SURVEYING & GEOMATICS Module 5

SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 5

Syllabus 5.1- GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM – Components and principles, Satellite
ranging- calculating position, signal structure, applications of GPS, GPS surveying
methods- Static, Rapid static, Kinematic methods – DGPS

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM

Identifying and remembering objects and landmarks as points of reference were the techniques
that the early man used to find his way through jungles and deserts. Leaving stones, marking
trees, and referencing mountains were the early navigational and positional aids in the Stone
Age.
Identifying points of reference was easy on land; but it became a matter of life and survival
when man started to explore the oceans, where the only visible objects were the sun, the moon,
and the stars. Naturally, they became the 'points of reference' and the era of celestial navigation
and positioning began. Celestial navigation and positioning was the first serious solution to the
problem of finding one's position in unknown territories, where the sun, the moon, and stars were
used as points of reference.
The idea of automatic computation of position through measurement of distances to points of
reference became a reality only recently, when radio signals were employed and the age of radio
navigation began. About the middle of the twentieth century, scientists discovered a way to
measure distances using radio signals. The concept was to measure the time taken for special
radio signals to travel from a transmitting station (tower) to a special device designed to receive
them. Multiplying the signal travel time by the speed of the signal gives the distance between the
transmitter and the receiver. The speed of radio signals is the same as the speed of light about 3 x
10 m/s (about 186,500 miles/s). LORAN (Long Range Navigation) is one such radio navigation
system that became operational around 1950.
However, these systems (such as LORAN) had a limited local coverage and were able to provide
only two-dimensional position information (latitude and longitude), and not any information
about height and, for example, could not be used in aviation to provide altitude. To overcome
these limitations, satellite-based radio navigation and positioning systems were conceived in
which improved radio transmitters were placed on satellites orbiting the earth at high altitudes to

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give a wider coverage. Signals from navigation satellites can cover large areas of the earth, and
several satellites can cover the whole planet.
The theory behind the operation of the satellite-based navigation and positioning systems is
similar to that of the land-based systems. In land-based navigation systems, the transmitting
towers are the reference points located on the earth and the distance to them is measured by the
receivers to compute the two- dimensional position (longitude and latitude or x and y). In
satellite-based systems, the satellites act as the reference points and the distance to them is
measured to determine the three-dimensional position (longitude, latitude, and altitude or x, y.
and z).
The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is the standard generic term for satellite-based
navigation systems that provide autonomous geospatial positioning with global coverage. The
GNSS is a network of satellites that continuously transmits coded information, which makes it
possible to precisely identify locations on earth by measuring distance from the satellites. The
GNSSS involve satellites, ground stations, and user equipment to determine positions around the
world. GNSS systems allow small hand-held rover electronic devices (receivers) to determine
their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) within accuracy of few meters, using time signals
transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. Receivers on the ground with a fixed
position can also be used to calculate the precise time as a reference for scientific experiments or
where high accuracy is required. Among currently used GNSSS, the GPS from the United States
is best known and most widely used.
How a radio signal transmitter receiver system could be used to determine a person's location"
Let us assume that a transmitting tower is installed at a known point, A, on the earth and we have
a special radio that can receive signals from transmitter A and measure the distance to the
transmitter. The exact location of point A is programmed in our special radio receiver .We are in
some unknown location. We turn on the receiver and measure our distance to the transmitter as
300 m This does not tell us where we are, but it narrows our position to a point on a circle with
the radius of 300 m around the transmitter, as shown in Fig (a) It can be said that , we are
anywhere on the circumference of this circle.

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Next, let us assume that a second transmitter tower is installed at another known point B, on the
earth. The same receiver measures our distance to transmitter B as 500 m. This tells us that we
are somewhere on a circle with the radius of 500 around the transmitter B. We now have two
pieces of information: our distance to point A is 300 m and our distance to point B is 500 m. So
we are on circle A and circle B at the same time. Therefore, we must be at the intersection of the
Two circles, one of the two points P or Q, as shown in Fig (b).
Measuring our distance to a third transmitter C, in the same manner, would identify exactly
where we are. Figure (c) shows that we must be at the point Q. where three circles intersect. This
process of determining one's location with the distance measured from three reference points
located on the ground is known as two-dimensional trilateration. However, this is a case for
determining two- dimensional (2D) position, where we need at least three reference points. In
this example, we have assumed that we are on the surface. Therefore, the surface of the earth
would act as an additional reference. But, if we are at some height from the earth's surface, we
need at least four reference points for determining three- dimensional (3D) locations. However, it

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is worth mentioning that GNSS can determine three-dimensional positions with reference to only
three points by means of mathematical and geometrical tricks.

SATELLITE-BASED NAVIGATION AND POSITIONING SYSTEMS

The first satellite navigation system was TRANSIT (currently not operational), a system
deployed by the US military in the 1960s. The experience gained from Transit and several other
experimental systems led to the development of the current GNSS.
A GNSS may have several layers of infrastructure
• Core satellite navigation systems or core GNSS - currently GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and
Compass.
• Global satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS).
• Regional SBAS including Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) of United Sates,
•European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) of European Union, Multi-
functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS) of Japan, and GPS-Aided Geo-Augmented
Navigation (GAGAN) of India.
•Regional satellite navigation systems such as Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) of Japan,
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) of India, and Beidou I of China.

COMPONENTS OF GPS
Since all of the GNSSS are based on similar concepts, it is not necessary to discuss all systems in
depth. We shall focus on the GPS, the most widely used system, to understand how a GNSS
works. The GPS consists of a space segment (the satellites), a control segment (the ground
stations), and a user segment (users and their GPS receivers). Let us now consider the three parts
of the system and discuss them in more detail. We shall then have a closer look at how GPS
works.

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Space segment
The space segment consists of at least 24 satellites (21 active plus 3 operating spares) and is the
heart of the system (Fig.). The satellites are in a 'high orbit’ about 20,200 km (13,000 miles)
above the earth's surface. Operating at such a high altitude allows the signals to cover a greater
area, The satellites are arranged in their orbits so a GPS receiver on the earth can always receive
signals or information from at least four of them at any given time.

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The satellites travel at a speed of 3870 m/s which allows them to Circle the earth once every 12h.
They are powered by solar energy and are built to last about 10-12 years. If the solar energy fails
(eclipses and such factors), they have back-up batteries on board to keep them running. They
also have small rocket boosters to keep them flying in the correct path.
The first GPS satellite was launched into space in 1978. A full constellation of 24 satellites was
achieved in 1994, completing the system. The satellites are geostationary as well as non-
geostationary. At any given time, there are 12 satellites on either side of the hemispheres.
The main functions of a GPS satellite are as follows:
• It receives and stores data from the control segment.
• It maintains a very precise time.
•It transmits coded signals to user receivers through the use of two frequencies, LI (1575.42
MHz) and L2 (1227.60 MHz). Another additional frequency, L5 (1176.45 MHz), will be used in
future.
These satellites transmit the coarse acquisition (C/A) code on LI band and precision or protected
(P) code on both LI and L2 bands. C/A code is available to the civilians whereas P code is used
by the US military. Therefore the GPS can provide two so-called services: the standard
positioning service (SPS) using C/A code and the precise positioning service (PPS) for high
precision positioning using P code.
Each satellite contains at least three high-precision atomic clocks and constantly transmits radio
signals using its own unique identification code The GPS receivers are designed to receive these
signals. The signal travels in the 'line of sight, which implies that it can pass through clouds,
glass, and plastic, but not go through most solid objects such as buildings and mountains.
Each signal contains pseudorandom codes (a complex pattern of digital code). The main purpose
of these coded signals is to allow for calculation of signal travel- time from the satellite to the
user's receiver) This travel time is also called the time of arrival or propagation time. The travel
time multiplied by the speed of light equals the satellite range (distance from the satellite to the
receiver). The satellite signals are timed using highly accurate atomic clocks. Because the speed
of light is about 3 x 10' m/s (precisely 2.9979246 X 10 m/s), a tiny fraction of error can produce
a wrong distance measurement.

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Control Segment
The control segment (also referred to as ground segment) does what its name implies. it 'controls'
the GPS satellites by tracking them and then providing them with corrected orbital and clock
(time) information. The GPS control segment consists of a master control station, and three
uploading stations. Six monitor stations are used to carry out the measurements required for the
definition of the data to be uploaded. These monitor stations are called Operational Control
Segment (OCS) monitor stations, Additionally, 10 National Geospatial Agency (NGA) stations
for monitoring are also there since September 2005.One backup master control station has also
been established. Figure gives details of the locations of the GPS ground segment. The main
functions of the ground segments are to
• Monitor the satellites.
•Estimate the on-board clock state and define the corresponding parameters to be broadcast (with
reference to the constellation's master time);
• Define the orbits of each satellite in order to predict the ephemeris (precise orbital
information), together with the almanac (coarse orbital information);
• Determine the attitude (orientation) and location of the satellites in order to determine the
parameters to be sent to the satellites for correcting their orbits; and
• Uploading (sending) the derived clock correction parameters, ephemeris, almanac, and orbit
correction commands to the satellites.
Monitor stations track the satellites continuously and provide tracking. information to the master
control station/ In the master control station, the information sent by the monitor stations is then
incorporated into precise satellite orbit and clock correction coefficients and the master control
station forwards them to the upload stations. The upload stations transmit these data to each
satellite at least once in a day. The satellites then send the orbital information to the GPS
receivers over radio signals. Figure illustrates this concept schematically.

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User Segment
The user segment just consists of the user and his GPS receiver. In general, GIS receivers are
composed of an antenna (internal or external), tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the
satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable clock (often a crystal oscillator).
Remember that receiver clocks are not as precise as the satellite atomic clocks. Generally,
receivers also include a display for providing location and other information to the user. A
receiver is often described by its number of channels: this signifies signals from how many
satellites it can process simultaneously. Originally limited to maximum of four or five, this has
progressively increased over the years so that, nowadays, receivers typically have between 12-
24 channels. However, special types of receiver may have as many as 48 channels or even more.
These special receivers can capture signals from satellites of more than one constellation (e.g.,
both GPS and GLONASS).
Many GPS receivers can relay the position data to a personal computer or other devices.
Receivers can interface with other devices using methods including a serial connection, USB, or
Bluetooth.

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The user segment is composed of a great variety of terminals which includes boaters, pilots,
hikers, hunters, the military, and anyone who would wish to know where they are, where they
have been, or where they are going. The major tasks of a receiver are to:
• Select the satellites in view;
•Acquire the corresponding signals and evaluate their health;
•Carry out the propagation time measurements;
• Calculate the location of the terminal and estimate the error;
• Calculate the speed of the terminal; and
• Provide accurate time.
Therefore, users will have at their disposal a single terminal allowing localization, time
reference, altitude determination, speed indicator, and so on.

GPS WORKING PRINCIPLE AND SATELLITE RANGING

The idea behind GPS is rather simple If the distances from a point on the earth (a GPS receiver)
to three GPS satellite are known along with the satellite locations, then the location of the point
(or receiver) can be determined by simply applying the well-known concept of resection.
GPS satellite continuously transmits a microwave radio signal composed of two carriers, two
codes and a navigation message. When a GPS receiver is switched on, it will pick up the GPS
signal through the receiver antenna. Once the receiver acquires the GPS signal, it will process it
using its built-in software. The partial outcome of the signal processing consists of the distance
to the GPS satellites through the digital codes (known as the pseudoranges) and the satellite
coordinates through the navigation massage.
GPS receivers calculate the position of objects in two dimensional or three dimensional spaces
using a mathematical process called trilateration. Trilateration can be either two-dimensional or
three dimensional. Trilateration is a method of determining the position of an object by
measuring its distance from other objects with known locations.
To determine the location of the receiver, the receiver has to known two things:
(i) Where the satellites are (satellites location in the space)
(ii) How far they are (distance between the satellite and the receiver)
Determination of "Where the Satellites are"

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The GPS receiver picks up two kinds of coded information from each GPS satellite, They àre
almanac and ephemeris data.

The almanac data contains the approximate positions (location) of the satellite. This data is
continuously transmitted and stored in the memory of the GPS receivers. From the almanac data,
the GPS receiver knows the orbits of the satellites and where, each satellite is supposed to be.
The aimanac data periodically updated with new information as the satellites move around Any
satellite can travel slightly out of its orbits, but the ground monitor station keeps the track or
satellite orbits, altitude, location and speed. The ground station send the orbital data to the master
control station, which in turns send corrected data up to the satellites. This corrected and exact
position data is called the ephemeris data, which is valid for about 4 to 6 hours and is transmitted
in the coded information to the GPS receiver.
So, by having received the almanac and ephemeris data, the GPS receiver knows the position
(location) of the satellites all times.
Determination of "How far Away the Satellites are"
Time is the most important parameter to known how far away the satellites are? There is a
simple formula that tells the receiver how far it is from each satellite. The distance from a given
satellite to the Object equals the velocity of the transmitted signal multiplied by the travel time of
radio. Waves transmitted from the satellites to reach the object (transit rime).
In this case the distance is calculated as
Distance = light velocity x travel time of the satellite signal (t)

GPS WORKS ON PRINCIPLE CALLED 'TIME OF ARRIVAL'

The receiver already knows the velocity of the satellite signal, it is the speed of the radio wave
(3 x 10 m/s). Now the GPS receiver needs to determine the time part of the formula. The time
part is in the coded signal transmitted by the satellite. The transmitted code is called Pseudo
Random Noise (PRN) Code, because it looks like a noise signal. When a satellite is generating
the PRN code, the OPS receiver is generating the same code and tries to match is upto the
satellites code. The receiver then compares the two codes to determine how much it needs to
delay (shift) its code to match the satellite code (ref. Fig (a)). This delay time is multiplied by the
velocity of light to get the distance (ref. Fig. (b))

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Once the satellites location in the space and distance between the satellite and the receiver are
known then the receiver position can be determined in 2 dimension (2D) and 3 Dimension (3D).

DETERMINING THE RECEVER POSITION

When a GPS receiver pick up a signal from one satellite the position of GPS receiver will be on
an imaginary sphere that has satellite at it-center with radius equal to the distance of the satellite
from the earth. As earth is also a sphere, the intersection of these two spheres creates a common
circle on the surface of earth. The position of the receiver will therefore be on the surface of a
large circle created by the intersection of the two spheres.
The GPS receiver than starts picking up signals from two satellites, This help to narrow down it
position. The position of GPS receiver will now be on one of the two points of intersection of the
two large circles formed due to the intersection of three spheres, one the earth and other two
spheres formed by the satellites, When the receiver picks up signals from third satellite, the
position of the receiver will be on the point of intersection of the three circles, Here the GPS
receiver gets a position but there is no check on its accuracy.
With four satellites the receiver will get a precise position and it will be able to compute the
elevation of the position with reference to selected datum. Fig. illustrates basic idea of GPS
positioning.

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GPS SIGNALS
How does a GPS satellite communicate to a receiver? It uses codes. The GPS codes are binary
0s and 1s, the language of computers. Codes are carried to GPS receivers by carrier waves.

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A series of waves transmitted at constant frequency and amplitude is called a wave. A

continuous wave is modified in some manner. This is called modulation. When this occurs, the
continuous wave serves as a carrier wave for information. In communication technology, a
carrier wave, or carrier is a waveform (shape and form of a signal) that is modulated (modified or
changed) with an input signal for the purpose of conveying information, for example voice or
data, to be transmitted, for example by radio wave. A carrier wave has at least one characteristic
such as phase, amplitude or frequency that may be modulated for the pull-pose of carrying
information. For example, the information, music, or speech received from an AM radio station
is placed on the carrier wave by amplitude modulation (e., the amplitude is changed), and the
information on the signal from a FM radio station is there because of frequency modulation (1.e.,
the frequency is changed). Any of several types of modulation may be used to carry the
information.

The phase of a wave is the amount by which the cycle has progressed from a specified origin. By
means of phase modulation using radio wave, GPS signal is carried from satellites to the
receivers. The signal carries two different types of information-navigation code and ranging
code.

Navigation Code

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The navigation code (also called navigation message), is the vehicle for telling the GPS
receivers some of the most important things they need to know. These information are: (I) what
time it is on the satellite, (2) the instantaneous position of a moving satellite (ephemeris data), (3)
some information about necessary atmospheric corrections, (4) some sort of satellite
identification system to tell the receiver from which satellite the signal came and where the
receiver may find the other satellites (almanac data), and (5) health information of the satellites
(whether the satellite can be considered for position calculation or not).
Ranging Codes
In addition to the navigation message, GPS satellites transmit a special type of code used to
determine the range (distance) from the satellite to the receiver. These codes carry the data from
which GPS receivers derive their propagation time and distance measurements. The raging codes
are complicated; so complicated, in fact, that they appear to be nothing but noise at first. And
even though they are known as pseudo-random noise or PRN codes, actually, these codes have
been carefully designed. This complex and specific design provides them the capability of
repetition and replication.
Observables-Pseudorange and Carrier Phase
The word observable is used throughout the GPS literature to indicate the signals whose
measurement yields the range or distance between the satellite and the receiver. The word is used
to draw a distinction between the thing being measured (the observable) and the measurement
(the observation). Observable may be thought as a basis or scale of a measurement. In GPS there
are two types of observables: the pseudorange and the carrier phase. The latter, also known as the
carrier beat phase, is the basis of the techniques used for high-precision GPS surveys On the
other hand, the pseudorange can serve applications when virtually instantaneous point positions
are required or relatively low accuracy can be considered.
The foundation of pseudoranges is the correlation of code carried on a modulated carrier wave
received from a GPS satellite with a replica of that same code generated in the receiver. This
technique is called code correlation. Most of the GPS receivers are capable of code correlation;
i.e., they can determine pseudoranges. High-precision receivers are capable of determining
carrier phase.

GPS APPLICATIONS

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Real time kinematic GPS has opened floodgates to new applications. GPS also being
increasingly used for machine guidance. One can actually have a map of the job site and display
it in the bulldozer with control down to see centimeters. It enables machine operator to go
directly to right coordinates. They are attached with machine. GPS can also contribute
significantly to account mapping of wetland. GPS can also serve as a watcher on structures
features where ground movements are common. GPS receivers placed on a dam or hill top linked
by a modem in a home base can measure the mover quickly through GPS position changes and
can send an e-mail or pager massage warning if danger threatens. The positional data from GPS
can be given as input into GIS software and contouring, cross-sections, cut and fill volume
calculation and alignment of roads, pipelines, tunnels etc., can be carried out easily. Geodetic
measurements provide very accurate determinations of positions of points on the earth surface
and GPS is highly useful for this measurement. Tectonic plate movement study requires
millimeter accuracy but navigational accuracy is a meter to few centimeters. Scientists,
sportsmen, farmers, soldiers pilots, surveyors, sailors, dispatchers, fire-fighters, and people from
many other walks of life are using GPS in many ways while makes their work more productive,
safer and sometimes even more easier.
GPS is very much useful in surveying. High end GPS are necessary for survey applications.
Time requirement for GPS surveying is very minimum compared with other conventional survey
equipment. Also it is possible to survey an area for industry or for other purpose aerially. A flight
fitted with GPS can survey an area with in a shorter time span.
One of the real "up-and-coming application, for GPS and the area perhaps most likely to directly
impact the "average" person, is in land navigation. This includes rail, trucking, emergency
(police, fire, ambulance, etc.), and private vehicles. Collectively, these land GPS navigation
applications are broadly referred to as IVS, or intelligent vehicle systems, or more specifically
IVHS: intelligent vehicle Highway systems. Another terms that is beginning to find increasingly
wide use is AVL, or Automated vehicle location.
Therefore, GPS is one of the fastest moving technologies in the world. It has find application in
almost all areas requiring spatial coordinate or time. The following is the list of some application
areas where GPS has been used widely:

 Utility industry

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 Natural resources
 Precision forming
 Civil engineering applications
 Structural deformations
 Open pit mining
 Land and marine seismic surveying
 Air borne mapping
 Seafloor mapping
 Vehicle navigation
 Transit system
 Retial industry
 Cadastral surveying
 Stakeout (way point navigation)
 Location Based Services (LBS)

GPS SURVEYING
Probably even more important to the surveyor or engineer than the theory behind GPS, are the
practicalities of the effective use of GPS.
Like any tool, GPS is only an good as it's operator. Proper planning and preparation are essential
ingredients of a successful survey, as well as awareness of the capabilities and limitations of
GPS.
Why use GPS?
GPS has numerous advantages over traditional surveying methods:
1. Intervisibility between points is not required.
2. Can be used at any time of the day or night and in any weather.
3. Produces results with very high geodetic accuracy.
4. More work can be accomplished in less time with fewer people

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Limitations
In order to operate with GPS it is important that the GIS Antenna has a clear view to at least 4
satellites. Sometimes, the satellite signals can be blocked by tall buildings, trees etc. Hence, GPS
cannot be used indoors. It is also difficult to use GPS in town centers or woodland.
Due to this limitation, it may prove more cost effective in some survey applications to use an
optical total station or to combine use of such an instrument with GPS.

GPS MEASURING TECINIQUES

There are several measuring techniques that can be used by most GPS Survey Receivers. The
surveyor should choose the appropriate technique tor the application.
Static - Used for long lines, geodetic networks, tectonic plate studies etc. Offers high accuracy
over long distances but is comparatively slow.
Rapid Static - Used for establishing local control networks, Network densification etc. Offers
high accuracy on baselines up to about 20km and is much faster than the Static technique.
Kinematic - Used for detail surveys and measuring mar points in quick succession. Very
efficient way of measuring many points that are close together. However, if there are
obstructions to the sky such as bridges, trees, tall buildings etc., and less than 4 satellites are
tracked, the equipment must be reinitialized which can take 5-10 minutes.
STATIC, RAPID STATIC AND KINEMATIC METHODS OF GPS SURVEYING
Static GPS Surveying
It is a relative positioning technique that depends on the carrier-phase measurement. It employs
two (or more) stationary receivers simultaneously tracking the same satellites. One receiver, the
base receiver, is set up over a point with precisely known coordinates such as a survey
monument (sometimes referred to the known point).

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SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 5

Syllabus 5.2 – REMOTE SENSING – Definition- Electromagnetic spectrum- Energy

interactions with atmosphere and earth surface features- Spectral reflectance of vegetation,
soil and water- Classification of sensors- Active and passive, Resolution- special, spectral
radiometric and temporal resolution, Multi spectral scanning- Along track and across
track scanning.

REMOTE SENSING

“Remote” means far away, Remote sensing means sensing things from a distance. Of
our five senses we use three as remote sensors when we :
(i) Watch a football game from the stands (sense of sight)

(ii) Smell freshly baked in the oven (sense of smell)

(iii) Hear a telephone ring (sense of hearing)
The other two sense (sense of taste and sense of touch) are not used “remotely”.

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REMOTE SENSING
Remote sensing is defined as an art and science of obtaining information about an
object or feature without physically coming in contact with that object or feature.

Earth observation from space and air

Remote Sensing is a technology to observe objects size, shape and character without
direct contact with them.
The reflected or radiated electromagnetic (EM) waves are received by sensors aboard
platform. The characteristics of reflected or radiated EM waves depend on the type or
condition of the objects. By understanding characteristics of EM response and comparing
observed information, we can know the size, shape and character of the objects.

Advantages of Satellite Observation

o Enables to observe a broad area at a time. Enables
to observe the area for a long period.
o Repeat pass observation (Time series data, Change detection)
o Enables to know the condition without visiting the area
Enables to know invisible information
o Sensors for various electromagnetic spectrum
(Infrared, microwave)

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Energy Source or Illumination (A) - The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.

Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - As the energy travels from its source to the target, it
will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction
may take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.

Interaction with the Target (C) - Once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.

Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - After the energy has been scattered by, or emitted
from the target, we require a sensor (remote – not in contact with the target) to collect and
record the electromagnetic radiation.

Transmission, Reception, and processing (E) - The energy recorded by the sensor has to be
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the date are
processed into an image (hardcopy and
/ or digital).

Interpretation and Analysis (F) – The processed image is interpreted, visually and / or
digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.

Application (G) - The final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply
the information that we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target, in order to
better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Visible light is only one of many forms of electromagnetic energy. Radio waves, heat,
ultraviolet rays, and X - rays are other familiar forms. All this energy is inherently similar and
radiates in accordance with basic wave theory. As shown in Figure, this theory describes
electromagnetic energy as travelling in a harmonic, sinusoidal fashion at the “Velocity of light”
C. The distance from one wave peak passing a fixed point in space per unit time is the wave

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SENSORS
Strength of reflection and radiation of EM waves from plants, earth and water varies in
each wavelength. Every material on earth shows its own strength of reflection in each
wavelength when it is exposed to the EM waves. Sensors aboard a platform are capable to
acquire the strength of reflection and radiation in each wavelength.
Passive and Active Remote sensing
Passive Sensors: Measure energy that is naturally available (e.g. Optical sensors)
Active Sensors: Provide their own energy source for illumination (e.g. Synthetic Aperture
Radar (SAR), Laser Scanner (LIDAR)
Fig (a) Passive Remote Sensing and (b) Active Remote Sensing Passive
Remote Sensing
Passive sensors detect sunlight reflected from the earth and thermal radiation in the
visible and infrared of the electromagnetic spectrum. They do not emit their own radiation, but
receive natural light and thermal radiation from the earth’s surface. Most passive sensors make
use of a scanner for imaging, e.g LANDSAT. Equipped with spectrometers they measure
signals at several spectral bands simultaneously, resulting in so- called multispectral images
which allow numerous interpretations.

 The sun provides a very convenient source of energy for remote sensing
 The sun’s energy is reflected for visible wavelengths, or absorbed and then reemitted
for thermal IR wavelengths.
 For all reflected energy. this can only take place during the time when the sun is
illuminating the Earth
 Energy that is naturally emitted (such as thermal infrared) can be detected day or night,
as long as the amount of energy is large enough to be recorded.

ACTIVE REMOTE SENSING

Active sensors (for example Radar and laser scanners) emit artificial radiation to
monitor the earth surface or atmospheric features. Radars are imaging instruments while radar
altimeters and scatter meters are non imaging. Radar is the abbreviation for Radio Detection
and Ranging, a method for the detection and ranging of earth surface features. Radar satellites

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use short pulses of electromagnetic radiation in the microwave spectral range, therefore they
do not depend on delight and are hardly affected by clouds, dust, fog, wind and bad weather
conditions. They measure the radar pulses reflected from the ground, analyse the signal
intensity in order to retrieve information on the structure of the earth surface, and detect the
elapsed time between pulse emission and return Results can be used to measure distances.
Depending on the satellite mission, different operations and procedures are used to process the
signals into viable information.
 An active sensor emits radiation which is directed toward the target to be
investigated. The radiation reflected from that target is detected and measured by the
sensor.

 However, active systems require the generation of a fairly large amount of energy to
adequately illuminate targets.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE SENSORS:

Advantages Disadvantages

Weather independent artificial The pulse power is mostly low and can

microwave radiation can penetrate clouds, be influenced or interfered by

other radiation sources.
light rain and snow.

Sunlight independent can be

operated day and night.

Radar penetrates vegetation and soil can Radar signals contain no spectral
gain information about surface characteristics.
layer from mm to m depth

Can given information about Complicated analysis, cost

moisture content of soil layer intensive.

Various applications: oceanography,

hydrology, geology, glaciology,
agriculture and forestry service

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