Model Answers CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY AND LABORATORY RULES Formative Practice 1.1 1 Biology isthe study of te and interactions of ving things wit their environment 2 Genetics (bioinformatics), microbiology (various vvacaines and medicine), biotechnology (bioplastis). 3. Bictochnology.Bioplastis can be produced from agculural by-products, or rom used plastic bottles by using microorganisms 4 Wildife blogists, doctors, chiropractors, exercise physiologists, mictbiologsts, marine biologists, botanists Formative Practice 1.2 1 (a) Eye goggles — to protect eyes from dangerous chemicals, (b). Lab coat —to protec clothes from damage (©) Fume chamber — fo prevent inhalation of dangerous gases such as chlorine, bromine and nitrogen dioxide 2 Category 8 biological waste must be packed in autoclave resistant biohazard plastic bags, steriised inthe autoclave to be decontaminated, and later placed into a biohazard bin. Biohazard plastic bags must not be disposed in normal bins. 3 (a) Inform your teacher. (b). Restrict the spill area. (©) Sprinkle sulphur powder to cover the mercury sol (@) Call the fre brigade 4 (a) Be carelul when handing hot glass apparatus. (b) Report any damaged apparatus or glassware {o the teacher immediately, (hry Biology Form 4 KPM | ov ecogy FA Anca Crap in 1 (6) Keep flammable chemicals away from fre sources. (@) Donot touch, smell, or taste chemical substances directly. Formative Practice 1.3 1 (a). Monipulated variable: starch concentration, Responding variable: duration for complete Starch hydrolysis (rate of starch hydrolysis. o Rate of starch hydrolysis agains starch concerization 4 a 10 08 06 04 —————— —— zs ‘starch concentration (6) nolo of starch nyo (6 minutos) (Any tne) * Large and accurate; use a sharp pencil and not a coloured pencil ora pen + Do not shade artstcally + Lines must be drawn clearly, continuously, and. rel disconnected Do net use aul to draw specmen outines * Drawings must be labelled. Label lines must be print tothe night stucture, must nothave an arrowhead, must be straight and do not cross. each other + Drawings must be tiled + Every structure in a drawing must be put inthe comet positon andis size must be proportionate to other siructixes 3. Three main planes thal are used are frontal plane, sagittal plane and horizontal plane (a), Identifying a problem that can be fesied with a scientific investigation ozate 949 ant(b) Building a hypothesis. (6). Identifying and controling variables as well as the data collection method, (@) Planning and carrying out a scientinc investigation, (©) Collecting data (Interpreting data and results through scientific reasoning (q)_ Making a conclusion, (h). Whiting a report ‘Summative Practice 1 41 To avoid injures to legs and feet from broken glass and chemical spils 2. (a) Cross section dvides a structure norzontaly into upper and lower portions. (b) Longitudinal section divides structure into left and right. 3+ Category A (sharp wastes): Sharp instruments such as syringes, needs, glass and scalpel. These are placed in a special bin fr sharp items This bin does not need fo be sterised * Category B (non-sharp wastes): Solid biological wastes such as gloves, tissue paper, pet dish plastic cuture containers and hardened ager Packed in autoclave resistant biohazard * plastic bags, stelsed inthe autoclave to be decontaminated, and later placed into a biohazard bin, Biohazard plastic bags must not be disposed offi normal bins + Category C (animal carcass): Carcasses, ‘organs, and tissues of laboratory or experimental arimals. Wrapped in absorbent material (such a tissue paper), packed neatly into biohazard plastic hags and is trozen, + Category D (fluids): Broth culture, quid medium such a9 blood and/or blood products. All biological quid wastes must be decontaminated LP _Bicogy Answers. Chap 1 ind 2 using the autoclave before disposal. Sterlised biological liquid wastes must be disposed off immediately, 4. Stops of scientific investigation + Identiying the problem Determining the problem that wil be investigated + Meking a hypothesis - Presenting a statement that wl be tested through an experiment for its validity + Planning the investigation ~ Collecting information or scientfic background about an experiment, selecting and preparing materials, apparatus as wel as the ght method + Controling variables — Determining the fixed Variables, manipulated variables and responding variables + Carrying out the investigation — Correct usage of instruments, apparatus, and materials corecty, observations) ifere done meticulously, cleaning and siorage of instruments and apparatus after the experiment, as well as correct disposal of waste materials, * Collecting data — Dota or observation recorded efficient, systematically with various methods, + Analysing data — Data is converted into a more mmearingtul form, such as @ graph +The relationship between the responding vanable and the manipulated variable is determined. *+ Daa interpretation — Data s interpreted logically and objectively. The information obtained is then described clearly into smaller parts to find the relationstip or connection between the pats of information or data collected + Making a conclusion — Hypothesis is accepted or rejected and a conclusion is derived from the experiment + Making a report —A report is writen based onthe steps ofthe scientific method 5 (2) (i) How does the presence of amylase enzyme affect starch hydrolysis? Biology Form 4 (hey KPM ozae 949 an |(i) Starch can be hydrolysed in the presence of amylase enzyme compared to without the presence of amyiase enzyme. (ii) Manipulated variable: presence of amylase enzyme Responding variable: starch hydrolysis Fixed variables: time and temperature (0). The pupil must inform the teacherflab assistant as s00n as possible and restrict access tothe spill area (stop other pupis from coming near the spil area). Essay Questions 6 (2) + Make sure the victim does not run around and instruct himher tole down, + Use a fire blanket to put ou the fre once the victim les down, + If ther is no fire blanket, rol the vet on the floor. * Inform the teacher o ab assistant as icky 8s possible so the victim can get immediate treatment + The fie alam should be activated at once. (0) + Immediately inform the teacher or lab assistant, + Use suiphur powder to cover the mercury spill + Restrict the spl area to prevent fuer aocidents + Report the accident to the fre brigade and rescue team. (6) To study the effect of sugar on the growth of yeast (EXPERIMENT) Problem statement: What is the effect of sugar on the time taken for the dough to double in size? Hypothesis: “The time it takes for the dough to double in size is shorter withthe presence of suger. (hay Biology Form 4 KPM | cue ecogr FA Anene Crap i 8 Variabl Manipulated variable: Presence of sugar Responding variable: The time takes for the dough to double its size Fixed variables: ‘Amount of flour, yeast and water used, water temperature, and time token to knead the dough Materials 1.5 g yeast. 5 g glucose, 100 ml lukewarm water, cloth and 170 g flour Apparatus: 41000 ml beaker, 250 ml conical flask, mixing bowl and stopwatch Procedure: 4. Mix the glucose with aie bit of lukewarm water in a conical flask 2. Dissolve the yeast inthe glucose mixture 3 Leave the yeast suspension for 20 minutes. Tis is to ensure the yeast is activated and grows 4. Puthal ofthe flour inthe mixing bowl 5. Once the yeast mixture has expanded and bubbles, make @ hole in the middle of your mang boul and pour in the yeast riture 6. Mix the mixture wello make a soft dough 7. Add the rest ofthe flour gradually unlit becomes dificult to mix the dough 8. Sprinkle some four onthe table surface and put the dough on it 9. Knead the dough for 10 minutes un it becomes smooth, elastic and not sticky. 410. Knead the dough by folding it and pressing it downwards with your palms ‘Squeeze the dough and fold and press ‘he dough repeatedly ozate 949 ant‘11 Put the dough ina 1000 ml beaker. Press the dough down and record its volume, 42. Cover the beaker with a clean cloth ‘and putt ina place with moderate temperature 19. Startthe stopwatch and record the time it takes forthe dough to double in size 14, Repeat the whole procedure to prepare the second dough using the same ‘materials but without adding glucose 16. White a report regarding the experiment. Results: Time taken for dough Dough | to double in size or volume (minute) Dough with glucose Dough without glucose Enrichment 7 Some of the effects of Industrial Revolution 4.0 on daily life + Asifcal Inteligence or Through AL, system is created to study the environment and ‘enhance the relationship between humans, physical equipment and the digital world + Cloud Processing Technology in storage and processing of data, that connects smart senses to equipment va internet connection, LP Bicogy Answers. Chap 1 ind 4 Cybersecunity to protect data and minimise risks, and 30 printing that eases prototype development. + Automated Robotic Technology is able to operate ina working environment that i similar to humans. + Virtual Reality can provide information virtually Intermediate Really can combine the physical and vrtual worlds, and Big Data Analytics uses data collected for service provision and more ‘accurate projections 8 (@) The frst step is to get information about tissue culture technique. This can be done by * Surfing the intemet * Referencing printed materials such as Journals or electronic references + Visiting local universities or research institutions fo obtain the information needed (b)_ From the information obtained, data regarding the production of a new plant from a chosen cell, for example an orchd plant, can be collected. (©) Areportis prepared, The report contains the method of planting using tissue culture along with interesting graphics and a discussion on how the technique is caried out. Current issues regarding the technique can also discussed (0) Atthe end ofthe report, conclusion is made regarding tissue culture technique Biology Form 4 (hay KPM ozae 949 an |Model Answers CHAPTER 2 CELL BIOLOGY AND ORGANIZATION Formative Practice 2.1 41 Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached it whereas smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have any ribosomes attached toi 2. Light microscope usually has a magnification ‘of 1000x. On the other hand, the electran microscope is able to magnify a cell as much as 2000000x. Without an electron microscope, cell structures cannot be seen clearly because the light microscopes can only observe certan cel components, such as cell membrane, cell wall nucleus, eytoplasm, and chloroplast only 3 Onion cell because onions grow in the ground. Onions obtain fod from ther storage organs which are onion bulbs. 4 Similanties Both cells have nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, ‘endoplasmic retculums and ribosomes Diflerences * Plant cells have a fixed cell shape whereas animal cells do not have. * Plant cells have cell walls whereas animal cells do not. * Plant cells have chloroplasts whereas animal cells do not, * Plant cells have large vacuoles, wtiereas animal cells do not (if there is, the size fs smal) * Plant cells do not have centrioles whereas animal cells do. Formative Practice 2.2 1 Confracile vacuoles are involved in osmoregulation, 2 _ Amoeba sp. moves by extending is pseudopodium (false fet, This is ellowed by cytoplasmic streaming into the extended pseudopodium (hry Biology Form 4 KPM | ove ecogy FA Anca Crap2-2PP id 4 3. Amoeba sp. forms spores. In the spores, mitosis takes place multiple times to form daughter cells (Once environmental conditions improve, the spores will germinate and release daughter cells 4 The contracting rate ofthe contractile vacuole wil decrease. Formative Practice 2.3 1 Rough endoplasmic retculum, rbosomes and Golg apparatus. 2. Anerve tissue is made of cell body and nerve fibres that are called dendrites and axons, Nerve tissues, coordinate and control bodily activities 3. Alarge numberof chloroplasts can absorb more light fr photosynthesis, 4 Fal cell contain very litle cytoplasm but have high fat content Fat cols contain very few mitochondria because it does not need a ot of energy Fat calls can exzand to store more fat. Formative Practice 2.4 1 Cel —> Tissue —> Organ — System > Miticelutr anism 2. Skin is classed as en organ because skin is made up of epithelial issues, connective tissues, nerve fisues and muscle tissues that work together fo carry out he functions of skin 3 Trunk and branches make up the support system of plants lo support leaves ala vertical position to allow maximum absorption of sunight during photosynthesis. Flowers are involved in reproduction 4. The organismis not able to carry out alot of functions that are needed for its survival ‘Summative Practice 2 1 This is because chloroplasts used to produce food during photosynthesis. Animal cells do not produce food, jowvta 1951 AM‘Amoeba sp. undergoes binary fission. When Ammosba sp. has expanded to a certain size, the rhucteus will divide mitotically. Then, cytokinesis takes place. Two Amoeba sp. that possesses the: ‘same genetic composition are formed Phloem sap. Photosynthesis takes place during the day Therefore more sugar is produced and is absorbed by the aphid P is cell wall P is bul from cellulose which is strong and fibrous as well as fully permeable. The function of cell walls to maintain plant cell shape. Xis stomach, The rough endoplasmic reticulum cartes proteins produced by ribosomes. Stomach, is an organ that synthesises enzymes in large ‘amounts for protein breakdown. Process X is differentiation, Xylem forms hollow connected tubes. This ensures the continuous transport of water and mineral salts, Herbicides contains respiratory poisons. Herbicides wil destroy respiratory enzymes that wil slop caluar respiration, No ATP are produced, which then hinders the active transportation of ions into plant cls Through osmoregulation. Osmoregulation in ‘Amoeba sp. involves contractile vacuoles. Water will be absorbed into Amoeba sp. via osmosis, Water collects in the contractile vacuoles until they reach the maximum size. Then, the contractile vacuoles will contract fo expel water from Amoeba 9. As such, Amoeba sp. does not overexpand and burst (@) () K— Golgi apparatus (il) K- The centre for processing, packaging and transportation of carbohydrate protein and glycoprotein N—Contans chlorophyll to trap sunlit for Photosynthesis (0) + Lis vacuole. Cell sap inside the vacuole contains water, dissolved substances and mineral salts OLP_Bicogy Answers. Chap 2 2PPindd 2 10 (9) (b) © 11 (@) Oo © @ + When water enters the vacuole, the vacuole expends + The vacuole and cytoplasm will push towards the plasma membrane and cel wall This wl produce turgor pressure within the call and maintain cell turgiity + The meristematic issue is a tissue that has smal cells, compact cytoplasm and many ruck. This tissue carries out coll division, + The epidermal issue has cells with large ‘vacuoles and a thin layer of eytoplasm. This tissue covers the surface of plants to protect itfrom injury and loss of water Calls the basic unit of al if. Tissue is group of cells that have a certain structure and carry out a certain function The epithelial issue is made up of one or more layers of cals that cover the surlace or body caulty and protects it rom injury and drying up The muscle tissue is made up of muscle cells ‘and muscle fbres that can contract and relax to produce movement P. Mesophyil cell R: Epidermal cell P contains a large numberof chloroplasts for maximum absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis. R protects plant tissues from mechanical inury. When ight intensity and carbon dioxide concentration are high, guard cells (Q cel) curve outwards. This causes the stomata to ‘open and allow more carbon dioxide fo enter the leaves (i) Xylem and phioem (i) * Xylem s made up of vessel elements ‘and tracheids that are connected from tone end to the other. + Vessel elements do not contain any cytoplasm. + The cell walls are impregnated with lignin Biology Form 4 (hey KPM ‘pause 15100]*+ These characteristics allow xylem to transport water and mineral sails throughout the entire plant + Phloem consists of sieve tubes that are arranged from one end to the other end, Sieve tubes contain sieve plates that allow the continuous transportation of ‘orgaric compounds Essay Questions 12. Example of unicellular organism is Amoeba sp Five ite processes of unicellular organisms are a8 follows: + Movement ‘Amoeba sp. extends its pseudopodium through the flow of cytoplasm to move * Nuttion Ingests through phagocytosis by extending its pseudopodum to engulf fod particles. Food is kept inside food vacuoles and hydrolysed by ‘enzymes before being absorbed + Respiration Gaseous exchange of oxygen and carbon Ethanol + carbon dioxide energy (i) Yeast Essay Questions 7 (@) + To maintain body temperature atthe optimum temperature of 37°C. + For division as well as grow and development of cells (b).Similantes: * Both are cellar respiration + Both take place in animal and plat cel + Both produce energy inthe form of ATPs + Both use glucose asthe main substrate OLP_Bicogy Answers Chap 7_2PPindd 2 Differences Aerobii Reapiation Fermentation Uses oxygen Does not use oxygen or uses limited oxygen Complete glucose | Incomplete glucose oxidation oxidation Respiration Respiralion in yeast. produces water, | ethanol, carbon dioxide carbon dioxide and | and eneray energy Respiration in muscle cell lactic acid and energy Quantity of energy | Quantity of eneray produced is big produced is smal which is 288k | Yeast: 210 kd Muscle cell 150 ki Process takes place | Process takes place in in the cytoplasm and | cytoplasm mitochondrion (6) The sugarin milk is oxidised by bacteria such as Lactobacillus and Streptococcus into lactc acid that solidifies the mik and produces « sour taste unl curds formed. When kept in the tdge, the low temperature controls bacterial actwty from reproducing and spoiing the product. kept at room temperature, the curd wil spoil as bacteria will continue to grow and oxidise the milk suger. Enrichment 8 Someone who rarely exercises will experience muscle cramps when they do heavy exercises because the numberof michonda in ther cells ate very few. Theretore, during vigorous exerase, complete celular respration does not ake place and a lo of lactic acid ‘willbe formed. To overcome this problem, an athlete needs to undergo consistent raining to produce more mtochonchia in their els, The high number of mitochondria can Biology Form 4 (hey KPM ‘aus 1740]help an athlete's cellular respiration. Faster uptake of oxygen and oxidation of lactic acid can reduce muscle fatigue during vigorous activities 9 Ths is because baking powder has a high pH that is able to neutralise the lactic acid produced by muscles during exercise. This increases muscle efficieney because lactic acid causes muscle fatigue 10 Ifthe container sill contains oxygen, the yeast wil Undergo aerobic respiration to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy. The rate of glucose breakdown is slow because the production of energy is high in oxygenated condiions. However, when the container no longer contains oxygen, the yeast will respire anaerobically to produce ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy. The energy produced OLP_Bicogy Answers Chap 7_2PPindd & " willbe litle, thus the yeast has to break down glucose faster to provide sufficient energy The fast rate of glucose breakdown causes an increase in the rate of alcohol production. Subsequently, the rate of breakdown decreases as the high level of alcohol accumulation is toxic and can inhibit yeast row. Ifthe aleohol content reaches 14%, the yeast will die ‘Susan should add a litle lukewarm water into the dy yeast before mixing it into the flour. This step iso activa the dy yeast which sin a dormant ‘state when its environment is dry. The activated yeast wil undergo respiration by breaking down the carbohydrates i the four and releasing carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide causes the bread to expand and rise Biology Form 4 i KPM ‘aus 1740]Model Answers CHAPTER 8 RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS IN HUMANS AND ANIMALS Formative Practice 8.1 1+ The large numberof alveok provides a large surface area for gaseous diffusion + The inner ining of alveoli is always moist and ‘enables respiratory gases dissolve init + The alveoli are covered with a dense network ‘of blood capilay that speeds up the diffusion of respiratory gases + The alveolus walls only one-cell thick, which 22828 gas dfusion 2 Atog's skin is very thin, constantly moist and ‘densely supplied wih a network of blood capillaries The large number of tracheoles provides a large surface area for gaseous exchange. + Each body celin an insect is suppliad with tracheole * The walls of racheoles are thin and constantly moist * The ends of tracheoles have permeable walls and contain fds that enable respiratory gases to dissolve and difuse in and out ofthe respratory surtaces. 4 Damaged gils reduce the ftal surface area avalable for an efcient gaseous exchange. Thus the fish may die due toa ack of oxygen Formative Practice 8.2 1 Spiracles are air pores that connec the respiratory structure of insects with the external environment, 2 During inhalation, the abdominal muscles retax and the spiracte valves open. This reduces the intemal pressure ofthe trachea causing air to be ‘draw into the trachea through the spract. * During exhalation, the abdominal muscles contract. This increases the intemal pressure of the trachea forcing air out through the spirace, 3 + Fishes have flaments and gis a their respiratory structures whie humans have aveot + The respiratory tract/opening offs i the mouth ‘and operculum while in humans, itis the nose 4.» The extemal intercostal muscles contact, the internal intercostal muscles relax + The action causes the nib cage to move upwards and outwards + atthe same time, the diaphragm muscles contract and the diaphragm is lowered and fattened + Both movements cause the volume ofthe thoracic cavity to increase and its pressure to decrease + The higher atmospheric pressure outside forces air into the lungs Formative Practice 8.3 1 The partial pressure of oxygen is 160 mm Hig, 2. Carbon dioxide is transported in the form of bicarbonate fon, carbonic acid and carbaminchaemoglabin 3+ When bicarbonate ions (HCO, in the blood plasma reach the lung capillaries, they dfuse again into the erythrocytes, + The bicarbonate tons combine wth hydrogen ions (H") to form carbonic acd (HCO) * Carbonic acid (H,C0,) then dissociates into carbon dioxide and water * Carbon dioxide diffuses out from the lung capillaries into the alveoli, and is expelled during exhalation. 4. Oxygen is transported in the form of oxyhaemaglobin (EY ptoogy Forms KPM | ov ecogy FA Anca Crap 8-2 id 4 ‘oes 11804Formative Practice 8.4 41 Bronchioles become inflamed, swollen and clogged, 2. The bronchiole walls swell and thicken. The ‘opening of bronchiole tube becomes smaller and the airway becomes narrower 3 Inhaler reduces infammation and opens up the bronchiole tubes so tha air can flow easly 4. The alveol walls become damaged. The surface area of he alveols reduced and gaseous exchange becomes less efficent ‘Summative Practice 8 41 Each cell in an insect's body is supplied wih a tracheole that directly enters the cel to enable (gaseous exchange 2. Amphibians do not have rib cage and diaphragm to help in the expansion and compression of the lungs. 3 Breathing becomes dificull because the volume. and air pressure of the thoracic cauily cannot be increased nor decreased 4 The increase inthe rae of heartbeat causes oxygenated blood to flow to cell a a faster rate. This enables cellular respiration to occur at a faster rate to supply extra energy required during the state of panic. tthe same time, carbon dioxide can be expelled a a faster rate 5 (a) + The heal generated from cigaeties dies up the tracheal wall and damages cia. The cia produce more mucus + Coughing is reflex action o expel mucus Cigatete smoke damages the aveo, reducing he total surface area for gaseous exchange. This causes emphysema (b) Lung cancer is caused by carcinogens that induce the growth of cancer cals. (6) Tarthat is deposited on the surface of alveoli, blackens them, reduces the efficiency of (gaseous exchange and may cause cancer OLP_Bicogy Answers Chap 82PPindd 2 6 Less iris inhaled and exhaled, making breathing dificult. Air rapped in the alveoli may cause the alveol to burst, producing a large air space in the aiveol. This means less total surface area for gaseous exchange. 7 (@) P:alveolitung, O: gis (0) + When the mouth opens, the floor ofthe mouth cant is lowered. At the same time, the operculum cawty enlarges ‘and the operculum closes, This reduces the pressure in the mouth cavily. Water ‘containing dissolved oxygen from outside enters the mouth + When the mouth coses, the floor of the mouth cavity is raised up. Water flows through the gis lemellae and gaseous ‘exchange occurs between the blood and water by difusion. At the same fe, the ‘operculum muscles relax and the opercallum caxity becomes smaller. The volume ofthe mouth cauity is reduoed resulting in a higher pressure inthe mouth cauily compared to the pressure outside, The high pressure forces water to flow out through the opening ofthe operculum +The surface of P and Q is aways moist because they are covered in a fm of uid that helps respiratory gases to dissolve The large number of respiratory structures provides a large tolal surface area fo volume rato for respiratory gaseous exchange +The rate of oxygen supply to all els in the human body is high because humans have diaphragm and intercostal muscles to aid inthe breathing mechanism, These ‘are not found in fish. Besides, humans have a muscular heart that is able fo pump ‘oxygenated blood tothe whole body faster. Essay Questions 8 Simiantes: + The respiratory surface is moist to dissolve ‘oxygen for diffusion Biology Form 4 (hey KPM ‘aus 18040]+ The respiratory surace is thin fr fast gas diffusion * The respiratory surface has a large ratio of total surface area to volume that allows more gases fo diffuse through it. Differences: Humans. Insects ‘system/organ: lungs ‘Systemiorgan: tracheal system not have any valves ‘Airenters the trachea | Air enters the trachea through the nosirs | through the spiracles The nasal cavity does | Spiracles have valves The trachea branches into bronchus/bronchi The trachea branches into tracheoles Bronchusibronchi end Tracheoles have dead- ‘supported by cartilage rings to prevent collapse in alveol ends Gaseous exchange | Gaseous exchange ‘occurs inthe alveot | occurs in the tracheoles The trachea is The trachea is supported by chitin rings Avveal is covered in network of blood capillaries The tracheoles are not covered with blood capillaries but come into direct contact with body cells Oxygen is transported to boy calls through blood Oxygen difuses directly from the trachedle to body cells Gaseous exchange is facilitated by intercostal muscles, and diaphragm ‘Gaseous exchange 1s facilitated by abdominal muscles (E32 oogy Forms KPM | ove ecogyF4Anenes_Crap 82°F dd 8 9 (a) 0) Aris inhaled when the external intercostal ‘muscles contract and the internal intercostal ‘muscles relax. This action causes the nib cage to rise upwards end outwards At the same time, the diaphragm muscles contrac, lowering and fattening the: diaphragm, ‘The volume ofthe thoracic cavity increases while the pressure decreases, and airis drawn nto the lungs due tothe higher atmospheric pressure on the outside. ‘The higher CO, partial pressure in body calls compared to that ofthe tissue capilaries causes COs to difuse from body calls into blood plasma small portion of carbon dioxide blood plasma is dissolved and another portion is transported by the haemoglobin. ‘Most ofthe carbon dixie difuses into the red blood cells (erythrocytes) In the erythrocytes, carbon dioxide ‘combines with water to form carbonic acid (HLO;) Carbonic acid dissociates to bicarbonate ions (HCO; and hydrogen ions. HCO; difuses into the blood plasma and is carried tothe lungs. HCO, ions then combine with Ht form carbonic acid (H-CO,), Carbonic acid then dissociates fo produce catbon dioxide and waler ‘The high inthe lung capilanes as opposed to the low CO> partial pressure inthe alveoli causes CO, to difuse from the lung capitanes into the alveoli and subsequently, expelled through exhalation.Enrichment 410 Frogis the most suitable animal as an indicator of er pollution level. Although the frog possesses ‘pair of lungs, the main respiratory organ is the skin, Unlike the heart, the air that difuses through the skin isnot fitered. Therefore, air pollution may cause the skin fo be clogged by tiny particles. Clogged skin reduces the efficiency of gaseous exchange and cause death tothe frog. Thus, frogs are more sensitive to air pollution compared to other vertebrates 11 Whales are able to store a very high concentration of oxygen in ther blood and muscles. They OLP_Bicogy Answers Chap 8 2PPindd 4 inhale al the sea surface and hold their breath when submerging. Apart from keeping a high concentration of oxygen in ther blood and muscles, body metabolism and heartbeat is reduced when whales dive. The artes in some parts ‘also constrict to reduce blood circulation to that particular part to save oxygen consumption. The saved oxygen is channelled to other important body parts such as the heart, sensory organs and brain In this way, a whale is able fo hold its breath for ‘approximately 60 minutes before rising tothe sea surface to breathe. Biology Form 4 (hay KPM ‘aus 18040]Model Answers CHAPTER 9 NUTRITION AND THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE ‘SYSTEM Formative Practice 9.1 4 The food consumed by humans isin the form of large and complex molecules. The food needs to be broken down to a smaller and simpler form that can Glycerol «fatty acids + Absorption of faty acids and glycerol occurs in the small intestine, + Inthe epithetal cells of vil, the condensation of fally acid and glycerol forms lipid * Lipid droplets are absorbed into the lacteals of vil Biology Form 4 (hoy KPM ‘oause s200eu|* Lipid is transported from the lacteal by the lymphatic system int the thoracic duct and ‘nally enters the blood flow through the left subclavian vein + Assimilation occurs in the cells. * Cell use lipids to form the complex compounds ofthe plasma membrane. 6 + Bread contains carbohydrate. The digestion of carbohydrate produces glucose. * Glucose is transported to body cells and the iver to be oxidised dunng cellular respiration to vield energy. + Excess glucose is converted into glycogen for storage + The final product of butter is fatty acids and alyoerol * Lipid is oxidised fo produce eneray + Some of the lipids are stored in adipose tissues + The final product of proteins (egg and milk) is amino acids. * Amino acids are carried to body cells for enzyme synthesis and repair of damaged tissues. + Apple and mik provide vtamin end mineral salts * Vitamins such as vitamin B are used as cofactors. General, vitamins and mineral salts maintain optimum health * Apple also provides undigested fibre that facilitates defaecation (a). Adietrich in fatis not good for heatth forthe following reasons + Adietwith a high content of fat and oly foods may cause high blood pressure and lead to cardiovascular diseases + Excess fa wll be deposited inthe eter walls (atherosclerosis) causing blocked arteries, + The lumen ofthe artery becomes nartow. This will make it dificult fr blood to flow. The condition wil increase blood pressure (hypertension) (E32 oogy Forms KPM |. oveecogyF4Anenes_Crap8-2°P id 8 (b) I the arterial lumen that becomes nartowis the coronary artery (artery in the hea), this may cause a hear attack due tothe lack of ‘oxygen supply tothe cardiac muscles. I the cholesterol hardens and clogs the coronary artery, heat attack or coronary thrombosis (ack of oxygen suppy tothe hear!) may occur, resuling in damage to pars ofthe heart. This can tum fatal Pumping ofthe heart stops Excess cholesterol may also lead to galstone formation Foods wit less carbohydrates and fats Less carbohydrate willbe converted to fats Foods with less fats and cholesterol. Less cholesterol wil be deposited on the artenal wals blocking the artenes. Blood fow in the heart will also not be blocked ‘The hydrolysis of starch by salivary amylase produces maltose. Next, the hydrolysis of rmatiose by maltase produces glucose. The final product of starch is glusose, Glucose is absorbed through the ileum epithelial cells and then absorbed ino the blood circulatory system through biood capillaries Glucose is then transported by the hepatic portal vein to the iver Assimilation cocur in the ine. Depending con the bodys needs, glucose inthe livers oxidised, excess glucose is converted into calycogen tobe stored in the liver or changed to fats to be transported to othr body parts for storage From the liver, some of the glucose is cated in the blood circulatory system tothe heart and then pumped to the whole body. In body cells, olucose is oxidised to yield energy, water and carbon dioxide Energy is used for chemical processes in the cell, for example, muscle contraction and protein synthesis. Excess glucose is stored in te muscles, toev19 120MEnrichment 8 The drugimedicine may have been modified by the liver. The medicine that is absorbed through the small intestine i transported by blood to the liver Inthe Iver, any foxc components in the medicine is metabolised and converted into a less toxic form hich is easily excreted through the kidney. Thus, the orginal molecular structure of the medicine swallowed is differen from the one found in the blood 9. Atifcial sweeteners such as saccharine, aspartame and sucralose provide a sweet taste tothe drinks, but contribute oly a small caloric value. Sucralose is made from modified sucrose whereby three hydroxy groups of the sucrose molecule are subsifuied by chlorine atoms. Sucralose simulates taste buds (sweet) such as sucrose butts not digested by enzymes. Therefore, sucralose does not give any calonis value to food. Sucalose is more stable compared io other arial sweeteners 10. The ingredients in ast or frozen foods usually contain a lt of fats, salt, sugar and processed chemicals + Most of the fats found in fast or frozen foods are trans fats. Trans fats ae fats that naturaly exist in liquid form but have been modified to become solids. Trans fats make fastfood last longer. However, trans fats can also increase the bad cholesterol (LDL) level and decrease the good cholesterol (HDL) level Ths increases the risks of heart diseases and causes clogged artes Some fast foods contain red meat and cheese OLP_Bicogy Answers Chap 2PPindd 4 which naturally consists of saturated fats but can increase bad cholesterol Salts usually used as favour enhancer and as a preservative. A serving of fastfood contains more sall than what our body needs on a daily basis, This may increase cholestrol level, and blood pressure. The high salt content inthe food is also associated wih kidney diseases Starch or complex sugar is used in fastfood toenhance flavour and texture. The body wil break down starch into sugars inthe form of lucose during digestion. The excessive intake of sugar may cause serious health issues and is associated with increased risk of geting diabetes, heart diseases and obesty, Excessive sugar is also associated with depression. Chemicals are added to fast and frozen foods to make it ast longer and tater. On the other hand, the high chemical content can be toxic to the body. For example, monosodium glutamate (MSG) is associated wth headaches, nausea, chest pain, lethargy and breathing diffcuties. Sodium nitrates and artical colouring that make fas foods appear fresh and attractive have been associated with various cancers. Some ofthe preservatives are actually carcinogenic, (cause of cancer). Besides, substances that are used as volume enhancers such as cellulose and potassium bromate may disturb the nutrient-absorbing system inthe body This contributes to various problems of the digestive system. Biology Form 4 (hay KPM ‘oause s200eu|Model Answers CHAPTER 10 TRANSPORT IN HUMANS. AND ANIMALS: Formative Practice 10.1 4 Fishes have a single circulatory system whereas humans have a double circulatory system. Fishes have an au and a ventricle while humans have ‘wo aria and two ventricles 2 Oxygenated blood mixes with deoxygenated blood because amphibians possess a single undivided vente 3. The flat body of flatworms provide a large total surface area to volume ratio forthe efficent Sensory neurone — Relay neurone in the spinal cord Effector €— Motor neurone 2 Reflex action is defined as a quick and automatic response that does nol involve thinking. Reflex action is important to protect ourselves trom threatening situations and guarantees survival in the ever-changing environment 3 Voluntary action isan action under conscious conirol while involuntary action isan action we have no control over. 4 The condition may be due to the presence of sensory neurones atthe amputated part Therefore, the neurotransmitters secreted by the sensory neurones at the amputated part tnager nerve impulses and are interpreted by the brain as pain Formative Practice 12.5 1 The patient forgets easily and loses hisiher sense of directo even in familiar places. Ifthe brain degeneration continues, he/she wil lose the ably toread, wile, eat, walk and speak 2. Drugs speed up or slow down impulse transmission at the synapse by cbstucing the ation of substances that transmit synapse Biology Form 4 (hry KPM LP_Bicogy 4 Answers. Chap 12,2°P indd 4 oa s46°H|3 To reduce nausea and pain ofthe patient 4. Alcohol impairs the brain’ ably to estimate distance while diving, and to coordinate Formative Practice 12.6 1 Hormone Function Oxytoxin Stimulates contraction of the uterus’ smooth muscles during chibi ‘ADH ‘Slimulates water absorption by the kidney Thyroxine | Increases the metabolism rate of ‘most body cals 2. + Secreted by a specialised gland known as the ‘endocrine gland + Required ina small quantity only + Effecinfuence period is long 3+ The nervous system transmits information rapidly through nerve impulses; he endocrine system transmits information ata slower pane through hormones. ‘An impulse induces response from one organ ‘only but a hormone induces response from several organs. + The effect of a hormone is usually long-term and permanent untl its removed from the blood. * Anerve impulse produces a quick and short response, 4 In athroatening or ‘ight or fight situation, the hypothalamus transmits nerve impulses directly to the adrenal medulla to secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline. Both hormones quickly act by producing the required response in a ight or {ight situation, These include increased heartbeat rate, respratory rate, blood pressure, blood glucose level, and metabolic activities. In aight CF fight’ situation, the heart needs fo pump more (L2H toogy Forms KPM |. c1P beg Fé Anos Cap 2 200i 2 oxygen and glucose fo the brain and skeletal ‘muscles. This is because the brain must be very alert and prepared to move the body, and the skeletal muscles need energy to fight or to run ‘away quickly. This means that ina threatening situation, both the endocrine and nervous systems Cooperate to produce an immediate response to face the threatening situation After the mechanism succeeds in controlling the threatening or ‘fight or fight situation, the body condition retums to normal Formative Practice 12.7 4 The posterior labe ofthe individva's pituitary gland failed to secrete antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 2. Blurred vision and wounds take longer time to heal 3. Goie happens due to the faiure of hyrod gland to produce sufcienthyroxne. This may rsut from a lack ofioine since thyroxine contains fine Seafood contains high iodine content. Therefore eating alt of seafood may be able to increase the bodk’s iodine content 4 The gene for human growth hormone was successfully inserted into Escherichia col, This enables the mass production, isolation and punticaton of the homone for commercial use Stunted children can be injected with this growth hormone Summative Practice 12 41 The cerebellum controls and coordinates body movernent as well maintains body balance The medulla oblongata controls involuntary responses such as peristalsis 2 Reflex action is defined as a rapid and automatic. response without thinking. The ability to carry out reflex action is important because i protects us from harmful situations and guarantees our survival in the ever-changing environment 3 The main endocrine gland is the pituitary gland because it secretes a numberof hormones owite 646°thatinduce other endocrine glands to secrete © hormones Effect of deficiency — dwarfism Erect of excess — gigantsm (2) (9) Spinal cord (il) X contains neurones to transmit impulses: to and from the bain (b) The cell bodies of sensory neurones are clustered in ¥ (dorsal root gangion) 0 ( a Essay eS 7. (4) the spinal nerve in is cut, the motor neurone will not be able to convey information to the effector (such as muscles and glands), and the effector will not be able to respond to the commands ofthe spinal cord @ o) ) \V— mitochondrion U — vesicle T - synapse Neurotransmitter Generate energy for electrical impulse transmission @ Direction of impulses from nearby neurones LP Biclogy 4 Anomets.Chap 12 2° indd 8 (i To continue the transmission ofthe electrical impulse tothe next neurone upon reaching the synaptic knob (i) Synaptic vesicles secrete neurotransmitters that difuse across the synapse and attach to the receptor proteins on the receiving neurone dendite, The dendhiteis then simulated to trigger a nerve impulse that is carted by the receiving neurone tothe effector Impulse transmission occurs in one direction only because after being secreted from the synaptic vesicles, neurotransmitter will mave ‘across the synapse, and fuse withthe receptor ofthe next neurone. Therefore, impulse transmission takes place in ane direction only. Questions: Stimulants such as cocaine prevent the removal ofthe neurotransmites that stimulate excitement. This will produce an intense euphoric feeling followed by depression Stimulants also increase impulse transmissions that cause increases in the heartbeat and respiration rates, Depressants such as heroine wl retard and slow down the activites ofthe nervous system This slows down the production of reurotransmitters which wil then reduce the rate of heertbeat and respiration The individual will experience temporary excitement and satisfaction 8 (2) (i) The nervous system and endocrine system have a number of simitariies: + Both have specitic target organs. * Both respond to certain stmul * Both function to coordinate all body activites. Biology Form 4 i KPM roause sce]The nervous system and endocrine system also have some differences: Nervous system | Endocrine system Consists of a Consists of endocrine network of milions of | glands without ducts neurone cells Messages are Messages are conveyed ‘conveyed in the form | by organic chemical ‘of electrical impulses | subslances known as through neurones | hormones through the bloodstream Effectis rapid and | Effectis stow immediate Effect involves Effect involves response of one _| responses ofa few organ organs Shortie effect. | Long-term effec. The effect ceases as the impulse comes ta an end (i) + Asharp nai that pieroes through the skin causes the sensory receptor inthe skin to generate nerve impulses + The nerve impulses are transmitted along the sensory neurone tothe spinal cord + In the spinal cord, the nerve impulses are conveyed from the sensory neurone to the relay neurone + From the relay neurone, the nerve impulses are transmitted tothe motor neurone + The motor neurone carne the nerve impuise from the spinal cord tothe effector (muscle issues) so the foot can be moved immediately (L4H oogy Forms KPM | ve ecogy FA Amen Crap 12.20 nt 4 0) ‘Azman is aware of his action when riding a ticycle because his action involves a voluntary response under his conscious contro He's not aware ofthe food digestion in the digestive tract because digestion is an involuntary response which is beyond his conscious conto ‘The control centre involved in riding the bioyce isthe central nervous system and involves the musculoskeletal system ‘Azman has past experiences on how fo ride aticycle This information i triggered in the ‘motor area ofthe cerebral cortex. Since the information is thggered in the cerebral carter, itis a conscious response ‘The information is then transmitted tothe efleciors, hats, the skeletal muscles on the foot and arm through the mator neurone, The contraction of the skeletal muscles enables Azman to ride the bicycle at his own will Besides cerebral corte, information con the body balance is also sent from the balance receptor in the ears to the control centre ‘The contol centre involved in food digestion is the medull oblongata and the muscles involved are the smooth muscles. ‘The presence of food inthe digestive tract triggers impulses on the receptor and information i sent to the medulla oblongata, This information is conveyed tothe smooth muscles through the motor neurone. The smooth muscles contract and relax in thythm fo produce a wave of peristalsis that will move the food along the digestive tract Since the information does not reach the cetebral cortex which is responsible for voluntary responses, the perception of food peristalsis does not arise owite 646°Enrichment 9 The brain makes decisions based on past experiences. Itknows that a book is heavier than a piece of paper Therefore, the brain stimulates a number of muscle fibres depending on the energy required. Some motor neurones are able to stimulate many muscle fibres whereas some can only stimulate a few muscle fibres, The motor neurones that are able fo stimulate a large number of muscle fares will produce mor liting force compared to the ones that stimulate a few muscle fibres. Therefore, in order to itt a book, the brain LP Biclogy Fé AnonersChap 12 2° indd 5 10 will stimulate the motor neurones that stimulate ‘many muscle fibres patient with Alzheimer's or Parkinson's suffers from brain neurone degeneration that afecls, ‘mental functions. Due to the loss of various mental functions that include memory, movement and ‘emotional changes, the patient often requires full-time intensive care Therefore, the caregiver should have a good understanding ofthe medical condition and display perseverance in taking care ofthese patents Biology Form 4 (esq KPM oie sasen|Model Answers CHAPTER 13 HOMEOSTASIS AND THE HUMAN URINARY SYSTEM Formative Practice 13.1 1 Homeostasis i the regulation ofthe physical and chemical factors of the internal envionment within ‘normal range so that cells can function optimally. The mechanism of homeostasis occurs by negative feedback + values that exceeds the normal range is reduoed back to normal + Avalue that drops below the normal range is raised back to normal 2. Mechanism of homeostasis: * Vasodilation occurs + Sweat glands secrete sweat + Erector muscles relax — body hairs are lowered *+ Skeletal muscles contract and relax lesser. Body does not shiver + The adrenal and thyroid glands are less stimulated — metabolism rate is lowered 3 Excess glucose isnot converted into glycogen. The glucose level in the blood rises (hyperglycaemia) and glucose is excreted through the urine (glycosuria) In this condition, the individuals considered as having diabetes melitus.A diabetic Patient is constantly feeing thirsty, exhausted and lethargic and experiences weight loss If left Untreated, it may lead to death 4. + Blood pressure rises. The baroreceptor on the aortic arch and arterial carotid are stimulated + The cardiovascular control centre in the medulla oblongata is stimulated. + The smooth muscles ofthe artery wal relax (vasodiation), hence reducing resistance to blood flow in the blood vessels + The cardiac muscles contract weakty. + Blood pressure returns fo normal Formative Practice 13.2 1 The proximal convoluted tubules and distal ‘convoluted tubules are found inthe cortex, whereas the loop of Henle is found in the medulla, 2 Eating salty foods and drinking less water 3 Water is reabsorbed through osmosis. The reabsorption of sodium ions and glucose occurs through active transport 4. The individual does not need undergo haemodialysis. The individual oly needs to reduce food rch in protein and salt as well drink enough water. Formative Practice 13.3 1 Kidney stones may block the ureter and reduce the Production of rine 2. Not drinking enough water and excessive intake of mineral salts such as calcium Summative Practice 13 41 The loop of Henle can be found inthe kidney medulla 2 (@) Diluted urine in large amounts (b) Concentrated urine in smal amounts 3 Benedict's tests 4 The liver slows down cellar respiration, converts alycogen to glucose and prevents the conversion of (glucose to glycagen 5 (e)_ The amino acid concentration in blood plasma is higher than that found in the urine Reabsorption acours. 100% of the amino acids are reabsorbed into the blood capillaries through active transport at the proximal convoluted tubule, (b) The kidney filed to function as cosmoregulatory organ. The water content in the body cannot be regulated. Biology Form 4 (hry KPM oie s46°n|6 (a) * Absence of lipase. This means less fat digestion + Absence of typsin. This means less protein digestion + When insulin and glucagon are nat produced, the regulation of blood sugar level is affected (0) * Reduce the intake of carbohydrates + Get an insulin injection if the blood glucose level rises above normal 7@ (0). Blood cals and plasma protein Utrafitration (6) The diameter of he afferent arteriole that carries blood info the glomerulus is larger than the diameter ofthe elferent arteriole that caries blood out oft. This creates a high hydrostafic pressure in the glomerulus, and pushes molecules of spectio sizes such as ‘lucose and amino acid out across a two-cel thick wall between the capillary wall and the inner wall ofthe Bowman capsule. (@)_ Glucose was reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule through active transport (@) Animals that live in a dry environment have longer loop of Henle compared to animals living in a moist environment. This enables ‘more water to be absorbed through the loop of Henle. The result is concentrated urine. Essay Questions 8 + The body temperature ofthe worker drops after siting in a cold room for 6 hours + The thermoreceptors on the skin receive stimul and transmit nerve impulses to the temperature control centre in the hypothalamus through afferent nerves. + Anegative feedback mechanism occurs = Vasoconstriction takes place. This reduces the flow of blood to the skin surface and hence less heal flows fo the surrounding 10 n ~ Sweat glands are not stimulated. Therefore, no seating occurs. ~ Erector muscles contrac, causing body hairs {orise.Athick layer of aris trapped on the skin surface and acts as a heat insulator that prevents the loss of heat through the skin, ~ Body shivers. The skeletal muscles contract ‘and relax, generating heat and increasing body temperature. ~ The thyroid gland is stimulated to secrete thyroxine and the adrenal gland is stimulated to secrete adrenaline. Thyroxine increases call metabolism rate and adrenaline increases ‘alycogen conversion into glucose, Glucose is ‘oxidised to yield heat energy + There is less oxygen in the atmosphere + The oxygen partal pressure is low + There is less oxygen inthe blood This is detected by the peripheral chemoreceptors. Nerve impulses are generated and sent to the respiratory and cardiovascular control centres, and then to the intercostal musdles, diaphragm and cardiac muscles, The rate of contraction and relaxation of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm increases, hence increasing the breathing (nhlelexhale) ‘ale: Heartbeat aso increases, + More oxygen is brought tothe cells and more carbon dioxide is transported to the lungs + The erector muscles relax, causing the body hairs to lean towards the skin surface. * Body hairs trap a thin layer of ar allowing more heal to be released to the surrounding + ‘Sweat glands secrete sweat, When the sweat evaporates, heat is lst to the surrounding (2) (i) The optimum temperature for all enzyme-calalysed chemical reactions 137°C ITthe body temperature rises, enzyme-controled metabolic reactions will be affected because the enzymes will become denatured oie $46 PM(i) + The erector muscles of the skin + As a consequence, blood osmotic pressure contract, raising body hairs. Alayer drops and retums tothe normal range of air trapped on the skin surface, + Low osmotic pressure creates a negative functions as an insulator. feedback mechanism that reduces the + When stimulated, skeletal muscles actives of the osmoreceptor cals inthe contract and relax more, The body hypothalamus. shivers and heat is generated. *+ This will then cause the pituitary gland to (b) + Proteinis digested into amino acids. ‘ease secreting more ADH + Exoess amino acids are toxic and cannot be Sed Enrichment + Through deamination, the nitrogenous part «12. Seawater fishes do not experience dehydration of amino acids is converted to urea while although sea water is hypertonic to the body fluids the non-nitrogenous (carbon chain) pats due to homeostasis. Through homeostasis, most converted to glycogen or fat fr storage. waters reabsorbed into the blood. Only a small ‘amount of concentrated urine is excreted. Fishes also drink a lot of sea water to replace water loss Excess salt is expelled through specialised cells * Since the urea concentration is high ina found on the gills, that is, chloride cells. All of these Person who ate too much protein-ch foods, maintain the osmotic biood pressure of the fish 80 urea needs a lot of waler to be excreted that dehydration does not ooour + Therefore, he/she will pass urine frequently, * Urea isa nitrogenous waste product that needs to be excreted through the urine 13. Drugs in the bloodstream are secreted into the (€) © When a person drinks to litle water, the renal tubule and excreted through urine. By tesing blood osmotic pressure will increase above the presence of drugs in urine, we can determine normal levels whether a person is taking drugs or nat + The osmoreceptorin the hypothalamusis 44. In applying the silcone nanolechnology to produce stimulated. Nerve impulses ae transmited a semipermeable membrane filter that lasts long, tothe pituitary gland to secrete more the following shoul be taken into account antidiuretic hormone (ADH) into the blood. + The apparatus does not require instalation of a + Abigh concentration of ADH increases the tube. permeability of the distal convoluted tubule + The apparatus must be small and can be inserted ‘and collecting duct walls. into the body without triggering any rejection from + More water is reabsorbed from the frat the immune system into the blood. + Able to cary out ulrafitation process, remove * Urine becomes mare concentrated and only allfoxins and reabsorb all substances needed by a small amount is excreted the body. Biology Form 4 i KPM oie s46°n|Model Answers CHAPTER 14 SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN HUMANS AND ANIMALS Formative Practice 14.1 41 Body shape is important for movement and suppor, {and enables organs inthe body to function properly 2 + Toprotect the internal organs in vertebrates (or ‘example, the skull protects the human brain) + To produce red blood cll (in the bone marrow) 3 Animals with legs below the body (for example, mice) it their body mass above the ground to reduce fricton while moving Formative Practice 14.2 4 The skull, vrtebral column, rib cage and sternum, 2 The cartlage acts as cushion to joints, absorbs shock and reduces fiction between the ends of bones. Synovial uid acts as a lubricant that reduces friction between the ends of bones. 3+ Tendon snot elestis bul igament is + Tendon connects muscle to bone, Ligament connects bone to bone 4. Ball and.socke! joints allow rotational movement in all directions whereas hing joints only allow the ‘movement of bones in one plane. Formative Practice 14.3 4 Hollow bones are igh! which facitates fying 2. When biceps contracts, the tendon transmits a puling force produced bythe contracting muscles to the am. A the same time, rceps relaxes. As a resull, the elbow bends and the arm maves up 3 The verlebral column of fis i flexible and moves from side to side through the contraction and relaxation of myotome, W-shaped muscle segments. When the right myotome contracts, the left relaxes and the tall is whipped tothe right. On LP Bilogy Fé Anoneis.Chap 148° indd 4 the other hand, when the left myotome contracts, the right relaxes and the tal is whipped to the eft Waves of alterate contractions and relaxations along the myotome causes the body parts fo move from side to side, pushing water backwards and sideways, thus moving the body forward, 4. Grasshoppers have long hind legs that can be folded into @ Z-shape, and inthis positon, it functions as a jumping spring. When the hind legs are in the Z-position, the extensor and flexor muscles are undergoing contraction. When the ‘extensor muscles ofthe hind legs contract and straighten rapidly backwards and downwards to the (ground, it provides the grasshopper a lifing foros that pushes it up and forward into the ai Formative Practice 14.4 1 Practice a balanced diet intake and corect body posture 2. + Inthe case ofa minor scoliosis, doctor wil carry cut routine observation until the maturity level of the bone is almost completed + Special equipment fo support the backbone (bracing) * Sugary 2. Osteoporosis is a disease whereby the bones become thin, porous and break easily. Osteoporosis ccan be prevented by taking caleium, phosphorus ‘and vitamin D. 4 To maintain a healthy musculoskeletal system wwe must wear proper attire, exerise and practise correct body postures, ‘Summative Practice 14 1 The conical vertebra possesses a shor spinous process, a small centrum, wide transverse processes and a pair of transverse foramens. The thoracic vertebra has a long spinous process, short but bigger and thicker centrum. The transverse processes are longer but no transverse foramen is present Biology Form 4 (hry KPM ‘esso 227eu|2 Segment T Circular muscles contract Segment S: Longitudinal muscles contract 3 Body shape is important for movement and support, and erable body orga fo function properly 4» Good posture refers to the correct way of siting, standing, kneeling and carrying out other body movements, + We need to practise good posture because ‘good posture provides perfect support tothe musculoskeletal system, eases blood fow, reduces injury to skeletal muscles and relieves, pressure tothe vertebral muscles and column 5 + Muscle contraction needs a lot of ATP energy brosveed caring calla respon + Alarge amount of blood is needed to transport and supply oxygen and glucose to the muscle cells + Atthe same time, blood transports waste products such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid ‘out of the muscle cells 6 (a) X:Lumbar vertebra Y Cervical vertebra (b) The vertebrae provide a surface for muscle attachment. The vertebral column consists of many vertebrae which are connected to each ‘other and enables the backbone to bend. (©) + The thoracic vertebrae possess along spinous process and transverse process for muscle and ligament attachment. + The thoracio vertebrae have a two-face joint (on the transverse process forming a joint withthe ribs. This allows the ribs to move up ‘and down. The joints between the thoracic vertebrae and ribs enable the ribs to move Lup and down when the intercostal muscles contract and relax 7 (a) Muscle P: biceps Muscle Q triceps (L2H toogy Forms KPM | c1P-beg Fé Anonrs. Cap 3PPin 2 Tissue X tendon Bone Y: humerus (b) Inelastic and can be bent (©) Movement cannot take plaoe atthe joins Biceps is not attached to radius. (@) Mik, because it contains calcium for bone formation and growth. (€) When biceps contracts, the puling force is transferred to the bone through the tendon This action causes the radius to be pulled up and the arm bends. Al the same time, triceps relaxes Essay questions 8 + The big and ong femur adds strength to support body weight + Tendon connects muscles to bones. + Tendon is tough and inelastic * Ugament supports joints for movement + The hinge joint a he knee, and the ball- and socket joint atthe pelue girdle produce movements + The quatriceps femoris and the biceps femoris axe antagonistic muscles. + When the quadticeps femoris or the extensor muscle contracts and the biceps femons relaxes, the legis straightened. + When the biceps femoris contracts and the quadriceps relaxes, the leg is bent. + When the calf muscle contracts, the heel sited + At the same time, the foot pushes downwards and backwards, + The repeiiive contraction and retaxation produces movements 9 Locomotion ofan earthworm + Earthworms have a hydrostatic skeleton + Earthworms move with the aid of hydrostate pressure changes in the body. asno 227 eMThe Groular muscles contract and the longitudinal muscies relax antagonistically, This causes the hydrostatic pressure to be transferred from the anterior tothe posterior Locomotion ofa fish Possosses endoskoleton ‘The fish bone provides surface for muscle attachment. ‘The left myolome contracts and the right myotome relaxes antagonistically The tall moves to the left and right producing a push forward 10 (a) * The muscles involved in movement is, skeletal muscles. Skeletal muscies produce «a voluntary response because they are controlled by the nervous system and can be stimulated under conscious contol + Skeletal muscles provide the foroe that is needed to move bones atthe jonts. + Skeletal muscles are unable fo push or stretch but can contract and relax. + Contraction shortens the skeletal muscle. + Relaxation retums the muscle to its onginal shape and size (0) @) + Theintake of balanced nulttion, for example, taking calcium supplement, phosphate, vitamin A, C and D. Vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and vitamin C increases bone mass Wear comfortable and loose attire + Avoid wearing high-heeled shoes. + Exercise and participate in sports regulary + Practise corect and safe exercise techniques to prevent injury tothe musculoskeletal system + Always adopt good posture inal daily actos LP Biclogy 4 AnomersChap 14_8PP indé 8 fi) + Age factor as a person ages, the density of he bone decreases and subsequent, the bone mass decreases + Lack of oestrogen’ osteoporosis is ‘ore common in menopausal women because the oestrogen level drops after menopause. Cestrogen is involved in calcium metabolism: helps the body absorb calcium and reduce its loss. + Lack of exercise: exercise stimulates calcium sedimentation + Lack of calcium intake inthe diet (0) Bending the arm * Alte shoulder, he tendon from one end of the biceps is attached tothe scapula (xed tone) whie at the elbows, the tendon atthe ‘other end ofthe biceps is attached to the radius (ree-moving bone) +The tendon from one end of the tnceps is attached tothe end ofthe scapula while the tendon on the other end is attached tothe uina, + When bending the arm, the pulling force produced is transmitted to the bone through the tendon. The contraction of the bicens causes the radius to be pulled upwards and the arm is bent * At the same time, the triceps relaxes. Straightening the arm + The triceps contracts causing the ulna to be pulled down and the arm is straightened * Alte same time, the biceps relaxes. Enrichment 11. Hollow bones reduce body weight. They also require ess buiding material such as calcium and phosphorus. The force that can break a ong hollow bone is concentrated atthe edges ofthe bone Therefore, bones that are holow in the middle are just as strong as compact bones. Biology Form 4 i KPM ‘esno 2a7eu|