Chemistry: for

Engineering Students

Chapter 3: Molecules, Moles and Chemical Equations

3.1 INSIGHT INTO: Explosions
3.2 Chemical equations and formulas
3.3 Aqueous solutions and net ionic equations
3.4 Interpreting Chemical Equations and the Mole

Feb-16 Chapter-1 1
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Chapter 3

Explosions: A good example of chemical reaction

• Violent and Fast!
• Release large amounts of
Explosions energy (exothermic)!
• Expansion of gases
H2C O NO2
HC O NO2
4 12 CO2(g) + 6 N2(g) + 10 H2O(g) + O2(g)
H2C O NO2
(l)
nitroglycerin

Feb-16 Chapter-1 2
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Chemical Formulas and Equations

A chemical reaction involves changes in the molecular

structure: chemical bonds are broken and/or formed.
reactants products
A chemical equation
tells us what happens “A + B +…→ P + Q + …”
in the reaction, but not
how or why the The arrow
reaction occurs. Formulas function
functions as
as words
a verb

∆
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)
Chemical equations are symbolic
representations of chemical processes.
Feb-16 Chapter-1 3
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Chemical Formulas and Equations

If a chemical equation is correctly written then it must obey two

basic grammar rules: the law of mass conservation and the law of
charge conservation

Matter is made by atoms whose identities are not modified after a

chemical reaction. In a chemical process, atoms merely gain,
release or share electrons!
Example: methane combustion

CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O

To comply with the conservation laws, chemical equations incorporate
stoichiometric coefficients.
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Chemical Formulas and Equations
3.13 An explosive whose chemical formula is C3H6N6O6 produces water, carbon
dioxide, and nitrogen gas when detonated in oxygen. Write the chemical equation for the
detonation reaction of this explosive.

C3 H 6 N 6 O6 (s) + O 2 (g) 
→ CO 2 (g) + N 2 (g) + H 2 O (g)

• 3.74c Two new candidates for green primers in explosives are called HBT
(C2H4N10) and G2Z (C6H14N22)). If the detonation of both compounds in oxygen
results in the production of CO2, H2O, and N2 , write balanced chemical
equations for these reactions.
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Aqueous Solution and Net Ionic Equations
Solutions, Solvents and Solutes
Classification of Matter

Conventional definition

Solution= homogeneous
mixture of 2 or more substances

This traditional scheme

help us discriminate true
solutions from other
forms of matter.
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Aqueous Solution and Net Ionic Equations
Solutions, Solvents and Solutes
A true solution is a mixture of components at the
Solute(s)=Least abundant
molecular level (10-9 m). Any solution portion
contains different molecules, ions and chemical
component(s)
species. Separation of the solution components is
not feasible by mechanical means (e.g., by filtering).
Solvent= Main component.
(dispersion media)

Intermolecular forces determine

all the properties of solutions.
Na+
~15 Å
H2O
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Cl- ionic
dissociation

Example: NaCl(aq) solution

Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Aqueous Solution and Net Ionic Equations
Solutions, Solvents and Solutes

Similar physical and Miscibles

chemical properties (e.g.: ethanol+H2O )
Solvent
Solute(s) Different physical
Insoluble
and chemical (transition metals + H2O)
properties
Partially Soluble
(ionic solids+H2O)

The solubility of a substance Chemists often use a series of

is the maximum amount that solubility rules to predict whether
dissolves in a given quantity of or not a particular ionic compound is
solvent at the corresponding P likely to dissolve in water
and T conditions.
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Aqueous Solution and Net Ionic Equations
Solutions, Solvents and Solutes

Usually Soluble Exceptions

Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, NH4+ No common exceptions

nitrates (NO3−), nitrites (NO2−) Moderately soluble: AgNO2

chlorides, bromides, iodides (Cl−, Br−, I−) Insoluble: AgCl, Hg2Cl2, PbCl2, AgBr,
Hg2Br2, PbBr2, AgI, Hg2I2, and PbI2
Fluorides (F−) Insoluble: MgF2, CaF2, SrF2, BaF2, PbF2

sulfates (SO42−) Insoluble: BaSO4, PbSO4, HgSO4

Moderately soluble: CaSO4, SrSO4, Ag2SO4
Chlorates (ClO3−), perchlorates (ClO4−) No common exceptions

Acetates (CH3COO−) Moderately soluble: AgCH3COO

Usually Insoluble
Phosphates (PO43−) Soluble: (NH4)3PO4, Na3PO4, K3PO4

Carbonates (CO32−) Soluble: (NH4)2CO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3

Hydroxides (OH-) Soluble: LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)2

Moderately soluble: Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2
Sulfides (S2−) Soluble: (NH4)2S, Na2S, K2S, MgS, CaS)
Feb-16 Chapter-1 9
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Aqueous Solution and Net Ionic Equations
Solutions, Solvents and Solutes
Ionic compounds
dissociate into
individual ions when MmXn(s) m Mz+ (aq) + n Xz- (aq)
they dissolve in water.
Electrolyte solution
I≠0

Strong
Electrolyte
Solutions

Rdlon

Water
+
NaCl
10

Feb-16 Chapter-1 10
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Aqueous Solution and Net Ionic Equations
Chemical Equations for Aqueous Reactions
Strong acid/base compounds in aqueous solutions are fully
dissociated into ions. Weak acids/bases dissociate partially

Strong acids HCl (aq) + H2O 100%

→ H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

100%
Strong base NaOH (aq)→ Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Weak acid HCN(aq) + H2O H3O+(aq) + CN−(aq)

Weak base NH3 (aq) + H2O NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)

Strong Acid Strong Bases
HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4 LiOH, NaOH, K(OH), Ca(OH)2
Weak Acids Weak Bases
H3PO4, HF, CH3COOH (acetic acid), NH3, CH3NH2,
Feb-16
HCN (hydrocyanic acid) Chapter-1 11
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Aqueous Solution and Net Ionic Equations

Chemical Equations for Aqueous Reactions

When a solution of an acid and a solution of a base are mixed, a neutralization

reaction occurs. When strong acids and/or strong bases react, the products of
the neutralization reaction usually exhibit new characteristic properties.
Fast and exothermic reactions
Traditional
equation acid + base 
→ salt + water

Example: Molecular (global) equation)

HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O
Strong Strong
acid base

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Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Aqueous Solution and Net Ionic Equations
Chemical Equations for Aqueous Reactions
The ionic chemical equations consider the ionic dissociation of electrolytes,
unveiling thus the spectator ions and the actual reactive ions.
Strong Strong Ionic
acid base salt
Molecular
equation
HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O

H+(aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)→Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) + H2O

Spectator ions
Total
ionic
equation
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) →H2O

Net ionic
equation
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Aqueous Solution and Net Ionic Equations

Chemical Equations for Aqueous Reactions

• Neutralization: When aqueous solutions of acetic acid and potassium

hydroxide are combined, a neutralization reaction will occur. Write
molecular, total ionic, and net ionic equations for this process.

• Precipitation: When aqueous sodium carbonate is added to barium

chloride, the solution turns cloudy white with solid barium carbonate.
Write the molecular, ionic, and net ionic equations for this reaction.

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Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Interpreting Equations and the Mole
Interpreting Chemical Equations
Chemical equations are symbolic descriptions of chemical reactions:
• Their microscopic/molecular interpretation visualizes reactions
between individual molecules.
• The macroscopic interpretation pictures reactions between bulk
quantities (masses and volumes).

∆
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)

Stoichiometric coefficients always refer to numbers of particles

Chemical reactions involve huge amounts of reacting molecules.
Therefore, we need an appropriate unit for counting chemical
particles. Also we need a quantitative connection between
molecules and macroscopic magnitudes like mass.

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Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Interpreting Equations and the Mole
Avogadro’s number and the mole
n mol NA Macroscopic-Molecular Link

Amount unit Avogadro’s NA: 6.0221367· 1023 mol-1

of substance constant

n : number of entities in a given sample

Number of atoms in 12 g of 126C
1 mol 6.0221367·1023

∆ Stoichiometric coeff. provide

2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g) ratios of number of particles
Hydrogen and oxygen react in a 2:1 mole ratio in moles.
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Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Interpreting Equations and the Mole
Relationship between mol and amu

Atomic masses expressed in D and g/mol are numerically coincident

What is the mass of 1 mole

12
C?
of 6 Preferred form.
In this way,
12.00 g 12
6 C g 12 atomic mass is
= 12.00 6 C
1 mol mol an intensive
property.

Determining the molar mass

Molar mass is a physical property of molecules.
It is an additive property!

M (H2O; water ) = 2M(H) + M(O) = 2·1.008 g/mol + 16.00 g/mol= 18.01 g/mol

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Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Interpreting Equations and the Mole
Calculations Using Moles and Molar Masses

mass = molar mass x mole number

m = M· n
Equivalence relationships among mass, number of moles
and number of atoms or molecules

m M n NA
Number of
Mass Number of atoms or
(g) moles Avogadro’s molecules
Molar
(mol) Number
mass
(g/mol) (mol-1)
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Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Interpreting Equations and the Mole
Calculations Using Moles and Molar Masses
• How many moles are present in the given quantities of explosives? (a)
358.1g trinitrotoluene (TNT), C7H5N3O6 , (b) 82.6 g nitromethane, CH3
NO2 , (c) 1.68 kg RDX, C3H6N6O6

Feb-16 Chapter-1 19
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Interpreting Equations and the Mole
Calculations Using Moles and Molar Masses
Elemental analysis is routinely performed to characterize/verify chemical
substances. The results are usually given as mass percentage of each element
in the compound. Empirical formulas can be derived from mass percentage.

• Nitroglycerin contains 15.87% C, 2.22% H, 18.50% N, and 63.41% O by mass.

Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

Feb-16 Chapter-1 20
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Interpreting Equations and the Mole
Expressing Concentration of Solutions
The term concentration
designates the amount of
Weight percent solute dissolved in a given
mA
% weigh = ·100 quantity of solvent or quantity
msol of solution.
Molarity
Forms of n A moles of A units
[A] = =
expressing V volume in L mol/L ≡ M
concentration
Molality
of A (solute) in units
nA moles of A
a solution mA = =
msolvent solvent mass in kg mol/kg ≡ m

Molar fraction
nA moles of A
XA = =
nsol moles of solution
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Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Interpreting Equations and the Mole
Calculations Using Moles, Molar Masses … and Molarities

Volume Molarity
mass = molar mass x mole number (L)
n A moles of A
V [A] = =
m = M· n V volume in L
units mol/L ≡ M
Molarity

m M n NA
Number of
Mass Number of atoms or
(g) moles Avogadro’s molecules
Molar
(mol) Number
mass
(g/mol) (mol -1)
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Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Interpreting Equations and the Mole
Calculations Using Moles, Molar Masses and Molarity
Before performing many routine procedures with solutions,
we need first to carry out stoichiometric calculations.

• How many grams of Na2SO4 are required to make 0.350 L of 0.500 M Na2SO4?

• How many mL of 0.50 M Na2SO4 solution are needed to provide 0.038 mol of this salt?

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Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Interpreting Equations and the Mole
Calculations Using Moles, Molar Masses and Molarity
Before performing many routine procedures with solutions,
we need first to carry out stoichiometric calculations.
• 3.29 The solubility of NaCl in water is 35.7 g NaCl/100 g H2O. Suppose that you
have 500.0 g of NaCl. What is the minimum volume of water you would need to
dissolve it all? (Assume that the density of water is 1.00 g/mL)

• 3.69 Commercially available concentrated sulfuric acid is 18.0 M H2SO4. Calculate

the volume of concentrated sulfuric acid required to prepare 2.50 L of 1.50 M H2SO4
solution.

Feb-16 Chapter-1 24
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Chapter 3: Q’s and Exercises
3.4 How is an explosive similar to a fuel? How do explosives and fuels differ?
3.14 A number of compounds are used in cement and reactions among them occur
when water is added. In one, CaO reacts with Al2O3 and water to form Ca3Al2(OH)12.
Write a balanced chemical equation for this process.
3.18 Diborane and related compounds were proposed as rocket fuels in the 1950s. A
representative reaction for this class of molecules is that of B2H6 and O2 to form B2O3
and H2O. Write the balanced chemical equation for this process.
3.22 When a substance dissolves, does a chemical reaction always occur? What
happens if it is not a reaction?
3.24 Define the term saturated solution.
3.28 Decide whether each of the following is water-soluble. If soluble, tell what ions are
produced. (a) Na2CO3, (b) CuSO4, (c) NiS, (d) BaBr2
3.32 Define the term spectator ion.
3.34 Balance the following equations and then write the net ionic equation.
(a) (NH4)2CO3(aq) + Cu(NO3)2(aq) → CuCO3(s) + NH4NO3(aq)
(b) Pb(OH)2(s) + HCl(aq) → PbCl2(s) +H2O(l)

(c) BaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → BaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(d) CH3COOH(aq) + Ni(OH)2(s) → Ni(CH3CO2)2(aq) + H2O(l)

Feb-16 25
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Chapter 3: Q’s and Exercises
3.52 A test of an automobile engine’s exhaust revealed that 3.7 g of NO2 was emitted in 10
minutes of operation. How many moles of NO2 would this engine release if it were used for a
45-minute commute, assuming that this measured number is representative of the emission
under all circumstances?
3.54 How many H atoms are present in 7.52 g of propane, C3H8?
3.56 A sample of H2C2O4· 2H2O of mass 3.35 g is heated to drive off the waters of hydration
(designated separately in the chemical formula). What mass of H2C2O4 remains once the
water has been removed by heating?
3.60 Determine the simplest formulas of the following compounds: (a) the food enhancer
monosodium glutamate (MSG), which has the composition 35.51% C, 4.77% H, 37.85% O,
8.29% N, and 13.60% Na, (b) zircon, a diamond-like mineral, which has the composition
34.91% O, 15.32% Si, and 49.76% Zr.
3.62 Copper can have improved wear resistance if alloyed with ceramic alumina, Al2O3. If a
copper alloy has 8.5 wt % Al2O3, what is its composition in mol %?
3.68 Determine the initial volume (in mL) needed to generate the desired solutions by
dilution: (a) 10.0 L of 0.45 M solution from 3.0 M solution (b) 1.50 L of 1.00 M solution from
11.7 M solution
3.78 One step in the enrichment of uranium for use in nuclear power plants involves the
reaction of UO2 with hydrofluoric acid solution. The products are solid UF4 and water. Write a
balanced chemical equation for this reaction.

Feb-16 Chapter-1 26
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Chapter 3: Q’s and Exercises
3.84 Calcium carbonate (limestone, CaCO3) dissolves in hydrochloric acid, producing water
and carbon dioxide. An unbalanced net ionic equation for this reaction is given below.
Balance it. CaCO3(s) + H3O+(aq) →H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g) + Ca2+(aq)
3.88 Methyl cyanoacrylate is the chemical name for the substance sold as Super Glue, and
it has the chemical formula C5H5NO2. Calculate the number of molecules of this substance
in a 250 g tube of Super Glue, assuming that the glue is 80% methyl cyanoacrylate by mass.
3.90 The characteristic odor of decaying flesh is due to the presence of various nitrogen-
containing compounds. One such compound, called putrescine, was analyzed and found to
contain 54.49% carbon, 13.72% hydrogen, and 31.78% nitrogen by mass. If the molar mass
of putrescine is known to be between 85 and 105, what is its molecular formula?
3.98 Twenty-five mL of a 0.388 M solution of Na2SO4 is mixed with 35.3 mL of 0.229 M
Na2SO4. What is the molarity of the resulting solution? Assume that the volumes are
additive.
3.102 The protein that carries oxygen in the blood is called hemoglobin. It is 0.335% Fe by
mass. Given that a molecule of hemoglobin contains four iron atoms, describe how
you can calculate the molar mass of hemoglobin. Do you need to look up anything to do it?

3.112 If you have 32.6 g of sodium carbonate that is dissolved to give 2.10 L of solution,
what is the molarity of the solution? What is the molarity of the sodium ions? How many L of
hydrochloric acid solution 2.0 M are needed to neutralize it?

Feb-16 Chapter-1 27
Chemistry: for
Engineering Students Chapter 3: Q’s and Exercises
4.5(TCS) You are presented with a white
solid and told that due to careless
labeling it is not clear if the substance is
barium chloride, lead chloride, or zinc
chloride. When you transfer the solid to
a beaker and add water, the solid
dissolves to give a clear solution. Next a
Na2SO4(aq) solution is added and a white
precipitate forms. What is the identity of
the unknown white solid?

4.1 (TCS) Which of the following schematic

drawings best describes a solution of Li2SO4
in water (water molecules not shown for
simplicity)?

4.92 (TCS) The accompanying photo shows the reaction

between a solution of Cd(NO3)2 and one of Na2S. What is
the identity of the precipitate? What ions remain in solution?
Write the net ionic equation for the reaction.

Feb-16 Chapter-1 28