High pressure

vapor refrigerant

Low pressure
liquid refrigerant

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSUeRlJ2P0g
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 Refrigerators work by causing the refrigerant circulating inside them to change from a liquid into a
gas. This process, called evaporation, cools the surrounding area.
o The compressor compresses the refrigerant gas. The compressed gas heats up as it is
pressurized.
o The coils on the back of the refrigerator let the hot refrigerant gas dissipate its heat. The
refrigerant gas condenses into liquid at high pressure.
o The high-pressure liquid flows through the expansion valve.
o The liquid immediately boils and vaporizes due to low pressure. The latent heat of
vaporization of refrigerant is absorbed from surroundings and cools down the space.
o The low-pressure refrigerant gas is then sucked up by the compressor, and the cycle repeats.
https://www.scienceabc.com/innovation/how-does-a-refrigerator-work-working-principle.html
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 First generation (1830 – 1930) ODP
Ethers, CO2, NH3, SO2, HCOOCH3, HCs, H2O, GWP
CCl4, CHCs,… Boiling point
Cost
Second generation (1931 – 1990)
Flammability
CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, NH3, H2O,…
Toxicity
Third generation (1991 – 2010) Corrosiveness
HCFCs, HFCs, NH3, H2O, HCs, CO2,… COP
Fourth generation (2010 – …) Tc , Pc , ρvap
HFCs, HCs, HFOs, natural refrigerants… hfg
Hundy G.H., Trott A.R., Welch T.C. - Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (2008)
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  High latent heat of vaporization
 High suction gas density
 Positive but not excessive pressures at evaporating and condensing conditions
 Critical temperature and triple point well outside the working range
 Chemically stable, compatible with construction materials and miscible with lubricants
 Non-corrosive, non-toxic and non-flammable
 High dielectric strength
 Environmentally friendly
 Low cost
Needless to say, no single fluid has all these properties, and the choice of fluid for any
particular application will always be a compromise.
Hundy G.H., Trott A.R., Welch T.C. - Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (2008)
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 The ozone layer in our upper atmosphere provides a filter for ultraviolet radiation,
which can be harmful to our health. Researchers found that the ozone layer was
thinning, due to emissions into the atmosphere of CFCs, halons and bromides. After
a series of rigorous meetings and negotiations, the Montreal Protocol on substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer was finally agreed in 1987. Signatories agreed to
phase out the production of these chemicals by 1995. Moreover, the European
Union drew up a far more stringent regulation, which banned all new HCFC
equipment in 2004, banned the sale of new HCFC refrigerant for service in January
2010 and recycled refrigerant in 2015.
Hundy G.H., Trott A.R., Welch T.C. - Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (2008)
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Hundy G.H., Trott A.R., Welch T.C. - Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (2008)
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 Global warming is the increasing of the world’s temperatures, which results in
melting of the polar ice caps and rising sea levels. It is caused by the release into
the atmosphere of so-called ‘greenhouse’ gases, which form a blanket and reflect
heat back to the earth’s surface, or hold heat in the atmosphere. The most ill-
reputed greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide (CO2), which once released remains in
the atmosphere for 500 years. The GWP values for HFC refrigerants can be seen in
Table 3.1, for example, R134a has a GWP of 1300, which means that the emission
of 1 kg of R134a is equivalent to 1300 kg of CO2. Most of the current generation
refrigerants possess very high GWP.
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Hundy G.H., Trott A.R., Welch T.C. - Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (2008)
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Hundy G.H., Trott A.R., Welch T.C. - Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (2008)
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 The classification of halogen refrigerants derived from saturated hydrocarbons and
consisting of only one substance is illustrated by the example below:

C2H2F4

Hundy G.H., Trott A.R., Welch T.C. - Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (2008)
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 Mixtures are designated by their respective refrigerant numbers and mass
proportions. For example

R125 (44%), GWP = 3500

R143a (52%), GWP = 4470
R134a (4%), GWP = 1430

Hundy G.H., Trott A.R., Welch T.C. - Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (2008)
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 Zeotropic (different boiling point of each component) mixtures are assigned an
identifying number in the 400 series. This number designates which components are
in the mixture, and the following uppercase letter denotes the proportions. The
numbers are in chronological order of the refrigerant’s approval by ASHRAE.
Example: R407A (R32/R125/R134a (20/40/40)), R407B (R32/R125/R134a
(10/70/20)), R407C (R32/R125/R134a (23/25/52)), etc.
Azeotropic (same boiling point of the compound) mixtures are in the 500 series.
Example: R507 (R125/R143a (50/50)).

Hundy G.H., Trott A.R., Welch T.C. - Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (2008)
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 Miscellaneous organic compounds are in the 600 series; numbers are given in
numerical order, for example, R600a, isobutane.
Inorganic compounds are in the 700 series. Identification numbers are formed by
adding the relative molecular mass of components to 700.
Example: R717 corresponds to ammonia which has a molecular mass of 17; R718
means water; and R744 means CO2.

Hundy G.H., Trott A.R., Welch T.C. - Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (2008)
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 Personal, others and environmental are
vitally important. HFC refrigerants are non-
toxic in the traditional sense, but
nevertheless great care must be taken to
ensure adequate ventilation in areas where
heavier than air gases may accumulate.
Toxic and flammable refrigerants must be
handled with great care. Disposal of
refrigerants must be done with an expert.
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Hundy G.H., Trott A.R., Welch T.C. - Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (2008)
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EsyP6IRpA1I
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 A single-acting compressor is a type of air compressor which uses
only one end of the piston for the suction and compression purpose. In
simple words, the first stroke of the piston sucks the air inside the
compressor while the air compression occur in the second stroke.

https://mechanicalboost.com/single-acting-compressor-working-applications-and-p-v-diagram/
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 The explanation of the P-V diagram is given below. The below figure represents
a single-acting air compressor without clearance volume.
1) Suction Stroke (d-a):
First of all, the air is sucked into the compressor cylinder at constant pressure Pa and the volume of
the air increases during this process. The line d-a represents this process in the above-given
figure.
2) Compression Stroke (a-b):
After completing the suction stroke, the air compression starts. During this process, the air
pressure increases from Pa to Pb, and the volume decreases from Va to Vb. At this point “b”, the
pressure Pb is marginally more than delivery pressure. The line a-b represents this process.
3) Delivery stroke (b-c):
At point “b,” the compression stroke completes, and then the delivery stroke starts. During this
process, the air pressure remains constant (Pb) while the volume increases. So, at this stage, the
outlet valve opens and discharges the compressed air. The line b-c of the above-given diagram
represents this process.
4) Repeating Process (c-d):
After completing the delivery stroke, the piston comes again for the suction stroke, again sucks air,
and at this stage, the cylinder pressure will be Pa. This process repeats according to our
requirements. And also, the work done during this process represents through a-b-c-d.

https://mechanicalboost.com/single-acting-compressor-working-applications-and-p-v-diagram/
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 Advantages of Single-Acting Compressors
• These compressors are less costly as compared to other types of
reciprocating air compressors.
• A single-acting reciprocating air compressor has less tubing.
• These are very easy to maintain.
• It uses less compressed air.
• These reciprocating compressors are best for cycles having medium
duty.
https://mechanicalboost.com/single-acting-compressor-working-applications-and-p-v-diagram/
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 Disadvantages of Single-Acting Compressors
 The major disadvantage of the single-acting air compressor is that it has a
piston that works in only one direction at a time.
 This piston (or air compressor) forces the air into the cylinder in only one
direction.
 The spring takes up space and limits the cylinder’s working stroke.
 The spring force of these compressors reduces the aerodynamics and limits
the cylinder resulting force.
 These are less efficient than centrifugal compressors.
https://mechanicalboost.com/single-acting-compressor-working-applications-and-p-v-diagram/
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EsyP6IRpA1I
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 A reciprocating air compressor that uses both sides of the piston to suck
and compress the air is called a double-acting compressor. In simple
words, the piston of a double-acting reciprocating compressor uses its
both sides for air or gas suction and compression.

https://mechanicalboost.com/double-acting-compressor-working-principle-components-applications-advantages-and-disadvantages/
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  Cylinder: The cylinder includes in the essential double-acting compressor components. On
small compressors, the cylinder is made by drilling directly into the compressor body. This
part of the double-acting compressor makes of cast iron. In large multi-cylinder
compressors, the cylinders are manufactured separately and attached to the compressor
body. If the cylinder damages, this compressor allows you to easily replace it with a new
liner without replacing the entire compressor.
 Piston: The piston moves up and down in the cylinder. This movement knows as a
reciprocating movement. The piston sucks and compresses the air during its motion.
Mostly, the pistons of these compressors make of aluminum or cast iron. During the piston
movement within the cylinder, the coolant must not leak through the space between the
piston and the cylinder wall. So, this air compressor component covers with the piston ring.
A small compressor does not need a piston ring. The space between the cylinder and the
piston also covers with lubricating oil to prevent the compressed refrigerant from entering
the crankcase.
https://mechanicalboost.com/double-acting-compressor-working-principle-components-applications-advantages-and-disadvantages/
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  Connecting Rod: The connecting rod includes in the most essential double-acting
compressor components. It makes a link between the crankshaft and the piston. One side
of the connecting rod connects to the crankshaft via the connecting rod cap. While the rod’s
other side connects with the piston via the piston pin. These two connections on the
connecting rod make it possible to convert the crankshaft rotational movement into the
piston reciprocating movement in the compressor cylinder. Usually, the connecting rods
make of the forged carbon steel.
 Piston Ring: The piston ring circulates around the piston. As the piston reciprocates in the
cylinder, the piston ring comes into contact with the cylinder wall. There is a great deal of
friction between the piston ring and the cylinder wall that must be replaced with time for the
compressor to function correctly. The piston ring extends the life of the piston. It prevents
the replacement of the entire piston
 Suction and Delivery Valve: The suction valve uses for sucking the air into the
compressor cylinder. And the delivery valve uses for discharging the air.
https://mechanicalboost.com/double-acting-compressor-working-principle-components-applications-advantages-and-disadvantages/
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  Electricity consumption is much lower.
 The piston works in both directions.
 These compressors have high efficiency.
 It produces efficient compression.
 This compressor doesn’t require much maintenance and just requires
routine vise maintenance.
 It has a long life.

https://mechanicalboost.com/double-acting-compressor-working-principle-components-applications-advantages-and-disadvantages/
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  The initial cost of this compressor is high.
 It has a large size as compared to the single-acting compressor.
 These compressors can’t stay in the middle position.
 A Long-stroke cylinder needs to guide the piston rod correctly.
 It requires high space for installation.

https://mechanicalboost.com/double-acting-compressor-working-principle-components-applications-advantages-and-disadvantages/
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EsyP6IRpA1I
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yNgqI4XPUZc
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