represents the total rejuvenation cost and is calculated as
follows.
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i
X
C= mi × ci (6)
i=1
A state transition model for software aging is constructed
through the EW distribution, enabling the simplification and
abstraction of the complex practical problem of software
aging into an analyzable mathematical problem. Based on this
model, the next subsection will use FAHP to weight the model
parameters and resource utilization parameters as the input
dataset for the LightGBM-LR model.
B. Parameter Weighting Based on the FAHP
Following the construction of an EW distribution-based
software system aging state transition model, in order to
improve the reliability of the aging state identification of An-
droid systems, the dataset consisting of the model parameters
and real-time resource utilization parameters was coefficient
weighted before being identified. This enhances the subjective
and objective rationality of the whole process and its flexibility
in different application environments.
The steps of FAHP mainly include clarifying problems,
establishing an analytic hierarchy process structure model,
constructing a judgment matrix, hierarchical single ranking
and consistency test, hierarchical total ranking and consistency
test. FAHP was proposed to reduce the subjectivity of the AHP
model. The FAHP method is suitable for solving complex
decision-making problems, especially in the evaluation of
multi-index and fuzzy scheme optimization, which can obtain
more satisfactory optimization results. There are a lot of
factors in the identification of Android system software aging,
so we choose FAHP to select the key factors for software aging
identification.
The FAHP method needs to determine an appropriate
decision-making problem as the target problem to be analyzed
from the perspective of determining the target decision-making
problem [24]. The problem must contain multiple influencing
factors to analyze the composition of the influencing factors
of the target problem and determine the relationship between
various factors. Secondly, based on the constituent units of
each decision-making influencing factor, the multi-level struc-
ture model of the decision-making problem is determined. In
this step, a decision-making problem is transformed into a
hierarchical decision-making system, which is convenient for
decision-makers to determine the weight of each influencing
factor. We then need to build a fuzzy judgment matrix to
determine the relative weights by comparing them with each
other and to determine the weight ranking of each influencing
factor in the overall model. Then, the weights of each influ-
encing factor in the same layer are determined according to
the construction of the judgment matrix, and then calculate
the specific weight of each influence factor in the model.
Finally, the iterative accuracy of the index weight needs to be
processed through the inverse comparison matrix. By judging
whether the iterative weight error meets the accuracy require-
ments of the iterative termination conditions, we can judge
 Figure 3. The FAHP construction process

whether it is necessary to continue the iterative adjustment of the rejuvenation operation is executed at this time and whether
the judgment matrix until the termination conditions are met, the system can complete the task within the specified time.
and then the final convergence result can be obtained. The Therefore, the probability of completing the task in the current
flow chart of the FAHP method is shown in Figure 3. state is introduced. Finally, related research shows that real-
After determining the decision-making problem that needs time hardware resources also have a partial impact on the
to be analyzed, the analysis target is placed at the top level of software state, and it also reflects the running state of the
the hierarchical structure analysis model. This layer is called software system to a certain extent, so this paper introduces
the target layer, which means the ultimate goal of solving the the resource utilization parameter [25].
decision-making problem. Next, according to the established To quantitatively describe the relative importance of any two
problem analysis goal, it is necessary to build a hierarchical factors concerning a criterion in the upper level, this paper uses
structure analysis model based on the influencing factors of the 1 to 9 scale shown in Table 3 to give a quantitative scale.
the decision-making problem, and decompose the decision-
Table 3. Fuzzy Judgment Matrix 1 to 9 Scale
making problem to be analyzed into various components that
aij Description
affect its goal. 1 Equally important
3 Slightly important
5 Obviously important
7 Much more important
9 Extremely important
2,4,6,8 Between two adjacent levels of importance
1
aij
The importance ratio is a1
ij

In this paper, according to the system reliability is more

important than the rejuvenation cost, and the rejuvenation cost
is more important than resource utilization, the obtained first-
level judgment matrix is as follows.
1 3 13
 
 3 1 5  (7)
1 1
3 5 1
Figure 4. The FAHP software rejuvenation analysis structure diagram
The secondary decision matrix is as follows.
As shown in Figure 4, this paper sets the rejuvenation
decision as the target layer, the rejuvenation cost, system 1 1
 
1 3 7
reliability and system real-time status as the criterion layer, and  3 1 1  (8)
5
the maximum rejuvenation times in the current state, the task 7 5 1
completion probability in the current state and the resource
utilization as the scheme layer. This setting is based on the 1
 
1 3 5
following considerations, firstly, this paper needs to grasp the  3 1 5  (9)
rejuvenation situation in real-time and dynamically, so as to 1 1
1
5 5
control the rejuvenation cost, so the maximum rejuvenation
times in the current state are introduced. Secondly, the reli-
 
1 3 6
ability of the software system must be guaranteed, when the  1
1 5  (10)
5
software system makes a decision, it should consider whether 1 1
1
6 5

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 To avoid judgment logic errors in the judgment matrix, a
logical consistency check should be carried out. The above
matrices all meet the consistency test conditions, and then five
eigenvectors are obtained through calculation.
    also very obvious. LR is a generalized linear model, which is
0.258 0.637 0.067
 0.618   0.297   0.007  (11)
0.297 0.618 0.055
   achieved relatively good results. Although the computational
0.030 0.008
 0.016   0.062  (12)
0.025 0.005
The judgment matrix is the basic information of the FAHP,
and it is an important basis for calculating relative importance
and performing hierarchical sorting. The judgment matrix
allows us to obtain a ranking of the importance of each param-
eter for identifying the aging state of the software. According
to the above process, the final weighting coefficients of model
parameters and real-time resource utilization parameters based
on FAHP are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Model Parameter Weight Coefficients
Paramater Coefficient
The maximum number of rejuvenation times 0.391
Current state task completion rate 0.517
CPU usage 0.024
Memory usage 0.043
Frame loss rate 0.025
C. Software Aging State Identification Based on the
LightGBM-LR Hybrid Model
While the parameters have been weighted by FAHP in
the previous section, the ultimate aim of this paper is to
accurately identify the aging state of the software. However,
considering the real-time requirements of software rejuvena-
tion, some adjustments have been made to the timing of state
classification. Due to its special application scenario, software
rejuvenation with high real-time requirements, software aging
state discriminating algorithms cannot work continuously in
continuous time intervals, which can neither meet the real-time
requirements of software rejuvenation, but also cause a con-
siderable waste of time, hardware and computing resources.
As the EW distribution has been verified, it can well simulate
the software aging state transition process. After quantifying
the model parameters, preliminarily determine the time nodes
where the software state may change through calculation,
and judge the aging state on these time nodes calculated by
the model, which can not only greatly reduce the frequency
used by the algorithm, but also theoretically improve the
accuracy of the algorithm. As model-based and measurement-
based methods were found to be inflexible and less versatile
during the research process, this paper introduces the idea
of combining model and measurement methods to identify
software aging states. Considering the many factors involved
in software aging, this paper chooses to use a combination of
EW distribution, FAHP and LightGBM-LR model to jointly
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identify software aging states, which is the core research idea
of this paper.
The LightGBM model and the LR model have obvious
advantages in their respective fields, but their disadvantages are
different from other linear models because it uses the Sigmoid
function so that the final function maps within [0,1]. It is
widely used in the field of commercial computing and has
complexity of the LR model is not high and the parallelized
data processing performance is excellent, due to the limitation
of its linear model structure, its model learning ability is
not high, and a certain scale of feature analysis engineering
is often required before application. Feature engineering in
the LR model is very important, and the effect of feature
combination is very limited if relying on artificial experience.
Therefore, how to improve the efficiency, scale and automation
of feature selection engineering have always been a problem
worthy of research. Including academia and industry, many
studies have tried to combine the two models of LightGBM
and LR, and they have performed well [26]. Figure 5 shows
the basic structure of the LightGBM-LR hybrid model.
Figure 5. The LightGBM-LR hybrid model structure
As shown in Figure 5, the LightGBM algorithm produces 2
decision trees with 5 leaf nodes, where the number 1 indicates
that the predicted outcome of the training sample x falls on
that leaf node. The predicted result can be expressed in the
One-Hot code as [0, 1, 0, 0, 1]. The leaf nodes of these trees
will then be used as feature vectors for LR, with the leaf node
on which the sample falls being 1 and the rest of the nodes
being 0. With more dimensional tables for the change features
above, the numerical data is also transformed into categorical
data, which facilitates classification by the LR model.
It can be seen from Figure 6 that the hybrid model uses the
LightGBM model as a learning layer and inputs the LightGBM
prediction result for the dataset as a feature set into the output
layer model LR. Finally, the output of the LR model is used as
the output of the entire hybrid model. The process of training
the LightGBM-LR model is mainly divided into the following
steps.
• Train the LightGBM model using the dataset.
 Figure 6. The LightGBM-LR hybrid model flow chart
• Use the LightGBM model for predictive analysis as part
of the feature learning project, One-Hot encodes the
output and feeds it into the LR model for training.
• The LR model will output the identification result of the
last software state.
IV. E XPERIMENT AND R ESULT A NALYSIS
This section mainly introduces the experimental results and
analysis of the software aging state identification based on the
EWDLL hybrid model. Firstly, the experimental environment
and the experimental dataset are presented. Secondly, the
results of FAHP weighting of model parameters and resource
utilization parameters are shown. Thirdly, the results and
analysis of the identification of parameters not weighted with
FAHP using the LightGBM-LR model are presented. Finally,
the results and analysis of the identification of parameters
weighted by FAHP using the EWDLL model are described.
A. Experimental Environment and Dataset
The experimental part of the dataset collection platform
in this paper is the Android mobile terminal Mi 10, the
operating system is MIUI 11 based on Android 10, the CPU is
Snapdragon 865, and the running memory is 8G. To investigate
the phenomenon of software aging in Android, the experiments
involve giving the phone a stress load so that the device enters
the aging state as quickly as possible. This is followed by the
examination of the phone’s operating parameters under stress
load, which form a time series that is an important dataset for
this paper to study software aging. The experiments are based
on the Monkey stress load tool and Dumpsys debugging tool
to write load generation and performance monitoring scripts,
and this paper uses Android service components to monitor
system running parameters.
In order to better verify the system running status and
user experience, the system monitoring tool is used to obtain
samples of Android system performance metrics consisting
of CPU usage, memory usage and frame loss rate, which
are stitched together in order to form a time series, with
multiple time series forming the real dataset. The joint aging
indicator starts from two perspectives of system resources and
user experience, CPU usage and memory usage represent the
usage of system resources, and the usage of system resources
will directly affect the running status of the system, frame
loss rate represents the usage of user experience. From the
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research background, it can be seen that the operating state
of the system and the user experience are very important to
the judgment of the real-time status of the system, and the
combined index is more effective than a single index [27]. The
real data set reflects the system state change characteristics of
this Android device under the current operating environment
consisting of the number and types of Android applications.
The dataset is pre-processed by patching and cropping to
eliminate as much as possible the impact of software aging on
the data collection and to restore or preserve the system state
characteristics of the Android device in its current operating
environment.
In this paper, 10 sets of experiments were conducted to
simulate 10 days of mobile phone usage by users. Each set
of experiments can show the Android system from the initial
state to the aging state, through 10 sets of experiments can
effectively avoid the interference of external factors and ran-
dom errors in the experiment. Each experiment was conducted
to ensure that the Android device was in a healthy state,
and then a load generator and system monitor were started
on the computer, where the Monkey stress test opened an
application 10,000 times and the system monitor recorded
system parameters and filtered out CPU usage, memory usage
and frame loss rate at 30-second intervals.The Android perfor-
mance monitor is an application that uses the Dumpsys tool
to get system parameters. In this paper, the Android Debug
Bridge is used to connect the mobile phone to the computer.
Due to the randomness of the simulation of user behavior in
the experiment, the time from robust to aging of the Android
system in each group of experiments is different, about 4 to 8
hours. Therefore, the amount of data collected in each group
of experiments is inconsistent, from about 480 to 864 pieces,
about 7,100 pieces in total.
B. Weighting of Parameters Using the FAHP
In this paper, Negative Log-Likelihood (NLL), Akaike In-
formation Criterion (AIC) and Bayesian Information Criterion
(BIC) are used as the standard for model comparison, accord-
ing to the likelihood ratio test to compare the goodness of
fit between the EW distribution and the Weibull distribution.
NLL is the value of the minimized negative log-likelihood
function, which can be used to compare the pros and cons of
models with the same parameters. The smaller the NLL value,
the better the model fitting effect. NLL can be expressed as
follows.
N LL = −L(θ) (13)
The AIC test measures the goodness of fit of a statistical
model. Its advantage is that it cannot only compare the pros
and cons of nested models and non-nested models, but also
compare the pros and cons of different parameter models. Its
expression is as follows, where k is the number of model
fitting parameters.
AIC = 2k − 2L(θ)
BIC can compare the pros and cons of all models. The
smaller the value of BIC, the higher the fitting degree of the
model. Its definition expression is as follows.
BIC = k ln(n) − 2L(θ)
In this paper, the Maximum Likelihood Estimation method
is used to estimate the parameters of the EW distribution and
the Weibull distribution, and NLL, AIC and BIC are used as
the standard to compare the pros and cons of the models. The
model estimation results based on the Weibull distribution and
EW distribution are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Model Parameter Estimation Results
Model Parameter estimation NLL AIC
α=0.567
Weibull λ=17.902 3532.91 7678.36
γ=1.334
α=0.581
EW λ=18.957 3518.52 7659.08
γ=1.572
Table 5 shows that the NLL, AIC and BIC values of the
exponential Weibull distribution are smaller than those of the
Weibull distribution. Therefore, under the evaluation criteria
of this paper, we consider that the EW distribution is better
than the Weibull distribution for simulation.
C. The LightGBM-LR Model Identification Results and Anal-
ysis
After constructing a software system aging state transition
model using EW distribution and a weighted indicator dataset
using FAHP, this subsection will process the optimized dataset
using a classification algorithm based on the LightGBM-LR
hybrid model for software system aging state identification. In
this step, this paper mixes LightGBM and LR models and uses
the output of LightGBM as the input of LR to classify the data.
The classification datasets are model parameters and resource
utilization parameters. These resource utilization parameters
are also the basis of the above experiment. The first is to verify
the classification accuracy of the LightGBM-LR model in the
application scenario of software aging state identification.
Classifier model building generally goes through several
processes such as data collection, data pre-processing, dividing
the training and testing sets, model training, model testing and
model preservation. Firstly, we classify the collected dataset
into aging and non-aging states according to the performance
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of the Android system and then label the dataset. The data
is then pre-processed to deal with missing and unusually
incorrect data. The original dataset was then divided into a
training set and a test set according to 70% and 30%. The
final model is tested.
The LightGBM-LR classification model proposed in this
paper is data-driven, which can be trained by a classifier
with a sufficient amount of historical labelled data to obtain
an accurate classifier model. The main steps for conducting
experiments based on the LightGBM-LR classification model
(14) are as follows.
1) Acquisition of data: A period of data from the same
historical period needs to be selected from the database for
the training and testing of the classification model.
2) Data pre-processing: The collected data needs to be
(15) processed to improve the quality and availability of the data.
As the raw data collected has problems such as missing,
redundant and containing noisy data, the data is pre-processed
to avoid these problems affecting the classification accuracy
of the model. The data pre-processing mainly includes data
cleaning and dataset labeling, with the main focus on merging
multiple datasets collected and removing redundant data, and
manually labeling all datasets as aged or non-aged according
to the actual operating conditions of the Android system. The
BIC labeling criteria for the aging of the software system in the
training set and test set are mainly based on the following
7691.02 three points.
• The system hangs up for more than 5 seconds.
7677.18 • No response prompt from any software under special
circumstances.
• There is no abnormal restart of the software under special
circumstances.
One of the above three conditions is met in order to be labeled
as the aging of the software system.
3) Dividing the training set and test set: The collected and
pre-processed data was divided into a training set and a test
set in the ratio of 70% and 30%.
4) Model training: The untrained LightGBM-LR classifier
is trained with the training dataset, the model parameters are
initialized, the training data is trained by the LightGBM model,
the leaf nodes of the decision tree generated in LightGBM
are combined to generate the feature training set, and then
input to the LR classifier model for classification training, thus
completing the training of the LightGBM-LR classifier.
5) Model testing: The test set is mainly used to test the
generalization ability of the model, so that the correct rate of
the training set and the test set can reach a balance, which
can prevent overfitting and improve the generalization ability
of the model.
6) The model is saved: After the classifier model is estab-
lished, it needs to be saved and called when it is used.
In this experiment, five groups of comparative experiments
will be conducted to compare LightGBM-LR with the other
four groups of common classification algorithms and classi-
fication algorithm combination models. The four algorithms
are the K-Nearest Neighbor algorithm (KNN), Random Forest
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 Figure 7. Comparison results of the LightGBM-LR identification experiments

Table 7. Improved Accuracy of the LightGBM-LR Model

(RF), LightGBM and LR. The classification and identification Compared to Other Models
performance judgment indexes used are Accuracy, Precision, Model Accuracy improvement values
Recall and F1-Score. The above evaluation methods are calcu- KNN 9.98%
lated as follows. The experimental results are shown in Table RF 4.54%
LightGBM 0.89%
6 and Figure 7. LR 35.64%
correct
Accuracy = (16)
total
to the KNN, RF and LightGBM models, with the largest
TP improvement of 35.64% compared to the LR model. These
P recision = (17)
TP + FP results fully prove the idea of this paper that mixing the
LightGBM with the LR model can effectively improve the
TP
Recall = (18) classification capability.
TP + FN
D. The EWDLL Model Identification Results and Analysis
2 × P recision × Recall
F 1 − Score = (19)
Based on the previous experiments, this section uses FAHP
P recision + Recall
to process the dataset, and weights the coefficients of model
parameters and resource utilization parameters, still using
Table 6. Comparison Results of the LightGBM-LR Identification Experiments
Accuracy, Precision, Recall and the F1-Score as the judgment
Model Accuracy Precision Recall F1-Score
KNN 0.834 0.825 0.848 0.830 index of classification performance. The experimental results
RF 0.881 0.896 0.901 0.896 are shown in Table 8, Table 9 and Figure 8.
LightGBM 0.913 0.907 0.916 0.910
LR 0.679 0.699 0.722 0.685 Table 8. Comparison Results of the LightGBM-LR Identification
LightGBM-LR 0.921 0.927 0.917 0.920 Experiments under the FAHP
Model Accuracy Precision Recall F1-Score
KNN 0.841 0.836 0.855 0.857
From the experimental results, it can be seen that the RF 0.889 0.914 0.912 0.926
accuracy of KNN, RF, LightGBM and LR classifiers are LightGBM 0.924 0.918 0.924 0.926
83.4%, 88.1%, 91.3% and 67.9%. They are lower than 92.1% LR 0.700 0.719 0.747 0.695
LightGBM-LR 0.933 0.935 0.927 0.929
of the LightGBM-LR classifier. And their Precision, Recall
and F1-Score are also lower than the LightGBM-LR classifier.
It can be seen that the classification performance when using It can be seen from Table 8 and Table 9 that after the
the LightGBM-LR hybrid model is better than the LightGBM introduction of EW distribution parameters and FAHP process-
classifier and the LR classifier. ing, the identification accuracy of KNN, RF, LightGBM, LR
From Table 7 we know that the LightGBM-LR hybrid model and LightGBM-LR models have all improved. After repeated
improves 9.98%, 4.54% and 0.89% respectively compared experiments, only for the EWDLL model proposed in this

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 Figure 8. Comparison results of the LightGBM-LR identification experiments under FAHP
Table 9. Changes in Accuracy of Each Classifier under the FAHP
Model Accuracy improvement range
KNN 0.83%-1.30%
RF 1.00%-2.01%
LightGBM 1.09%-1.11%
LR 2.00%-2.80%
LightGBM-LR 0.86%-1.09%
paper, the identification accuracy is improved by 0.86% to
1.09% on average compared to the LightGBM-LR model.
Therefore, the identification accuracy of the EWDLL model
proposed in this paper is the highest.
Through experiments, we verify the excellent performance
of the LightGBM-LR hybrid model in the identification scene
of the software aging state. We also compared a variety of
commonly used machine learning algorithms to identify the
software aging state for the model parameters and resource
utilization parameters datasets that did not use FAHP. The
experiments in this section use FAHP to process model
parameters and hardware parameter datasets to identify the
software aging state. The experimental results show that the
identification accuracy of the LightGBM-LR hybrid model is
better than other machine learning models whether or not
FAHP is used to weight the dataset. Moreover, after using
FAHP, the identification accuracy of various machine learning
models has been improved to varying degrees, which fully
proves that the EWDLL model proposed in this paper can
better identify the software aging state of the Android system.
From Table 10 we can see that the EWDLL model improves
by about 10.00% and 4.95% respectively compared to the
traditional KNN and RF models, and by about 1.30% and
33.29% respectively compared to the single LightGBM and
LR models. The results show that the identification accuracy of
the EWDLL model proposed in this paper is indeed improved
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Table 10. Improved Accuracy of the EWDLL Model
Compared to Other Models
Model Accuracy improvement values
KNN 10.00%
RF 4.95%
LightGBM 1.30%
LR 33.29%
compared with other models, especially compared to the
single LR model by about 33.29%, which fully proves that
LightGBM can effectively improve the learning effect of the
LR model and greatly improve its identification accuracy.
In summary, the EWDLL hybrid model proposed in this
paper is 0.86% to 1.09% higher than the LightGBM-LR
model, about 10.00% and 4.54% to 4.95% higher than the
traditional models KNN and RF, and about 1.97% to 3.09%
higher than the single model LightGBM. Compared with the
LR model, it has a maximum accuracy improvement of about
33.29% to 35.64%.
V. C ONCLUSION AND F UTURE W ORK
In order to better identify the aging state of the Android
system, the EWDLL method is proposed in this paper, based
on EW distribution and the LightGBM-LR hybrid model. By
introducing EW distribution to simulate the transition process
of the software aging state, various influencing factors in the
running process of the software system are quantified, and
then a more accurate process change analysis of the software
system is carried out in combination with real-time hardware
parameter changes. Then, according to the application sce-
narios of different software systems, the FAHP is proposed,
which is also a pre-operation idea for processing datasets by
machine learning algorithms in different application situations,
which expands the dynamic concept of software aging. In
the final software aging state identification step, this paper
selects the hybrid classification algorithm of LightGBM-LR,
which overcomes the problems of the low learning ability of
the LR model and the need for a certain scale of feature
analysis engineering. In this paper, LightGBM is used as a
tool for feature combinations. The hybrid model uses the
LightGBM model as a learning layer, and the prediction results
of the LightGBM for the dataset are input into the LR as
a feature set. Combined with the FAHP weighted data set,
the identification operation is performed at the specific state
transition time point calculated by the EW distribution. The
experimental results show that the EWDLL model proposed
in this paper is 0.86% to 1.09% higher than LightGBM-LR
in identifying the aging state of the Android system, about
10.00% and 4.54% to 4.95% higher than the traditional models
KNN and RF, and 1.97% to 3.09% higher than the LightGBM.
Compared with the LR model, it has a maximum accuracy
improvement of about 33.29% to 35.64%. It is verified that
our EWDLL method has higher identification accuracy in the
application field of software aging state identification. This is
conducive to more effective software aging and rejuvenation,
thus improving the reliability of the Android system.
Although the EWDLL software aging state identification
model proposed in this paper solves some problems existing
in the field of software rejuvenation research, it still has
shortcomings. Future research work will also focus on other
types of software systems other than mobile terminal software
systems. In addition, we will expand the aging model param-
eters and relevant evaluation indicators of software systems
according to different software systems, so as to optimize the
hierarchical design of the FAHP and make the processing of
datasets more in line with the actual situation of different
software systems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported in part by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (No. 61662051), the Inner Mon-
golia Science and Technology Plan Project (No.2020GG0187),
the Engineering Research Center of Ecological Big Data,
the Ministry of Education, the Inner Mongolia Engineering
Laboratory for Cloud Computing and Service Software, and
the Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Social Computing and
Data Processing.
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