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SECTION 3.0 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

3.1 OSCILLATIONS
Oscillations are periodic motions.

Terms in Oscillations
 Displacement, x – the distance from the equilibrium position
 Amplitude, A – the maximum positive or negative displacement
 Period, T – the time taken to complete one full oscillation
 Frequency, f – the number of oscillations per unit time
 Phase-position and direction of oscillation of a particle in relation to another oscillating
particle.

Two oscillations of the same frequency are said to be in phase at any given time if they have
the same phase at that time. Otherwise they are out of phase by the difference of their
phases (θ2 – θ1). The graphs below show phase relation between two oscillations.

 Phase difference, Ø– the fraction of an oscillation between the positions of two oscillating
2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑡
particles (Ø = 𝜆
𝑜𝑟 𝑇
) where x is path difference between the particles oscillating or t is
time difference. Thus phase difference is difference in angular displacement, measured in
radians. Phase difference Ø = (θ2 – θ1).
2𝜋
 Angular frequency, ω – the rate of change of angular position (given by ω = 2πf or 𝑇
)

Types Of Oscillations

1. Free oscillations
2. Damped oscillations
3. Forced oscillations
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1. Free oscillations
Free Oscillations occur when NO external force is acting on the system, so its energy and
amplitude remain constant. The frequency of a free oscillation is called natural frequency.

Everyday examples of free oscillations are:

 Simple pendulum-A small, dense bob that hangs from a string, which is attached to a
fixed point. When the pendulum is displaced and released it will oscillate freely.
 Spring-mass system- A small mass attached to a spring, which will oscillate freely
once displaced and released.
 Torsional pendulum-A bar carrying masses at is ends and held horizontally oscillate
freely after being after sheared and released.

Motions free oscillations are called SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTIONS

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

Simple harmonic motion is a motion in which acceleration is

(i) directly proportional to the displacement from the equilibrium position, and
(ii) always directed towards the equilibrium position.

OR SHM is a motion in which acceleration and displacement are in opposite directions and the
acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point.
The key equation for simple harmonic motion is
𝑎 = − 𝜔2𝑥
where a is the acceleration of the oscillator, ω is the angular frequency, and x is the displacement of
the particle.
The negative sign is used to show that the direction of acceleration is always towards the equilibrium
position, and acceleratin and displacement are always in opposite direction to each other.
An oscillator in simple harmonic motion is an isochronous oscillation, so the period of the oscillation
is independent of the amplitude.

TO SHOW THAT A SIMPLE PENDULUM OSCILLATES IN SHM

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Restoring force = mgsinθ.

Force F = - mgsinθ The minus sign shows force directed towards rest position
𝑥
F= ma = - mgsinθ θ is small so, sinθ = θ =
𝑙
𝑔𝑥
∴𝑎= − 𝑙 ≡ 𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙
So pendulum is SHM.

𝑔 𝑔 𝟐𝝅 𝒍
− 𝑙 = −𝝎𝟐 𝑙
= 𝝎𝟐 ∴ 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒎 𝑻 = √𝒈

Conditions for Simple Pendulum to execute SHM

Amplitude and θ must be small so that period T remains constant.

Spring – Mass System

The diagram above shows a spring being stretched by an amount e when a mass m hangs in
equilibrium from the end of it.
The restoring force is F = −kx. (Hooke’s law)

When in equilibrium, the tension in the spring To = mg = - ke if the spring is not stretched beyond
its elastic limit, using Hooke’s law. k is spring constant.
The mass m is now pulled downwards a further distance x and released. The mass oscillates with
amplitude xo
T1 = - k(e+x) .

Net force F = ma = T1 – mg.

ma = - k(e+x) – mg
= -ke –kx – mg
= -ke – kx + ke = - kx
𝑘𝑥
∴𝑎=− ≡ 𝑎 = − 𝜔2 𝑥
𝑚
𝑘 𝑚
So mass – spring system is in SHM. Period T:- 𝜔2 = 𝑚 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑘
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Conditions for Spring-mass System to execute SHM

Displacement x must not exceed elastic limit of the spring.

Horizontal Oscillations of a Mass between Two Springs

(a) The diagram (a) above shows a mass m in equilibrium on a smooth surface between two
springs of constants k1 and k2 respectively. ∴ 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 so k1e1 = k2e2 e1 and e2 are the
respective extensions in the springs.
(b) Diagram (b) shows the mass displaced through displacement x to the right and released. The
spring k1 is streched by distance x while spring k2 is compressed by distance x. If the mass iss
is released, it oscillates between the springs

𝑇1 = −𝑘1 (𝑥 + 𝑒1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇2 = −𝑘2 (𝑥 − 𝑒2 )

F = ma
ma = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2
= −𝑘1 𝑒1 − 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑒2 − 𝑘2 𝑥
= − (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝑥 + (𝑘2 𝑒2 − 𝑘1 𝑒1 ) From (a), k1e1 = k2e2 = 0
(𝑘1 +𝑘2 )𝑥
So 𝑚𝑎 = − (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝑥 ∴𝑎= − ≡ 𝑎 = − 𝜔2 𝑥
𝑚

System is in SHM
(𝑘1 +𝑘2 ) 𝑚
Period T:- − = − 𝜔2 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ (𝑘
𝑚 1 +𝑘2 )
2𝑘𝑥
For identical springs 𝑚𝑎 = − 2𝑘𝑥 ∴𝑎= − 𝑚
≡ 𝑎 = − 𝜔2 𝑥
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√2𝑘
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Torsional Pendulum

If a bar suspended on a torsional twine is displaced and released, it will oscillate freely after
in shm. A couple is used to twist the bar.

Applying Hooke’s, Torque = -kθ where k is torsional spring constant

The torque is related to moment of inertia I of the bar by Torque = Iα.
Moment of inertia I = mR2. α is angular acceleration.

∴Torque = mR2α so mR2α= -kθ

𝒌𝜽
𝜶=− 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝜃 = 𝑥
𝒎𝑹𝟐
𝒌𝒙
𝜶=− ≡ 𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙
𝒎𝑹𝟑

𝒌 𝒎𝑹𝟑
So system is in SHM. 𝝎𝟐 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√
𝒎𝑹𝟑 𝒌
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Diagram (a) shows a cylinder of uniform cross-sectional area A, floating with length l immersed in a
liquid of density ρ. Since the cylinder is floating, upthrust = weight of the cylinder.

According to Archimedes Principle,

Upthrust P = weight of displaced liquid = lAρg

Weight of cylinder, mg = lAρg…………………………………………….. 1

If the cylinder is depressed into the liquid so that its total length in the liquid is (l + xo ) and then
released; the cylinder oscillates vertically with amplitude xo. Suppose that at any instant during its
oscillation, the length 0f cylinder in the liquid is (l1 + x).

P1 is the new upthrust = (l + x) Aρg

F = ma

F = mg - (l + x) Aρg = mg – lAρg - x Aρg But lAρg = mg

∴ 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑥 𝐴𝜌𝑔
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑥𝐴𝜌𝑔
−𝑥𝐴𝜌𝑔
𝑎= ≡ 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
𝑚
So the cylinder is in SHM, with
𝐴𝜌𝑔
𝑚
= 𝜔2
𝑚
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝐴𝜌𝑔

From; lAρg = mg; m = lAρ

𝑙
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔
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Characteristics of SHM

 Repetitive motion through a central equilibrium point.

 Symmetry of maximum displacement. (Constant amplitude xo)
 Period of each cycle is constant.
 Force causing the motion is directed toward the equilibrium point (minus sign).
 F directly proportional to the displacement from equilibrium.

Analysing simple harmonic motion

1 Displacement, x

The displacement x of a simple harmonic motion can be represented by:-

𝑥 = xo sin𝜔t or = xo cos𝜔t

where xo is the amplitude, 𝜔 is the angular frequency, and t is the time. The sine version of the
equation is used if the particle begins at the equilibrium position, and the cosine version is used if the
oscillator begins at the amplitude position.

2 Velocity

The velocity of the oscillator is the rate of change of displacement or can be determined by finding
the gradient of the graph at that point. The maximum velocity occurs at the equilibrium position,
with the oscillator being stationary at the amplitude points

𝒅𝒙 𝒅(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕)
𝒙 = 𝒙𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗 = 𝒅𝒕
= 𝒙𝒐 𝒅𝒕
𝒗 = 𝒙𝒐 𝝎𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐭
3 Acceleration
Acceleration a is rate of change of velocity
𝒅𝒙 𝒅(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕)
𝒗 = 𝒙𝒐 𝝎𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐭 𝐀𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚 = 𝒅𝒕
= 𝒙𝒐 𝝎 𝒅𝒕
𝟐
∴ 𝒂 = −𝒙𝒐 𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭

The maximum acceleration occurs at the amplitude points, and is 0 when the oscillator is at
equilibrium position.
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Graphs For Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

where 𝜔 is the angular frequency of the particle, xo is the amplitude, and x is displacement. The
maximum velocity occurs at the equilibrium position, where x = 0, so 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔 𝑥𝑜 .

x = xo sin𝜔t OR x = xo cos𝜔t AS SOLUTION TO 𝑎 = − 𝜔2𝑥

x = xo sin𝜔t OR x = xo cos𝜔t is a solution to 𝑎 = − 𝜔2𝑥

To show that x = xo sin𝜔t OR x = xo cos𝜔t is a solution to 𝑎 = − 𝜔2𝑥

𝒅(𝐱𝒐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭)
𝒗=
𝒅𝒕
v = xo𝜔cos𝜔t
𝒅𝒗 𝒅(𝐱𝒐 𝐬𝛚𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐭)
𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂 = =
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂 = −𝐱𝒐 𝝎𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 = −𝝎𝟐 (𝐱𝒐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭)
𝑩𝒖𝒕 (𝐱𝒐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭) = 𝒙
∴ 𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙

The graphs below show the variation of velocity and acceleration with displacement x
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Energy transfers in simple harmonic motion

During simple harmonic motion, energy is interchanged between the kinetic and potential forms.

For SHM system, K E and P E are interchangeable, i e, K E is transferred to P E and back as the system
oscillates.

Kinetic and Potential Energy in SHM

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic Energy varying with time Kinetic Energy varying with displacement
1 1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
1
∴ 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 2 1
2 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2 (𝑥𝑜2 − 𝑥 2 )
2

Potential Energy

Potential energy = work done.

Work done = average force x displacement in the direction of the force.

= Fx
In SHM force F varies as acceleration (a) varies. 𝑎 = 𝜔2 𝑥

At rest position x = 0. Force 𝐅 = 𝟎 and at maximum displacement x = xo , force 𝐅 = 𝐦𝛚𝟐 𝐱

𝟎 + 𝐦𝛚𝟐 𝐱 𝟏
Average force 𝐅 = = 𝟐 𝐦𝛚𝟐 𝐱
𝟐
𝟏
E 𝑝 = 𝐅𝐱 = 𝟐 𝐦𝛚𝟐 𝐱 𝟐
𝐱 = 𝐱 𝒐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭
𝟏 𝟐
∴𝐄𝒑 = 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝒐 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝎𝒕
𝟐
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At the amplitudes of its oscillations, the system will have maximum P E and K E is zero. As it moves to
equilibrium position, P E is converted to K E so that at the centre of oscillations the K E is maximum
and P E is zero. The total energy of the system remains constant (when resistive forces are
negligible).

The diagrams below show variation of energy with time and with displacement.

The kinetic energy and potential energy of an

oscillator vary periodically, but the total energy The kinetic energy is maximum at zero
remains constant if the system is undamped. displacement; the potential energy is maximum
at maximum displacement ( x0 and −x0 ).
Damped Oscillations

Damping is where the energy in an oscillating is lost to the environment due to resistive forces such
as drag or friction, leading to reduced amplitude of oscillations.

Degrees of Damping

1. Light damping
2. Heavy damping
3. Critical damping

 Light/under damping occurs naturally, oscillation is allowed (e.g. pendulum oscillating in air),
and the amplitude decreases exponentially until it is zero.
 When heavy/over damping occurs (e.g. pendulum oscillating in water) the amplitude
decreases dramatically. Oscillation is not allowed, but the amplitude decreases to after a
very long time.
 In critical damping (e.g. pendulum oscillating in treacle) the object stops before one
oscillation is completed.

An example of a system experiencing light damping is a simple pendulum experiencing damping

due to air resistance, after each oscillation the maximum amplitude of the pendulum decreases
slightly. The amplitude of oscillations follows an exponential decay as shown in the diagrams below.

Critical damping is very important when the amplitude must be reduced to zero in the fastest
possible time, without oscillating. Shock absorbers are devices which allow the oscillations
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experienced by a car suspension to be critically damped, making controlling the car much easier. The
suspension system of a car should ensure a comfortable ride for passengers when the car moves on
bumpy road. If the suspension system is lightly damped passengers would be thrown up and down
since the suspension system would take some time to stop oscillating.

Measurement instruments, such as analogy meters (speedometers amd moving coil meters-
ammeters and voltmeters) are also critically damped so that their pointers do not oscillate and move
to the correct position quickly to avoid confusion.

An example of a heavy damping decice is a door closer, which allows a door to slowly close without
oscillating.

FORCED OSCILLATIONS

When an object oscillates without any external force being applied, it oscillates freely at its natural
frequency. This is known as free oscillation. Forced oscillation occurs when a periodic driving force is
applied to an object, which causes it to oscillate at a particular frequency. Driving force replenishes
/replaces lost energy by damping.

Forced oscillation is free oscillation subjected to a periodic driving force. The frequency of this
driving force is called driving/forcing frequency. The forcing frequency is significant. If the driving
frequency is equal to the natural frequency of a system (also known as the resonant frequency),
then resonance occurs.

As the forcing frequency is increased from zero, the amplitude of oscillations will increase. It has
its maximun when forcing frequenct equals/matches natural frequency. As forcing frequency
becomes greater than resonant frequency, the amplitude will decrease, as shown in the graph
below.
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Resonance is the situation when forcing frequency equals/matches natural frequency and amplitude
is a maximum/is very large.

RESONANCE AND DEGREES OF DAMPING

Damping can be used to decrease the effect of resonance. Different degrees of damping will have
different effects as shown in the graphs below.

Observations
As the degrees of damping increase,

 the resonant frequency shifts to lower values of forcing frequency (i e shifts to left on the
graph).
 the maximum amplitude decreases and
 the peak of maximum amplitude becomes wider (ie sharpness of resonance is reduced)

Resonance has many useful applications in everyday life, for example

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 Instruments- An instrument such as a flute has a long tube in which air resonates, causing a
stationary sound wave to be formed.
 Radios-These are tuned so that their electric circuits resonates at the same frequency as the
desired broadcast frequencies.
 Swing-If someone pushes you on a swing; he/she is providing a driving frequency, which can
cause resonance if its frequency is equal to the resonant frequency, causing you to swing
higher.
 Microwave cooking-In microwave oven, microwaves with a frequency similar to the natural
frequency of vibrating water molecules are used. When food which contains water
molecules is placed in the oven, the water molecules resonate absorbing energy from the
microwaves and consequently gets heated up and cooked. The plastic or glass containers do
not heat up since they do not have water molecules.

3.2 WAVES

REFRACTION AT PLANE SURFACES

Refraction is bending of light wave when it travels from one medium into another.

When light passes from one medium, say air, to another, say glass,
 part of the light is reflected back into the first medium and
 the rest passes into the second medium with direction of travel changed.
The light is said to be bent or refracted on entering second medium.

Angle of incidence(i1) is the angle made by the norm and the incident ray while the angle made
between the norm and the refracted ray is called angle of refraction (i2), as shown below.

AO – incident ray
ON – norm
OB – refracted ray
OD – reflected ray
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Facts about refraction

(i) A ray of light is bent towards the normal when it enters an optically denser medium. The
angle of refraction r is less than the angle of incidence i.
NB ‘Optically denser’ means having a greater refraction effect; the actual density may or
may not be greater

(ii) A ray of light is bent away from the normal when it enters an optically less dense
medium, for example from glass to air.
(iii) A ray of light is bent away from the normal when it enters an optically less dense
medium, for example from glass to air.
(iv) A ray travelling along the normal direction at a boundary is not refracted .
LAWS OF REFRACTION
Law 1:- For two media, the ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is
constant, ie

This is called Snell’s law

Law 2:-The incident ray, the norm and the refracted ray, at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane.

REFACTIVE INDEX
An optical density is a property of a medium to delay and bend/refract the motion of light through
it. A more optical dense medium refracts the light more than the less dense medium. Optical density
is referred to as refractive index. Thus a medium with a larger index refracts light more than a
medium with smaller index.

Refractive index of a single medium is the ratio of speed of light (Co) in a vacuum to the speed of
light (C1) in the medium. This type refractive index is called as absolute refractive index n.

Absolute Refractive index, n1 –ratio of speed of light (C0) in vacuum to the speed of light (C1) in
𝑪
non-vacuum medium. 𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 𝒏 = 𝑪𝒐
𝟏

Medium Absolute refractive index

vacuum 1
air 1.003 = 1
water 1.33
glass 1.52

Rlativee Refractive index, 1n2- ratio of speed of light (C1) in non-vacuum medium 1 to the speed
of light (C2) in another non-vacuum medium 2
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𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟐

Relative Refractive index, 1n2 =
𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟏

Snell’s law and refractive index

The constant in Snell’s law is equal to refractive index.

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊𝟏
So, 𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 𝒏 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊𝟐

GENERLA EQUATION IN REFRACTION

Consider two media, medium 1 and medium 2 as shown below.

Their absolute refractive indices are give by n1 and n2 respectively.

𝑪𝟎 𝑪𝟎
𝒏𝟏 = − − − − − (𝟏) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏𝟐 = − − − − − − − (𝟐)
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
𝒏𝟐 𝑪 𝑪 𝑪 𝒏𝟐
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1) = ( 𝟎) ( 𝟏) = 𝟏 1n2 =
𝒏𝟏 𝑪 𝟐 𝑪 𝑪 𝟎 𝟐 𝒏𝟏

This is read as refractive index of light from medium 1 to medium 2

𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊𝟏
Snell’s law equation can now be rewritten as: =
𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊𝟐

By cross multiplication, the equation becomes: n1sini1 = n2sini2 (The general equation).
Refractive Index Relationship
The symmetrical form of Snell’s law is very useful in calculations.

For example, light is incident on water-glass boundary at 300 as shown below. Find ig angle in the
glass.
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Refractive index of water nw = 1.33 and refractive index of glass ng = 1.50

SOLUTION
nwsiniw = ngsinig
1.33sin300 = 1.50sinig
ig = 260

Suppose a ray AB travels from air (medium 1), to glass (medium 2), to water (medium 3) and back to
air (medium 1) as shown below.

Applying Snell’s law to each parallel boundary,

When Snell’s law is applied to the lowest boundary then it is found that the emergent angle must be
i1 equal to the incident angle. The emergent ray DE or a ray emerging from a parallel-sided block is
laterally displaced and is parallel to the incident ray AB.
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Angle of incidence>critical
(i = c) (i > c
angle
(i > c)
Refractive Index at Critical Angle

𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊𝟏
Using Snell’s law and relative index, =
𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊𝟐

n2sini1 = n1sini2
𝒏𝟏
i1 = critical angle C and i2 = 900 n2sin© = n1sin900 since sin900 = 1, so n2 sin(c) = n1 sinC =
𝒏𝟐
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Therefore nsin(c) =1 when 1 and 2 are dropped

Critical angle of glass

 A semi circular glass block is placed on a sheet of paper as shown below. A line NO is drawn
normal to LOM where O is the mid point of LOM.
 A ray directed along the norm NO is not refracted, it meets screen at 900, If the ray is
incident at an angle of about, say 30° to the norm NO, at O, it is refracted to strike the
screen at A.
 The ray is not refracted at the curved surface, because it is incident at 900 to the surface.

When ray of light is kept horizontal, but the glass block is rotated as shown in the diagram below, so
that angle i is equal to the critical angle c the refracted ray is along OMA. Angle of refraction is 900.
The refracted ray strikes the screen at A.
 19

When the block is further rotated, angle i becomes greater than critical angle c and total internal
reflection occurs. The light disappears from the screen. The diagram below shows the TIR.

Practise Question: Q2(b).

 20

Core- to transmit light by repeated total internal reflection.

Jacket – to protect cladding and core from scratches
-to reduce loss of light by dispersion
Cladding – to allow for TIR to take place as less dense medium
 21

REFLECTION
22
 23

PROGRESSIVE WAVES
24
 25

𝟐𝝅𝒙
∴ 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 ∅ =
𝝀

𝟐𝝅𝒕
∴ 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 ∅ =
𝑻
26
 27

(e)
28
 29

Graph 2
 30

SUPERPOSITION
–situation when two or more waves meet and overlap/interact at a point in a medium to produce a
combined effect.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
 31

STATIONARY WAVES

Properties of Stationary Waves

 Energy is localized ie energy is not transferred away from source.
 Wave profile is stationary/standing
 Particles between successive nodes vibrate in phase, while particles in neighbouring
antinodes are in antiphase.

 Amplitude of particles varies from zero at nodes to maximum at antinodes ie amplitude

𝜆 𝜆
varies. 𝑁𝑁 = 𝐴𝐴 = 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑁 = 4
32
33
34
 35

Example 4
 36

DIFFRACTION

Properties of waves include reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.

Diffraction is the bending/spreading of a wave as it moves around an obstacle or passes through a

narrow opening/aperture.

The wave will try to curve around the boundary of obstacle or to curve outward through the
opening due to friction.

The size of the obstacle or opening must be comparable to wavelength of the wave.
 37

The extent of the diffraction effect is dependent on the relative sizes of the aperture to the
wavelength of the wave. The smaller the size of the aperture, the greater the spreading of the
waves (if the width of the aperture is about the same size as the wavelength, λ, the diffraction
effect is very considerable).

 More diffraction if the size of the gap is similar to the wavelength

 More diffraction if wavelength is increased (or frequency decreased)

A well observed diffraction occurs when wavelength is larger than or equal to size of
aperture or obstacle as shown below.

WAVE THEORY TO EXPLAIN DIFFRACTION

The phenomenon of diffraction can be understood using the wave theory which states that

Every unobstructed point on a wavefront will act as a source of secondary spherical waves. The
new wavefront is the surface tangent to all the secondary spherical waves as show below.

Diagram illustrating the propagation of the wave based on Wave theory.

E g QP If the door to an adjoining room is slightly ajar, why is it that you can hear sounds
from the room but cannot see much of what is happening in the room?

ANS The space between the slightly open door and the doorframe acts as a single slit.
Sound waves have wavelengths that are approximately the same size as the opening and
so are diffracted and spread throughout the room you are in. Because light wavelengths
are much smaller than the slit width, they are virtually undiffracted. As a result, you
must have a direct line of sight to detect the light waves.
 38

Single-Slit Diffraction

Waves passing through a long narrow slit of width a produce, on a screen, a diffraction
pattern that consists of a central maximum (bright fringe) and other lateral maxima.

Maxima are separated by minima (dark fringes) that are located relative to the central axis by
angles θ:
Minima or dark spots are due to destructive interference of wavelets.

The maxima are located approximately halfway between the minima or the dark spots.

To locate the fringes, a procedure somewhat similar to the one used to locate the fringes in a
two-slit interference pattern is used. At a single-slit diffraction, of interest is to find equation
for the dark fringes or dark spots formed by destructive interference of the wavelets.

Wavefronts from monochromatic light is made to be incident on a slit of finite width a, as

shown in the diagram below

Each point on the wavefront through the slit will acts as a source of light wavelets. The
wavelets at some points on the screen interfere destructively and on other points they
interfere constructively forming a diffraction pattern of alternate bright and dark fringes.

To find the dark fringes, the slit is divided into upper and lower halves. The rays in these
halves are paired up into ray r1 from the top point of the upper half and ray r2 from the top
point of the lower half. Wavelets along these two rays cancel each other when they arrive at
P1. Diagram below shows the pairing of the rays.
 39

Path Length Difference: The wavelets of the pair of rays r1 and r2 are in phase within the slit
because they originate from the same wavefront passing through the slit, along the width of
λ
the slit. To produce a dark fringe, they must be out of phase by when they reach P1. This
2
phase difference is due to their path length difference (r2 – r1), with the path travelled by the
wavelet of r2 to reach P1 being longer than the path travelled by the wavelet of r1.

𝑛𝜆
Path length difference = r2 – r1 = 2

𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
sinθ = ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒

𝑎 𝑛𝜆
sinθ =
2 2

∴asinθ = nλ

This equation gives the values of θ for which the diffraction pattern has zero light intensity—
that is, when a dark fringe is formed as shown below.
 40

QP 1 A slit of width a is illuminated by white light.

Calculate the value of slit width a that will make the first minimum for red
light of wavelength λ = 650nm to appear at θ = 15°.

2 Light of wavelength 580 nm is incident on a slit having a width of 0.300 mm. The
viewing screen is 2.00 m from the slit.
Find the positions of the first dark fringes and the width of the central bright fringe.

Intensity/Brightness of Single-Slit Diffraction

The general features of the intensity distribution are shown in the diagram above.
 The central fringe is the widest and brightest fringe while lateral/side fringes are much
weaker and much less bright fringes.
 Brightness/intensity of fringes decreases sideways

The central bright maximum is twice as wide as the secondary maxima/lateral maxima.

Double-Slit Diffraction Pattern

Waves passing through two or more closely spaced slits produce a combination of
interference and diffraction patterns. The diffraction pattern will envelope the interference
pattern as shown below.

Interference maxima occur when dsinθ = nλ and diffraction minima occur when dsinθ = nλ,
where d is slit separation and in diffraction pattern d is slit width.

Diffraction Grating
A diffraction grating consists of a large number N of slits each of width a and the centres of
successive slits are a distance/slit separation d apart, as shown below.
 41

A diffraction grating is a series of “slits” used to separate an incident light wave into its
component wavelengths by separating and displaying their diffraction maxima.

The effect of the grating is to produce a series of bright images, or lines, at angular positions,
θ, given by equation

dsinθ = nλ for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (maxima).and n is fringe order number

d is distance between centres of
successive slits
1
A grating ruled with N lines/unit length has a slit spacing d given by the expression d =
𝑁
The lines or maxima fringes are given order numbers from the central maxima n= 0 to the
lateral 2 sides of the central maxima.as shown below.

Total number of maxima = 2n + 1

Where n is total number of fringes on one side of the central maximum, the 2 used is for the
2 sides of the central maximum and the 1 added is the central maximum.

The value of n is obtained from the equation dsinθ = nλ

nλ nλ nλ 𝑑
sinθ = sinθ ≤ 1 ∴ 𝑑 ≤ 1 maximum value =1 ∴n=
𝑑 𝑑 𝜆
 42

E g. Monochromatic light, of wavelength λ = 632.8nm, from a helium-neon laser is incident normally

on a diffraction grating containing 6 000 lines per centimetre.
Find the
a. angles at which the first order and second-order maxima occur.
b. number of maxima fringes that can be observed on the screen

Solution
(a) First, calculate the slit separation d, which is equal to the inverse of the number of
lines per centimetre:
1 1 𝑥 10−2
d=𝑁= = 1.667 x 10-6 m = 1 667 nm
6000

For the first-order maximum , n = 1

632.8 x 10−9
dsinθ = λ 1.667 x 10-6sinθ1 = 632.8 x 10-9 m sinθ1 = 1.667 x 10−6 = 0.3796 θ1 = 22.3o

For the second-order maximum, n = 2

2 x 632.8 x 10−9
dsinθ = 2λ 1.667 x 10-6sinθ2 = 2 x 632.8 x 10-9 m sinθ2 = 1.667 x 10−6 = 0.7592 θ2 = 49.4o
nλ nλ nλ 1.667 x 10−6
(b) sinθ = sinθ ≤ 1 ∴ 𝑑 ≤ 1 maximum value =1 ∴n= = 2. 634
𝑑 𝑑 632.8 x 10
−9

No fraction of a fringe, so 2.634 is rounded downwards to 2 ∴ n = 2

Total number fringes = 2n + 1 = (2 x 2) + 1 = 5

The Diffraction Grating with White light

 If white light is incident on a grating, each wavelength making up white light is
diffracted by different amount, as described by the expression dsinθ = nλ.
 Red light, because it has the longest wavelength, is diffracted through the largest
angle and blue with the shortest wavelength, is diffracted least.
 Thus white light is diffracted into its component colours, producing a spectrum as
shown below.
 The spectrum is repeated in different orders of the diffraction pattern.

Depending on the grating spacing, there may be some overlapping of different orders, and
the orders are blur in higher orders.
 43

INTERFERENCE

Coherence - the maintenance of a constant phase difference or zero phase difference.

- Waves produced are of the same frequency, wavelength, polarisation and

amplitude and in a constant phase relationship. A laser is a coherent source but a
light bulb is not.
 44

Single slit A is to produce diffracted wavefronts for the double slits B ahead. The double slits
act as coherent sources of light.

 Light wavefronts spreading from the single slit A are then made incident on double
slits B.
 Each slit radiates spherical light waves; i e each slit diffracts light into spherical
wavefronts.
 The spherical wavefronts overlap in the region of overlap after the double slits as
shown below

Fig 4

 A screen is placed in the region behind the double slits to capture the
overlapped/superposed spherical wavefronts.
 45

 If the superposed wavefronts are πrad/180o out of phase with each other, destructive
interference occurs, resulting in a dark patch on the screen and if they are completely
in phase, constructive interference occurs, resulting in a bright patch on the screen.

A pattern of bright and dark patches is observed on the screen. The bright and dark patches
are called INTERFERENCE FRINGES.

Interference Equations

Fig 5

The point O on the screen lies exactly opposite to the centre point M of the two slits, as
shown in Fig. 5. OM is bisector of AB. The path-lengths from each slit to O are the same, so
path difference is zero. The wavefronts from each slit arrive at O in phase; so a bright spot is
produced at O due to a constructive interference of the wavefronts.

Condition For Constructive and Destructive Interferences

For constructive interference,

Path-difference - must be whole number multiple of a wavelength (λ) i e

Path-difference x = nλ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …. (Or fringe order number)
For destructive interference,
𝜆
Path-difference - must be odd number multiple of a half-wavelength ( )
2
n𝜆
Path-difference x = ( ) n=1, 3, 5, ...
2
At point P if it is a bright spot, constructive interference occurred, so

(1) Path-difference x = BP – AP = BN = nλ
𝐵𝑁 𝑛𝜆
In right angled triangle ANB, sinθ = =
𝐴𝐵 𝑑

∴ dsinθ = nλ

d is distance between centres of slits A and B

 46

(2) At point P, if it is a dark spot, destructive interference occurred, so

𝑛𝜆
Path-difference x = BP – AP = BN = 2

𝐵𝑁 𝑛𝜆
In right angled triangle ANB, sinθ = =
𝐴𝐵 2

𝑛𝜆
∴ dsinθ = where n = 1, 3, 5, …,.
2

Fringe spacing xn:- distance of a fringe as measured from the central fringe n = 0
𝑋
tanθ = D𝑛

θ is usually very, very small, so that tanθ = sinθ

𝑋𝑛 𝑛𝜆
so =
D d

𝑛𝜆𝐷
∴ xn = d

where xn fringe separation, measured from O.

Interference pattern on the screen consists of alternate light and dark fringes, running parallel
to the slits. The distances of the centres of the various light bands from the point are given
n𝜆𝐷
by xn = d

The fringes are equally spaced, and

𝜆𝐷
∴Fringe spacing x= .
d

Appearance of Young’s Interference Bands/Fringes

1. If single lit S is moved nearer the double slits, the separation of fringes x is unaffected
𝜆𝐷
but the intensity/brightness increases, because x = d , since D and d are constant.
2. If the distance apart d of the slits A and B is diminished/made smaller/decreased,
𝜆𝐷 1
keeping S fixed, the separation x of fringes increases, because x = d and 𝑥 𝛼 𝑑.
3. If single slit S is widened, the fringes gradually disappear. The slit S is then
equivalent to a number of narrow slits, each producing its own fringes at different
places. The bright and dark fringes therefore overlap giving rise to uniform
illumination.
4. If one of the slits, A or B is covered up, the fringes disappear and a diffraction pattern
is observed instead.
5. If white light is used, the central fringe is white, and the fringes either side are
coloured. Blue fringe is nearer to the central fringe and the red is farther away. The
path difference to point O is zero for all colours and as a result, each colour produces
a fringe at O. As the colours overlap, white fringe is formed. In lateral fringes the
colours have different path differences. The blue with shortest wavelength forms a
 47

bright fringe nearer O while red with longest wavelength forms bright fringe much
farther away from point O

Conditions for Observable Interference Pattern

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

ORDER OF MAGNITUDE OF WAVELENGTHS

Approximate Wavelength Approximate Frequency

RADIATION
Range/m Range/Hz
Gamma rays 10-16 to 10-10 1018 to 1024
X-rays 10-11 to 10-9 1017 to1019
Ultra-violet (UV) 10-9 to 10-7 1015 to 1017
Visible light 400 x10-9 to 700 x 10-9 1014 to 1015
Infra-red 10-6 to 10-2 1010 to 1014
Microwave 10-3 to 10-1 109 to 1011
TV and radio waves 10-1 to 104 and above 109 and below
 48

Properties or Similarities
1. All types of electromagnetic radiation travel through a vacuum at 3 × 108m/s, i.e. with the
speed of light.
2. Since they can pass through a vacuum, they all do not require a transmitting medium.
3. They all exhibit interference, diffraction and polarisation, which suggest they have a
transverse wave nature.
4. They obey the wave equation, v = fλ, where v is the speed of light, f is the frequency of the
waves and λ is the wavelength.
5. They carry energy from one place to another and can be absorbed by matter to cause
heating and other effects. The higher the frequency and the smaller the wavelength of the
radiation, the greater is the energy carried, i.e. gamma rays are more ‘energetic’ than radio
waves.
6. They are all produced by particles oscillating or losing energy in some way and they all
consist of vibrating magnetic and electric fields which are perpendicular to each other.

X-RAYS
Uses of X-rays
 Diagnosis of internal organs without surgery.
 Treatment of malignancy and tumours
 Identification of minerals by X-ray diffraction

Advantages of Using X-rays In Therapy

 Allows for diagnosis of internal organs without surgery. This causes much less
trauma to the patient and
 Reduces the chances of infection from open wounds.

Today, X-rays are the only one method in a whole range of non-invasive diagnostic
techniques that is used in medicine.

Production of X-rays
X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons are decelerated or stopped.
Most of the electron’s kinetic energy is converted to heat but a small proportion is converted
to electromagnetic radiation called X-rays.

To generate x-rays, three things are needed.

 a source of electrons
 a means of accelerating the electrons to high speeds
 a target material to receive the impact of the electrons and interact with them.

Basic Structure of an X-ray Tube

 49

There are two basic structures of x-ray tubes, which are:-

1 A Fixed Anode X-ray Tube and
2 A Rotating anode X-ray Tube

1 A Fixed Anode X-ray Tube

2 A Rotating anode X-ray Tube

1 Vacuum 2 Lead shield 3 Electron beam

 50

Simple Production of X-rays:

1. Filament is heated by tube current and it emits electrons by thermionic emission.

2. The thermionic electrons are accelerated, through a vacuum, by high potential
difference or electric field between filament and anode to fast moving electrons
towards a target metal on anode.
3. The fast moving electrons strike a heavy metal target on anode and they are stopped
or decelerated.
4. When high-speed electrons are decelerated or stopped by the target, most of their
kinetic energy (99%) is converted to heat in the target, but a small portion (1%) is
converted to X-rays.

Energy conversion
QUALITY of the X-ray Beam

In order that the quality/best X-ray image may be produced, the quality of X-ray beam
needs to be controlled. Quality of X-ray beam refers to the intensity and hardness of the X-
ray beam.

 The intensity of X-ray beam is the power of the X-ray beam per unit area. X-ray
beam intensity affects the degree of blackening of X-ray image.

 The hardness is the penetration power of the X-ray beam. Hardness of an X-ray beam
determines the fraction of the intensity of the incident beam that can penetrate the part
of the body being x-rayed. X-rays with shorter wavelength have a greater penetration.
HARDNESS of X-rays refers to the energy content of the beam.
 51

Hardness of X-rays
 Low-energy x-rays are called soft X-rays. Soft X-rays are less penetrating into matter,
so they are less useful for radiography. Most of them are absorbed by the patient and
cause harm to the patient.
 High-energy X-rays are referred to as hard X-rays. Hard X-rays are more penetrating
into matter, so they are more desired for radiography (producing a photograph of the
interior of the body or a piece of apparatus).
The hardness of the X-ray beam (the penetration power of the X-rays) is controlled by
tube kilovoltage kV (i e the accelerating voltage between the cathode and the anode).
Increasing the kV increases kinetic energy of emitted electrons, hence hardness of X-rays
and more penetrating X-rays photon energies are produced.

During X-ray production both soft and hard X-rays are produced. Soft X-rays photons are of
such low energy that they might not be able to pass through a patient. They would be
absorbed by the patient and they would cause damage to patient.

Filtration
A filter, such as a few millimeters of aluminum, or copper may be used to harden the beam
by filtering out/absorbing most of the low-energy photons. The remaining photons are more
penetrating and are more useful for radiography.

Intensity of X-ray Bean

 The intensity of the X-ray beam is controlled by tube current:- rate of arrival of
electrons at metal target (i e the number of electrons per unit time hitting the metal
target on anode). Intensity increases when tube current increases.
 Intensity of X-ray beam is proportional to the temperature of the filament, which is
controlled by current flowing into the filament. The higher the temperature, the
greater is the rate of emission of electrons Thus a larger tube current into filament
increases number of electrons striking the target per second.

Uses of X-rays in medical imaging

The uses of X-rays include:-

i. diagnosis of broken bones and ulcerated tissues in the duodenum and other parts of
the gut. Bone tissue is denser than soft tissue (flesh) and is a good absorber of X-rays;
flesh and muscle are much poorer absorbers. Therefore, if a beam of X-rays is
incident on an area of damaged bone a shadow image is formed.
ii. treatment of malignancy.

Properties of X-rays Used in X-Ray Imaging

 52

 X-ray radiation blackens photographic plates after development in the same way as
visible light. Degree of blackening depends on total X-ray exposure

 X-ray cause fluorescence in certain materials. The mechanism is similar to that by

which visible light is produced on the screen of a cathode-ray oscilloscope.

X-ray Imaging

An X-ray image is a ‘shadow’ picture of the inside body organ x-rayed.

X-ray imaging uses the principle of:-

 different absorption properties of X-rays by different body tissues due to their

different densities
 atomic proton number (Z).

 More dense materials have greater absorption power than less dense materials. Bones
absorb X-rays more than muscles tissues/flesh because bones are denser than muscle
tissues/flesh.
 Atoms with very large atomic proton (heavy atoms, like barium) have greater
absorption power than light atoms.

Process of X-ray Imaging

When an X-ray image is being taken, x-ray beam is directed towards the concerned part of
patient.

 X-ray beam through muscles only is mildly attenuated and the area of the x-ray
photographic film directly below the muscle tissues is heavily exposed to x-ray. This
part of the film appears whitish before development or on the negative.
 X-ray beam through bone is heavily attenuated and the part of film below the bone
tissue is lightly/mildly exposed to x-rays and it appears dark on negative.

The diagram below shows the process of x-ray imaging.

 53

After film development;-

 the part of film below the bone tissue appear light or white, because very few X-rays
reached the film. The bones appear light or white on developed film.
 the background of film mildly attenuated, i e, where many X-rays reach the film,
will be much darker.

What is produced on the film is a 2-D shadow image of the bone and surrounding
tissues.
Quality of X-Ray Image

The Quality of X-Ray Image refers to the clarity or clearness of the shadow picture (the
image) produced on the photographic plate. This quality on depends on its sharpness and
contrast.

SHARPNESS is the ease with which the edges of structures can be determined/how well the
edges of structures are defined.

A sharp image implies that the edges of organs are clearly marked out/defined and are
vividly visible. SHARPNESS IS HOW CLEARLY THE EDGES OF STRUCTURES ARE
MARKED OUT/DEFINED and VISIBLE.

A sharp image requires a parallel beam

The sharpness of the image depends on the width of the X-ray beam.

The factors that affect sharpness of an x-ray image include:

1. the size of the area target on anode struck by incident electrons from filament, the
larger the target area, the wider the beam and the less sharp the image becomes.
2. the size of the aperture at the exit window
3. collimation of the x-ray beam.
 54

1 The Area of the Target on Anode:- Reducing the area of target anode improves
sharpness. Diagram A below shows a full shadow and small partial shadows are produced
when target area on anode struck by electrons from cathode is small. The full shadow is the
x-ray image required, since the x-ray image is a shadow picture of an organ.

Diagram A

Diagram B

Diagram B shows effect of using a larger target area struck by electrons. A larger target area
causes a much smaller full shadow and much bigger partial shadow that blur full shadow (x-
ray image).

2 The Size of the Aperture

The aperture or window is produced by adjustable, overlapping metal plates. The X-ray beam
passes this aperture after leaving the tube. Reducing the aperture causes the X-ray beam to
be much narrower. A wide aperture causes x-ray beam to be much wider.
 55

Diagram C

3 Collimation of the X-ray Beam

X-ray beam collimation involves passing the beam through narrow slits as shown in the
Diagram D. The first set of slits produces a partly collimated beam but, due to the finite size
of the anode target, there is still some spreading of the beam. The second set of slits reduces
this spread further making the final beam almost parallel-sided. Better collimation produces a
much sharper x-ray image.

Diagram D:- Collimating an X-ray beam

CONTRAST is THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE DARKER AND LIGHTER AREAS

OF THE IMAGE. / THE DIFFERENCE IN DEGREE OF BLACKENING
BETWEEN STRUCTURES
 56

Good contrast is when the ratio between the intensity of the incident and the emergent X-ray beam of
𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝑰
different organs are far apart i e when (𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝑰) is very large
𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝑰
or (𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝑰 ) is very small.
𝒐

An X-ray image with a good contrast is one with:-

 a wide range of exposures,
 areas showing little or no blackening and areas of heavy blackening

To improve contrast of X-ray image:

 Increase Exposure time
 Use harder X-Rays to increase penetration power
 Reduce scattering of X-Ray beam
 Use fluorescent or Image intensifier
 Use of a contrast agent/medium

Contrast Agent

 When diagnosing tissues of similar densities (e g diagnosis of ulcers) there is little/no

difference in the absorption of x-rays by healthy tissue and ulcerated tissue.
 In order to improve the contrast, the patient is given a drink containing a salt that is
opaque to/absorbs X-rays. The ulcerated tissue absorbs more of the salt than healthy
tissue and hence absorbs much more of the X-radiation. This material, often a barium
salt, is called a contrast agent/medium

Table below gives the main methods by which contrast can be improved.
Method Detail
Contrast agent/medium Used to distinguish between soft tissues

Longer exposure This improves contrast but has the

time disadvantage of increasing the patient’s
exposure to X-radiation

Choice of X-ray Much harder (more penetrative) X-rays are

hardness used for investigating bone injuries than for
soft-tissue diagnosis, e.g. stomach ulcers

Image intensifier An image intensifier is a fluorescent sheet

placed at the back of the photographic film. It
causes fluoresce. The detector picks up this,
making the dark parts darker.

Scattering
 57

As X-rays pass through various organs of a patient, some X-rays are scattered from the body.
If the scattered x-rays reach the x-ray photographic film on which the x-ray image is formed,
they cause fogging of the film and this reduces both sharpness and contrast of the image.

To avoid this happening, an anti-scatter grid is used. This is a series of parallel aluminium
and lead plates, as shown in the Diagram E.

Attenuation of X-rays
X-rays passing through matter are partly transmitted and partly absorbed. Thus the
emergent/transmitted intensity is reduced. The reduction in intensity of an X-ray beam after
passing through a material is called attenuation.

ATTENUATION - power loss from a signal/X-ray beam as it passes through matter.

Attenuation of X-rays depends on the material it is passing through — for dense materials
such as bone it is high; for less dense material such as flesh it is much lower.

Intensity of incident beam Io is more than intensity of emergent beam I because of:
 absorption by the material
 scattering by the material
 reflection at material’s surfaces
 beam is divergent

It was found experimentally that

I∝x where I – intensity
x – distance
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The attenuation (provided the beam is parallel) is exponential in nature giving the equation:

I = I0 e−μx
where I0 is the initial intensity, μ is the linear attenuation (or absorption) coefficient.
The unit of µ is mm-1 or cm-1

The mathematics of, and dealing with, this equation are identical to that for the radioactive
decay equation. The equivalent of half-life is the half-value thickness (h.v.t.) of the material.
This is the thickness of material that reduces the intensity of the incident signal to half of its
original intensity. The graph below shows the variation with thickness x of x-ray intensity

When the emergent/transmitted beam I is 50% of incident beam Io, h v t

𝒍𝒏𝟐
𝒙𝟏 = 𝝁
𝟐

Worked Examples

1 The attenuation (absorption) coefficient of bone is 600 m−1 for X-rays of energy 20keV. A
beam of such X-rays has an intensity of 20 W m−2.

Calculate the intensity of the beam after passing through a 4.0 mm thickness of bone.

Solution
I = I0 e−μx
= 20 × e−(600 × 0.004) = 20 × e−2.4
= 1.8 W m−2

So the intensity of the X-ray beam will have been reduced to about 10% of its initial value
after passing through just 4.0 mm of bone.

2 The linear absorption coefficient of copper is 0.693mm-1. Calculate

(a) the thickness of copper required to reduce the incident intensity by 50% (the half value
thickness or HVT))
(b) the fraction of an emergent intensity to an incident intensity of a parallel beam that is
transmitted to copper plate of thickness 1.2cm.
Solution
I = Io e−μx
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0.50Io −0.693 x 12x1

= e 2
Io
ln0.50 = −0.693x1 x1 = 1.0mm
2 2

Computerized tomography scanning ( CT)

Disadvantages of Traditional X-ray imaging

The traditional X-ray imaging has the major disadvantage of:-

 producing only a shadow image or ‘flat image ‘or 2-D image.
 lacking true depth of organs i e it does not give detail and exact location of organ as
to whether an organ is near to the skin or deep within the body.
 making soft tissues lying behind structures that are very dense cannot be detected

Advantages of a CT scan

CT scans have a number of advantages.

 A CT scan allows 3-D images to be recorded and displayed.
o Detail of organs deep in the body can be seen more clearly and
o The exact location of the organs in the body can be exactly located.
 They can distinguish tissues with quite similar densities (attenuation coefficients).
 They produce images with depth i e they can show up the precise position, shape
and size of a tumour. This allows it to be precisely targeted in treatment with high-
energy X-rays or γ-rays.

Tomography is a technique by which an image of a slice or section of an object may be

obtained. Diagram below illustrates tomographic technic.

Principles of computed tomography or CT scanning:

 X-ray images of one slice is taken from different angles, all in the same plane
 Combined to produce a 2D image of one slice
 Repeated for many slices and
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 The 2D images combined to build up 3D image of whole body structure using the
computer that can be rotated and viewed from different angles

Why a Computer Is Necessary

 Several or very many slices are involved in CT scanning, so several images of a slice
are taken from several different angles resulting in large volumes of data about a
single slice are involved to make voxels.
 Reconstruction of pixels into voxels involves several statistical computations.
 Data about a slice requires storage.

Therefore a powerful computer is needed

o to remove background intensity from pixels
o for storage of pixel data of slices,
o for statistical computation of the pixel data into 2-D slice images
o reconstruction of voxel intensities from pixel intensities into 3-D images
of organ
o to enable the brightness and contrast of images to be varied so that
optimum images may be obtained

However, it is worth noting that a CT scan involves using X-rays and any exposure to
ionising radiation carries a risk for the patient. These risks are fairly minimal.

Voxel Development in CT Scans

The aim of CT scanning is to produce 3-D image of an organ.

 The section or slice through the body is divided up into a series of small units/cubes
called voxels. Diagram below shows a section consisting of 4 voxels.
 A parallel x-ray beam is then directed into each voxel from different angles taking
image of each voxel. The image of each voxel has a particular intensity, known as a
pixel.
 The pixels are built up from measurements of X-ray intensity made along a series of
different directions around the section of the body.

The number on each voxel is the pixel intensity. Pixel intensities have to be reproduced
building up the image.

The purpose of CT scan is to reproduce these pixels in their correct positions.

The diagram below shows how the pixels are reproduced.

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Building the Image

USING X-RAY IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS

A technique called X-ray Diffraction Crystallography is used to determine the identity of

minerals found in a rock sample. But how does this technique work?

The diagram above shows a beam of x-rays striking the surface of a crystal with 15 atoms
arranged into three parallel planes. The diagram shows the added distance that the lower ray
gains by being diffracted through the angle θ.
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The beam strikes the atoms and is ‘diffracted’ into a new direction defined by the angle θ.
If two beams of x-rays are out-of-phase, they interfere destructively and end up with a dark
spot and if they are in-phase, they will interfere constructively and produce a very bright spot.
Diffraction rings of bright and dark spots are observed.

How an X-ray Diffraction Crystallography is used to determine the identity of Minerals

found in a rock sample.

X-ray Powder Diffractometer experiments yielding (digital) computer output is used.

In these experiments,
 A rock sample containing the minerals is crushed to powder and a strip of film is
wrapped around the powder sample.

 An X-ray beam is directed to the wrapped powder sample and the incident x-ray beam
is diffracted by the minerals in the rock sample.

 The diffracted x-ray beams are recorded for all values of θ simultaneously.

 The powder diffractometer moves both the x-ray source and an electronic detector
through arcs of angle θ and sends the diffracted x-ray beams to a computer as periodic
signals that are proportional to the averaged diffracted x-ray intensity. The
experiments provide the intensities for diffracted beams as a function of the
diffraction angle θ (or 2θ) as shown in the diagram below.

Powder Diffraction 2
• Mineral unknowns may be identified from powder diffraction data.

The output intensities obtained from the diffraction process are then compared or
matched with standard intensities stored in the computer memory centre and the
compound can be identified.
USING X-RAYS IN THE TREATMENT OF MALIGNANCIES
Malignancies are diseases like cancer, ulcers and tumours.
In treatment of malignancies, cancerous or ulcerated tissues or tissues with tumours are killed
while the normal or healthy tissues are spared or are not killed.

When treating malignancies, fractionation technique should be used. In this technique, a dose
should be given in fractions over a period of time to reduce harm to patient.
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Advantages of Fractionation Technique

1. Cells are more radiation sensitive when they are dividing but they may spend more
time in a state of not dividing. Cells which not radiation sensitive in one dose will be
sensitive another and will be killed. Cancerous or ulcerated cells or cells with tumor
divide more rapidly than normal cells and so are more likely to be radiation sensitive.

2. Normal cells recover more rapidly between fractions than affected cells and so a
higher total radiation dose can be tolerated by the patient.

When treating malignancies doctors divide the affected areas into target volumes.

A target volume is volume of tissue within a patient that is to be irradiated in a given

absorbed dose in a certain time.

Energy given to the target volume must be much more than that given to the surrounding
healthy tissues if dangerous side-effects are to be avoided. This true when if the surrounding
areas include radiation sensitive tissues and organs like the brain, spinal cord, genital tissues,
kidneys and lens of the eye.

Malignancy Treatment Plan

It is very useful to use a dose treatment plan because it allows the distribution of radiation
in the body to be modelled in order to check that only tumours or ulcerated or cancerous
cells will be destroyed.

To achieve the best results from radiation therapy,

 dose distribution must be calculated accurately. A computer called treatment
planning computer is used to calculate the dose distribution accurately and it makes
the calculation much easier.
 information about the exact position, and size of the target volume is obtained from
the 3-D X-ray images of the target volume using the powerful computer.
 using the 3-D images, the best geometric arrangement of the radiation field is
determined to give an acceptable dose distribution around the patient.