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Gondwana Deposits of the Bengal Basin (Bangladesh) and Coal Potential
Chapter · December 2021

DOI: 10.1201/9781003080817-3
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59
Gondwana Deposits of the

3 Bengal Basin (Bangladesh)
and Coal Potential
Md. Nehal Uddin
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 60
3.1.1 Geology of the Gondwana Coal Deposits ............................................................. 60
3.1.2 History of Coal Exploration .................................................................................. 65
3.1.3 The Role of Coal as a Primary/Secondary Energy Fuel ........................................ 65
3.2 The Permian Gondwana Coal Basin ................................................................................. 66
3.2.1 Barapukuria Basin ................................................................................................. 66
3.2.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 66
3.2.1.2 Structure and Stratigraphy ...................................................................... 67
3.2.1.3 Attributes of the Coal Seams .................................................................. 70
3.2.1.4 Areal/Spatial Extent and Reserves .......................................................... 71
3.2.1.5 Coal Characteristics and Rank ................................................................ 71
3.2.1.6 Mining Potential...................................................................................... 75
3.2.1.7 Coal Production ...................................................................................... 78
3.2.1.8 Environmental Impact Assessment ......................................................... 78
3.2.1.9 Impact of Coal on Economic Development ............................................ 79
3.2.2 Phulbari Basin ....................................................................................................... 79
3.2.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 79
3.2.3 Khalaspir Basin ..................................................................................................... 85
3.2.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 85
3.2.4 Kuchma Basin ....................................................................................................... 96
3.2.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 96
3.2.5 Jamalganj Basin..................................................................................................... 99
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60 Md. Nehal Uddin
3.2.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 99

3.2.5.2 Structure and Stratigraphy .................................................................... 100
3.2.5.3 Attributes of the Coal Seams ................................................................ 105
3.2.5.4 Areal/Spatial Extent and Reserves ........................................................ 106
3.2.5.5 Coal Characteristics and Rank .............................................................. 106
3.2.5.6 Mining Potential.................................................................................... 109
3.2.6 Dighipara Basin ................................................................................................... 111
3.2.6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 111
3.2.6.2 Structure and Stratigraphy .................................................................... 111
3.2.6.3 Attributes of the Coal Seams ................................................................ 115
3.2.6.4 Areal/Spatial Extent and Reserves ........................................................ 117
3.2.6.5 Coal Characteristics and Rank .............................................................. 118
3.2.6.6 Mining Potential.................................................................................... 118
3.3 Hydrocarbon Potential of Gondwana Coal ..................................................................... 118
3.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 118
3.3.2 Coal Bed Methane Potentiality of Gondwana Coal ............................................ 122
3.4 Major Coal-Based Power Plants in Bangladesh .............................................................. 123
3.5 Bangladesh’s Coal Policy: A Critical Review ................................................................. 124
3.6 Current Scenario and Future Prospects: Bangladesh and the Global Context ................ 125
References ................................................................................................................................. 127
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 GEOLOGY OF THE GONDWANA COAL DEPOSITS
The Indian subcontinent, along with the continents of the southern hemisphere, was part of the
supercontinent of Gondwanaland (Suess, 1885) that had existed as a single landmass since the
Cambrian until its eventual break-up in phases during the Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous. India,
Madagascar, Australia, and East Antarctica formed East Gondwana while Africa and South
America were part of West Gondwana (Hossain et al., 2020).
The coal-bearing Gondwana basins developed in the depressions of the Pre-Cambrian crystal-
line Basement rocks, ranging from the Lower Permian to the Upper Permian in the subcontinent
(Figure 3.1). These basins are believed to be the remnants of the originally thicker and extensive
master basin, and the palaeoslope was towards the northwest (Vadayanadhyan and Ramkrishnan,
2010). Later on, the global Permo-Carboniferous diastrophism broke up the Gondwanaland
(Srikanth and Bhargara, 1983), and these basins were formed as faulted troughs. The Gondwana
basins in Bangladesh are thought to be the outcome of such troughs and later on acquired a
dynamic character (Uddin and Islam, 1992). The general requisites of these basins are: (1) a
boulder bed at the bottom followed by sandstone, shale, coal beds in the lower part; (2) preser-
vation of the sequences in a faulted trough/basins; (3) a largely fluvio-lacustrine environment;
(4) the presence of Glossopteris and Ptilophyllum flora; and (5) a palaeoslope directed west to
northwest (Vadayanadhyan and Ramkrishnan, 2010).
In Bangladesh, the coalfield area is within the southern slope of the Rangpur Saddle of the
shelf area (Alam et al., 1990). These basins may have been formed by faulting in the crystal-
line basement during the Permo-Carboniferous period (Banerjee, 1981; Hossain et al., 2019).
The processes that led to the formation of the basins are rather complex. The break-up of
Gondwanaland during the global Permo-Carboniferous diastrophism, and the northward drift of
the Indian plate initiated the formation of these basins (Hossain et al., 2020). Later on, these were
reshaped, and the basin marginal adjustments took place from time to time due to Himalayan
upheavals (Uddin, 1994). The basins are fault-bounded and half-graben types. The Gondwana
rocks with coal beds are preserved within the graben. In many instances it has been found that the
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Gondwana Deposits and their Coal Potential 61
FIGURE 3.1 Gondwana basins of India and Bangladesh with structural patterns
Source: Drawn after Uddin (1994) and Acharyya (2019).
Gondwana basin in India and Bangladesh was intruded by doleritic and basaltic dykes and sills
during the late Mesozoic time (Gee, 1940; Ahmed and Zaher, 1965).
Eleven subsurface sedimentary basins have been identified in the northwestern part of
Bangladesh on the basis of geological and geophysical data. The shallow-depth basins are pri-
marily conjectured by examining the low gravity Bouger anomalies in the area (Figure 3.2). Later
on, drilling in nine of these identified low gravity anomaly areas and confirmed Gondwana coal
deposits in five basins (Figure 3.3). The other four areas proved to be devoid of coal. Mostafapur
of Badarganj upazila and Burirdoba of Parbatipur upazila showed the existence of Gondwana
sandstones, but coal beds were not found.
The Gondwana rocks are present on top of the Precambrian basement complex. The upper
contact is either Tertiary rocks on the northern side or Cretaceous/Jurassic rocks on the southern
side. The depth of the Gondwana coal-bearing rocks varies from 110–2630 m below the surface.
The overlying rocks of the coal-bearing sequences vary from basin to basin. In the Barapukuria
and Dighipara basins, the overlying rock is the Dupi Tila sandstone, in the Khalaspir coalfield,
the overlying rocks are the Surma Group sandstone and mudstone, in the Jamalganj coalfield the
overlying rock is the Cherra sandstone, and in the Kuchma coalfield, the overlying formation is
Rajmahal trap (Sylhet Trap). The Gondwana rock is composed of feldspathic sandstone, carbon-
aceous sandstone, carbonaceous shale, conglomerate and thick coal beds.
The Gondwana basins are bounded by faults on one or both sides and form an asymmetric
half-graben type of tilted/homoclinal basin formed within the basement complex. Normally
three types of faults are recognised in these basins. These faults are termed boundary faults,
intrabasinal faults and basin marginal cross-faults. In Bangladesh, the E-W, NW-SE and N-S
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62
o
25 40
01_9780367531805pre-c08_pi-316.indd 62
o
25 30
o
25 20
o o
88 30 88 40 o o o o
88 50 89 0 89 10 89 20
FIGURE 3.2 Bouger anomaly map of the low gravity sedimentary basin with prospects of coal-bearing areas in Rangpur-Dinajpur area, Bangladesh
Source: Rahman et al. (1985).
Md. Nehal Uddin
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63
FIGURE 3.3 Location of discovered five Gondwana coal basins in northwest Bangladesh
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64 Md. Nehal Uddin
FIGURE 3.4 Structure of the Gondwana basins in Bangladesh
Note: F1- E-W basin boundary fault, F2 N-S basin boundary fault.
Source: Uddin (1994).
faults are recognised (Figure 3.4). Among these faults, the east-west trending faults form the
boundary fault and mark the northern limit of Jamalganj coalfield. This fault is a composite
one comprising 3–4 sub-parallel faults within a narrow belt. The southern side of this fault has
about 357 m down-throw. The north-south faults with a maximum downthrow of 182 m towards
the west are the basin marginal fault for the Khalaspir and Barapukuria basins. In the Khalaspir
basin, the lower part of the Gondwana rocks is present on the eastern side of the basin near the
basin marginal fault. A series of northwest-south trending faults are developed in the Barapukuria
basin and form down-stepping from west to east. These faults seem to be sympathetic to the
north-south basin marginal fault. The major east-west faults of Bangladesh show good agreement
with those of the Koel-Damodar valley in India (Uddin, 1994). In the Jamalganj basin, the throw
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65
of the east-west fault is found less in the overlying Eocene limestone, implying that the faults
were reactivated and readjusted after their initial stage (Savornin, 1964).
The coal deposits of Bangladesh are generally similar in origin and quality to those of the large
coalfields in northeast India (West Bengal and Jharkhand). Both are good quality low sulphur
bituminous coal, and are called Gondwana coal. Two major aspects, which make coal mining
prospects in Bangladesh different from those of neighbouring West Bengal and Jharkhand are the
depth of the coal and the water-bearing soft sediment cover above the coal deposit.
3.1.2 HISTORY OF COAL EXPLORATION

The first published reference to the coal in India dates back to 1774 when permission to the work
the coal mines in Bengal (the Raniganj field near the Damodar river) was granted to John Sunner
and Suetonius Grant Heatly during the time when Warren Hastings was Governor-General of
Bengal (Gee, 1940). The coal supplied to the government was of poor quality and the work was
stopped. After 40 years, mining was started by Rupert Jones in 1815, who speculated on the pos-
sibility of coal being found beneath the plains of Bengal (Khan, 1991).
In 1857, Mallet predicted the possible extension of coalfields under the green paddy fields of
Bangladesh supporting the speculation of Rupert Jones. The first systematic geologic survey in
the field was made during 1845–46 by D.H. Williams, appointed by the East India Company and
Dr. W.T. Blandford surveyed one-inch-to-one-mile scale from 1858 to 1860 in the Raniganj coal-
field area (Gee, 1940). Fox (1930) and Gee (1932) produced reports on the Raniganj and Jharia
coalfields. They postulated on the possibilities of Gondwana coalfields in the Bengal Basin.
Mr Momtazuddin of the former Geological Survey of Pakistan submitted a report in 1957,
mentioning the possibility of finding subsurface Gondwana coal in the northern districts of the
erstwhile East Pakistan (Bangladesh). Several geophysical surveys in the northwestern part of
Bangladesh have been carried out in the area since 1950. In 1950, Standard Vacuum Oil Company
(SVOC) carried out a seismic reflection survey in the area for the first time. In 1959, Standard
Vacuum Oil Co. (ESSO) discovered 51.80 m thick Gondwana coal between 2380.67 m and
2375.0 m depth at Kuchma in the Bogra district. A seismic survey in the area was carried out in
1963 by the Oil and Gas Development Corporation (OGDC). In the 1970s, seismic surveys were
carried by the Geological Survey of Bangladesh (Anwaruddin, 1964; Ali and Islam, 1978). An
aeromagnetic survey of the whole of Bangladesh was carried out by SVOC in 1952 and OGDC
in 1953 to 1964. Seismic, gravity and magnetic surveys in the region had also been carried out
by Geophysical Prospecting Company Ltd. (1956), Geophysical Service International (1957),
Kappelmayer (1963), and Khan (1963). Drilling operations started in 1963 in the Kansat area of
Rajshahi district. The drillholes EDH 5 and 6 proved the presence of Gondwana coal. A seismic
profile was run by the then Geological Survey of Pakistan connecting Kansat, Kuchma and
Joypurhat region. After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, attention in this region turned
to the discovery of coal at shallower depths. Several gravity and magnetic surveys were carried
out to find the sedimentary basin (low gravity areas) in the northwestern part of the country (Ali
et al., 1977; Ali and Islam, 1978; Mia and Alam, 1984; 1986; Rahman et al., 1985; Rahman et al.,
1990). On the basis of these surveys, some low gravity areas were detected as sedimentary basins.
On drilling in one of these areas at Barapukuria, Gondwana sequences with bituminous coal
were discovered in 1985 at a shallow depth (Bakr et al., 1996). Following this discovery, coal at
Khalaspir basin was discovered in 1989 (Islam et al., 1992) and Dighipara in 1995 (Uddin et al.,
2016). The Phulbari coal is the southern extension of the Barapukuria coal basin.
3.1.3 THE ROLE OF COAL AS A PRIMARY/SECONDARY ENERGY FUEL

Energy is the main indicator of economic growth for a country and constitutes one of the
vital infrastructural inputs in socio-economic development. Considering the uncertainty of the
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66 Md. Nehal Uddin
sustainable supply of primary energy in the country, it is imperative to diversify the primary
energy sources in the country. At present, the Government of Bangladesh has plans to use mixed-
energy sources to meet the energy demand of the country. Bangladesh has more than 3 billion
tons of coal reserves. In the circumstances, domestic coal could be a major alternative energy
source for the energy security of the country.
To keep pace with the development of the country and demand for power generation, a number
of coal-based power plants are in the process of operation. The total capacity of five such plants
is about 5371 MW. All these power plants use imported coal. Considering the existing energy
sources of the country, it is agreed that coal is one of the main alternative energy sources for
power generation. Five coalfields (Jamalganj, Barapukuria, Khalaspir, Dighipara and Phulbari)
have so far been discovered in the northwestern part of the country. Coal has been commercially
extracted from the Barapukuria underground coal mine since 2005. The total in-situ estimated
reserve of coal in the five discovered coalfields is 7.96 billion metric tons (Petrobangla, 2020).
To meet the present and upcoming energy demand, it is necessary to increase coal production
by developing other coalfields, such as the Jamalganj coalfield, the Khalaspir coalfield, the
Phulbari coalfield and the Dighipara coalfield. The development of coalfields can be boosted by
engaging foreign and local investors. However, to solve the present and upcoming energy crisis,
the development of indigenous coal resources needs to be increased on a priority basis. Integrated
strategies to attract foreign investment and develop the coal, taking into consideration the envir-
onmental and socio-economic condition of Bangladesh must be put forward. Coal, if developed
in a sustainable manner with proper attention to social and environmental safeguards, would be
able to provide a long-term alternative fuel supply for power generation.
3.2 THE PERMIAN GONDWANA COAL BASIN

3.2.1 BARAPUKURIA BASIN
3.2.1.1 Introduction
The Barapukuria coal basin lies under the Hamidpur union of Parbatipur upazila, Dinajpur dis-
trict. The area is situated about 50 km southeast of Dinajpur town. The basin lies between the
latitudes 25°31’45“ and 25°33’5” N, and longitudes 88°57’48” and 88°58’53” E (see Figure 3.3).
The Geological Survey of Bangladesh (GSB) had discovered huge deposits of Permian
Gondwana coal at Barapukuria in 1985 at shallower depths under the green paddy fields, while
drilling in the gravity-low closure. GSB drilled seven drillholes in the basin from 1985 to 1988.
The discovered coal basin was awarded to Petrobangla for detailed exploration and development.
The techno-economic feasibility of the basin was carried out by Wardell Armstrong in 1991.
Wardell Armstrong drilled 28 boreholes, e.g. 13 geological, 13 geotechnical and 2 pumping-
test boreholes. The coal was found at depths of 118–506.0 m. The British Horizon Exploration
Company carried out a high resolution seismic survey (HRSS) in the basin in 1988 under
the feasibility survey works. Based upon the feasibility report of Wardell Armstrong (1991),
Petrobangla undertook the Barapukuria Coal Mine Development Project and the project plan
(PP) was approved by the ECNEC in 1993. In 1994, a contract between the Barapukuria Coal
Mining Project and the China Machinery Engineering Corporation (CMEC) was signed for coal
mine development. CMEC drilled 13 more holes including 5 hydrological boreholes, 2 shaft
inspection boreholes and 6 pumping-test boreholes to ascertain the structure of the basin, the
overburden characteristics (Lower and Upper Dupi Tila aquifers), the continuation of seam VI,
and geothermal gradients, etc. (Hossain, 2016).
On completion of the installation works of two shafts, when development work at the pit bottom
was in progress, the underground mine was inundated on 5 April 1998 due to an inrush of water.
This necessitated the requirement of an action plan to carry out additional geological and hydro-
geological investigations in order to acquire additional data, based on which CMEC had to modify
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the earlier approved mine design/layout. The underground mine development works then restarted
in October 2000. A production, management and maintenance (M&P) contract was signed between
Barapukuria Coal Mining Company Limited (BCMCL) and the China National Machinery Import
and Export Corporation (CMC)-led consortium with Xuzhou Coal Mining Group Company Limited
(XMC) in June 2005 to produce 4.75 million tons of coal from the first slice of the underground
mine. The CMC-XMC consortium commenced production, and the coal produced is being used in
the Barapukuria coal-based 525 MW (125x2 +275 MW) thermal power plant situated near the mine.
3.2.1.2 Structure and Stratigraphy

The Barapukuria basin is thought to be one of the down-wrapped blocks of the pre-Cambrian
basement complex formed during the Permo-Carboniferous diastrophism. The Barapukuria basin
is an asymmetric half-graben type fault-bounded, intra-cratonic basin (Bakr et al., 1996; Shahriar
et al., 2020). The Gondwana sequence is mildly folded into a N-S trending asymmetric plunging
syncline with an axis almost parallel to the eastern marginal fault. It has a long gently dipping
(4–16o) western limb and a short and steeper (30–40o) eastern limb (Armstrong, 1991; Uddin,
1994). All these faults are high-angled, normal gravity faults, which completely or partially limit
the basin area or coal distribution. Some of these faults are either intra-basinal or intra-forma-
tional concentrated within the Gondwana rocks or the abnormally thick coal seam.
The north-south fault is the eastern basin boundary fault. The maximum throw of the western
block of the fault is about 518 m. There is a series of NNE-SSW intra-basinal step faults of vari-
able extent forming an en-echelon pattern. NNW-SSE faults are also present in the northern part of
the basin. Armstrong (1991) conducted a detailed seismic survey during the feasibility study of the
Barapukuria basin and identified a number of large and small faults within the coal basin. A total of
36 faults were identified in the basin by CMC (Hossain, 2016). The throws of these faults vary from 5
m to more than 200 m. These are post-depositional faults, most probably contemporaneous to rifting,
sympathetic or adjustment faults formed to accommodate the deformation that resulted from the dis-
placement along the eastern marginal fault during rifting. Some of these were reactivated during the
different phases of the Himalayan uplift and communicated through the Dupi Tila.
Uddin (1994) and Bakr et al. (1996) analysed the fault pattern of the Barapukuria basin and
describe the faults as follows.
The Eastern Boundary Fault is the basin boundary fault of the Barapukuria basin that provides
the half-graben nature of the Barapukuria basin. This is a normal fault with a high angle dip. The
throw of the fault towards the western side is estimated as 518 m between GSB boreholes GDH
44 and GDH 40. Due to the tilting nature, the thickest Gondwana sediment is preserved near this
fault (GDH 40; Figure 3.5).
A NNW-SSW intra-basinal fault is present in the middle-western side of the basin and traced
between boreholes GDH 39 and GDH 43. The down-thrown block of this fault is towards the
eastern side with an estimated displacement of 152 m (see Figure 3.5).
A NNW-SSE trending fault is present in the southwestern part of the basin and traced between
boreholes GDH 38 and GDH 42. The fault is downthrown about 182 m towards the southwestern
side. The fault seems to be extended in the southern part of the basin (see Figure 3.5).
Besides these faults a number of small faults were also identified during the seismic surveys.
These faults seem to be a sympathetic fault of the NNW-SSE and NNE-SSW faults and make the
basin structure a complex one. All these faults are shown in Figure 3.6.
The surface area of the Barapukuria Basin is a plain land covered with alluvial soils. The strati-
graphic succession of the basin is established on the basis of borehole data (Bakr et al., 1996).
The rock sequence of the basin is: basement complex, Gondwana Group, Dupi Tila Formation,
Barind clay residuum and alluvium of Pre-Cambrian, Permian, Plio-Pleistocene, Pleistocene, and
Holocene ages, respectively. The sediments in the basin were deposited in a continental fluvial
environment. The stratigraphic succession of the basin is shown in Table 3.1.
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68 Md. Nehal Uddin
FIGURE 3.5 Panel diagram of Baparukuria coalfield showing faults and lithological sequences
Source: Uddin (1994).
The basement complex is composed of granodiorite, diorite, quartz diorite, diorite gneiss and
schists. The diorites and granites are coarse-grained, holo-crystalline and equigranular with vari-
able colours. The rocks are composed mainly of plagioclase feldspar, hornblende, quartz and
biotites. The rocks are fractured and filled with secondary minerals.
Gondwana sequences of the Barapukuria basin have been divided into five lithofacies (Uddin,
1994; Bakr et al., 1996), each of these facies has distinct characteristics. The maximum thickness
of the Gondwana deposit is found to be 457.32 m in GDH 40. The basal conglomerate uncon-
formably lies over the basement. The clasts are angular to sub-rounded and granular to cobble-
sized. Some of the clasts are as big as a few metres in diameter and composed of diorite, schists,
gneiss and granodiorite fragments. The smaller clasts are quartz quartzite, feldspar, shale and
sandstones. The matrix is angular to sub-rounded coarse sand. There is no stratification of these
basal conglomerates. Armstrong (1991) designated this basal unit as tillites, however, the author
of this chapter differs from this opinion as there is carbonaceous material in this unit. This might
have been deposited either by gravity flow or concentrated fluid flow. The sediments were dumped
quickly, and the transportation system was not competent to sort out the lighter carbonaceous
material. The large clasts might have been formed by the minimum reworking of the weathered
basement rock. The sandstone with mudstone facies is medium- to fine-grained, generally car-
bonaceous, massive and at places laminated. Feldspathic sandstone facies is the same as carbon-
aceous sandstone with a predominance of decomposed and partially decomposed feldspars. At
places, quartzites and other rock pebbles are present. Ferruginous sandstone is present only in
the borehole GDH 40 (the deepest part of the basin) on the eastern side of the basin and is found
interbedded with carbonaceous sandstone in places. Iron content in this sandstone varies from
8.80–19.20% (Bakr et al., 1996). The coal is found as bands within the coal seams. It is dull black
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69
FIGURE 3.6 Structure of the Barapukuria coal basin
Notes: Top left: showing the basin limit and surface faults and cross-section lines A–A′, B–B′, C–C′; Top
right: showing the E-W cross-section; Middle: showing the NW-SW cross-section; Bottom: showing N-S
cross-section.
Source: Redrawn from Armstrong (1991).
to shiny black, vitreous to sub-vitreous, alternations of vitrain and durain are common. Fusain
is uncommon in the coal beds. At places, the coal grades to shaly coal and carbonaceous shales.
Glossopteris and Gangamopteris flora are common in the carbonaceous shale (Uddin and Islam,
1992). Typical upward fining sequences starting with coarse sand/pebble sandstone at the base
and carbonaceous shale at the top are common in the entire Gondwana sequences. The coal beds
are fractured.
The Dupi Tila Formation that lies on top of the Gondwana Formation indicates a long hiatus
after the deposition of the Gondwana Formation. The maximum thickness of the Dupi Tila
Formation is 126.82 m (Bakr et al., 1996). The Dupi Tila Formation is divided into two units: the
basal unit is composed of mudstone and sandstone; the upper unit is mainly sandstone and pebbly
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70 Md. Nehal Uddin
TABLE 3.1
Stratigraphic succession of the Barapukuria basin
Group/
Age Formation Member Lithology Maximum thickness
Recent Alluvium Fm. Silty clay 1.83 m

Unconformity
Pleistocene Barind Clay Clay and sandy clay 10.36 m
Residuum
Unconformity
Plio-Pleistocene Dupi Tila Fm. Upper Sandstone, pebbly sandstone and 126.82 m
claystone.
Local unconformity
Lower Sandstone, claystone and mudstone with
silica sand and white clay
Unconformity
Permian Gondwana Gr. Feldspathic sandstone, carbonaceous 457.32 m
sandstone, shale, conglomerate and
coal beds.
Unconformity
Pre-Cambrian Basement Diorite, granodiorite, quartz diorite, 14.32 m
complex granite and diorite gneiss and schists.
sandstone that constitutes the major aquifer in the region. The average thickness of the Dupi Tila
Formation is about 100 m with variations. The lower Dupi Tila is absent in the northwestern part
of the basin making a direct link to the main coal seam VI.
Barind clay residuum of 10.36 m maximum thicknesses is present all over the basin area. It
is composed of clay and sandy clay. A thin blanket (maximum 1.83 m) alluvium is also present
in all areas.
3.2.1.3 Attributes of the Coal Seams

The coal occurs at depths from 118–509 m below the surface. There are seven coal layers or
seams named I, II, III, IV, V, VI and VII from top to bottom. Among these, seam VI is the well-
developed, consistent, and the thickest seam. Bakr et al. (1996) provided a detailed account of
each seam as follows:
Seam I: The coal seam I is present in the central and eastern part of the basin (GDH 38, 40
and 41). The seam is present at the depth of 129.57 m (GDH 41) and 193 m (GDH 40). The
average thickness of this seam is 1.83 m and is not present in the up-thrown blocks.
Seam II: The seam is also present in the central and eastern part of the basin (GDH 38, 40 and
41). The depth of this seam ranges from 132–267.0 m (GDH 40). The maximum thickness
of the seam is 15.25 (GDH 40) and the average is 10.92. In between seams II and III, thick
(52 m) feldspathic sandstone and carbonaceous sandstone are present.
Seam III: The seam III is also present in the central and eastern part (GDH 38, 40 and 41) in
the down-thrown blocks. The thickness of this seam is 0.61 m in GDH 38 and the maximum
thickness is 2.97 m in GDH 40, where the seam is split into two beds (1.97 and 1.0 m) by
feldspathic sandstone and carbonaceous sandstone (3.66 m).
Seam IV: The seam IV is also found in the central and eastern down-thrown part of the basin.
The seam attains its maximum thickness of 3.2 m in GDH 40 and a minimum of 0.3 m in
GDH 41.
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71
Seam V: The seam V is present in the central and eastern part of the basin (GDH 38, 40, 41 and
43). The depth of the seam ranges from 161.58 m (GDH 43) to 326.37 m (GDH 40). The
thickness of the seam varies from 6.40 m (GDH 41) to 10.63 m (GDH 38). The thickness
of the seam gradually increases towards the northeast. The seam splits into four beds in
GDH 40.
Seam VI: The coal seam VI is present all over the basin and is the thickest seam. The maximum
thickness of the seam is 42.37 m (GDH 43) and the minimum thickness is 25.61 m (GDH
42), with an average of 36.28 m. The depth of the seam varies from 170.43 m (GDH 39) to
491.16 m (GDH 40).
Seam VII: The seam VII is present in almost all places of the basin, except in the southern part
(GDH 42). The minimum thickness is 0.30 m (GDH 38) and the maximum is 4.65 m (GDH
40). The depth of the seam varies from 203.66 m (GDH 39) to 491.69 m (GDH 40).
The coal seams are severely affected by several faults after deposition, as a result, some of the
upper seams are eroded/missing in the uplifted blocks. In the southwestern part, only seam VI is
present, and the seam has direct contact with the Dupi Tila aquifer. All the coal seams are well
preserved in the central and eastern parts of the down-thrown block. The thickness of the coal
increases towards the deeper part of the basin (eastern part). The thickness and depth of the coal
seams in different boreholes are shown in Table 3.2.
3.2.1.4 Areal/Spatial Extent and Reserves

The Barapukuria coal basin is a north-south, elongated, fault-bounded, asymmetric type of
basin. The total reserve area of the coal basin is 6.68 sq. km. The total reserve of coal in the
basin is estimated as 389 million tons, including 303 million tons measured and indicated
reserves and 86 million tons inferred reserves. The seam-wise reserves of the coal are shown
in Table 3.3.
Geological reserves of coal in seams VI and V as calculated by CMC are: (1) seam VI is
285.41 million tons (Mt); (2) seam V is 16.40 Mt. Total deposit is 301 Mt. Of a geological
resource of 285.41 Mt of seam VI in the main syncline, only 81.46 Mt (i.e. 28.54%) would be
recoverable by the underground mining method. The rest of the resources of seam VI, which is
the main seam of the Barapukuria deposit, will be lost due to different design losses and mining
losses.
3.2.1.5 Coal Characteristics and Rank

Barapukuria coal is generally black to shiny black with a vitreous to sub-vitreous lustre. The coal
is banded and composed of the alternation of durain and vitrain bands. Spots and lenses of fusain
are also present in the coal. At places, the coal is brittle, fractured. Deposition of pyrite and other
minerals is common in the fracture planes. Interlayering of carbonaceous shale is present in the
coal seams. It is medium hard to hard and breaks into blocks. The coal does not disintegrate upon
prolonged exposure to air.
Proximate analyses of 145 coal samples were done in the chemical laboratory of the Geological
Survey of Bangladesh. Seam-wise average data of chemical analyses is shown in Table 3.4 and
the results of proximate analyses of coal from seams II, IV, and VI by Armstrong (1991) are
shown in Table 3.5.
Seam VI is very important and considered for mining. This seam is again subdivided into
seven coal zones. The approximate thickness and chemical composition of these zones are shown
in Table 3.6.
The ultimate analysis (dry ash-free basis) of seam VI shows the following results (Table 3.7).
Ash analysis of seam VI shows that SiO2 (54.4%), Al2O3 (35.6%), Fe2O3 (2.09%), TiO2 (3.2%)
constitute the major part of the ashes. Traces of Mn3O4, CaO, K2O, Na2O, MgO, P2O5, SO3 are
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72
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TABLE 3.2
The depth and thickness of different coal seams in Barapukuria coal basin
Seam I Seam II Seam III Seam IV Seam V Seam VI Seam VII
Borehole (Thickness m) (Thickness m) (Thickness m) (Thickness m) (Thickness m) (Thickness m) (Thickness m)
GDH 38 159.15–159.60 162.19–171.04 171.65–172.26 188.72–189.33 197.87–208.23 331.71–371.34 371.95–372.26

(0.46) (8.84) (0.61) (0.61) (10.37) (39.63) (0.30)
GDH 39 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 170.43–203.05 203.66–204.27
(32.32) (0.61)
GDH 40 193.90–198.47 252.74–267.98 276.52–283.16 306.25–309.37 326.37–359.14 450.30–491.16 491.69–506.55
(4.57) (15.24) (2.97) (3.12) (8.08) (40.86) (4.65)
GDH 41 129.57–130.03 132.0–140.70 141.62–142.53 158.54–158.84 162.50–168.90 285.37–321.65 324.85–326.52
(0.46) (8.69) (0.92) (0.30) (6.40) (36.28 (1.68)
GDH 42 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 190.55–216.16 Nil
(25.61)
GDH 43 Nil Nil Nil Nil 161.58–171.7 286.89–329.26 330.48–331.25
(10.21) (42.37) (0.76)
Av. Thickness 1.83 10.92 1.50 1.34 8.77 36.22 1.60
Source: Bakr et al. (1996).

Md. Nehal Uddin
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73
TABLE 3.3
Reserves of coal seams in Barapukuria basin
Demonstrated reserves
Seam No. (Measured +indicated) in million tons (Mt) Inferred reserves in million tons (Mt)
I – –
II 14 –
III – 04
IV 18 –
V – 17
VI 271 43–64
Total 303 65–86
Note: The sum total of coal (demonstrated + inferred) comes about 389 mT.
Source: Armstrong (1991).
TABLE 3.4
Seamwise average results of chemical analyses of Barapukuria coal
Calorific Value
Seam no Sp. Gr Moist.% V. M.% Ash% Sulphur% F. C.% (BTU)
I 1.39 3.46 31.66 19.20 1.33 45.68 10547

II 1.39 3.49 29.61 16.63 0.50 50.27 12053
III 1.57 3.60 29.17 12.59 0.62 54.64 12260
IV 1.38 2.99 30.75 16.34 0.52 49.92 12301
V 1.46 2.54 28.69 23.71 0.43 45.06 10957
VI 1.37 2.28 31.41 11.79 0.65 54.52 12757
VII 1.43 2.72 28.65 15.25 0.77 53.38 12529
TABLE 3.5
Results of proximate analyses of three main seams of coal
Volatile Fixed Total sulfur Calorific
Seam Av. thickness Ash (%) matter (%) carbon (%) (%) value BTU
II 8.2 m 18.00 25.00 47.00 0.43 10,355

IV 6.4 m 14.00 27.00 49.00 0.72 10,655
VI 36.0 m 16.00 27.60 46.20 0.57 10,450
Note: As received 10% moisture.

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74 Md. Nehal Uddin
TABLE 3.6
Chemical composition of different zones of seam VI in Barapukuria basin
Volatile Fixed Total Calorific
Zones Mean thickness Ash (%) matter (%) carbon (%) sulphur% value (BTU)
A 6.20 m 21.50 24.30 44.20 0.52 9,615

B 5.40 m 09.00 29.90 51.10 0.61 11,525
C 4.30 m 16.20 28.20 45.60 0.58 10,435
D 3.90 m 10.80 30.20 49.00 0.57 11,320
E 4.90 m 13.30 29.30 47.40 0.54 10,915
F 4.80 m 28.20 25.90 43.90 0.57 9.760
G 5.50 m 16.90 26.50 46.60 0.56 10,205
TABLE 3.7
Ultimate analysis of seam I of Barapukuria basin
Carbon (%) Hydrogen (%) Nitrogen (%) Sulphur (%) Oxygen (%)
83.00 05.10 01.70 0.77 09.40
TABLE 3.8
Fluorine concentration of the coal samples of Barapukuria basin
Seam no F in ppm (%) F Seam no. F in ppm (%) F
II 41.6 0.0041 V 16.0 0.0016

IV 48.0 0.0048 VI 40.0 0.004
VI 280.0 0.028 VI 408.0 0.0408
VI 20.0 0.002 VII 6.4 0.00064
also present in the ash. The coal also contains a very low percentage of chlorine (0.05%). The
fluorine concentration of the coal samples done in the United States Geological Survey (USGS)
laboratory by the Geological Survey of Bangladesh (GSB) is shown in Table 3.8.
Concentration and different types of sulphur in coal have been analysed in the USGS
Laboratory by GSB. The results are shown in Table 3.9.
The petrographic analyses of the coal show low exinite and moderately low vitrinite with high
inertinite. The free swelling index of the coal is 0–1.0%. The petrographic analyses of the coal
from seam VI of GDH 38 were carried out by the GSB and Shell Petroleum in 1987. The result
is shown in Table 3.10.
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TABLE 3.9
Concentration and types of sulphur in different coal seams of Barapikuria basin
Seam no Total S (%) Mono S (%) Sulfate S (%) Pyritic S (%) Organic S (%)
II 0.40 <0.10 0.10 0.80 0.31

IV 0.55 <0.10 0.02 0.12 0.41
VI 0.57 <0.10 0.01 0.05 0.52
VII 0.73 <0.10 0.01 0.22 0.51
TABLE 3.10
Results of petrographic analyses of coal from seam VI of GDH 38 of Barapukuria
coal basin
Vitrinite Liptinite Inorganic
reflectance (%) Vitrinite (%) (exinite) (%) Inertinite (%) matter (%) Source
0.72 86.0 >5.0 5.0 >3.0 Bakr et al., 1996

3.2–57.6 0.2–16.4 37.6–96.8 Armstrong, 1991
Source: Bakr et al. (1996); Armstrong (1991).
Petrographic analysis of the coal shows low exinite (av. 7.6%) and moderately low vitrinite
(33.9%) with high inertinite (58.6%). The free swelling index of the coal is 0–1.0%. The vitrinite
reflection of the coal is about 0.65 (oil immersion method).
The rank of the Barapukuria coal in the ASTM method is high volatile B bituminous type.
There is a slight decrease in rank in the north and northwestern parts of the basin (shallowest
areas) and slightly increasing towards the south with the depths of the seams. Generally, the coal
is banded non-coking to weakly coking high volatile bituminous type.
3.2.1.6 Mining Potential

The Barapukura coal basin contains a total of 390 Mt of in-situ coal reserves in seven seams.
The overburden of the coal seams is Dupi Tila Sandstone that unconformably (angular uncon-
formity) overlies the Gondwana rocks. It is about 91–206 m thick with an average of 133 m,
which increases towards the central and southeastern part of the basin. It has lithologically two
distinct units:
1. The lower argillaceous unit overlies the erosional uneven top surface of the Gondwana
rocks and is irregularly distributed throughout the basin. It is thin in the northern and
western parts and thickening towards the centre of the basin. It does reduce the vertical
groundwater flow from the upper Dupi Tila and Gondwana. Its thickness ranges from 0–80
m with an average of 29 m. It consists of silty and sandy mudstones, kaolinitic claystone,
and mottled plastic clay.
2. The upper arenaceous unit unconformably overlies the lower Dupi Tila. The thickness of
the unit ranges from 40–115 m commonly 90 m to 100 m with an average of 105 m. Its
consists of mostly fine-grained to medium-grained, micaceous, loose sandstones with
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76 Md. Nehal Uddin
minor clay and clayey sandstones and mudstones and pebbly and gravelly beds at the base.
This unit presents the biggest challenge for coal mining from the basin as the unit is the
major aquifer and main source of groundwater in the region.
In addition, as the geothermal gradient is high, thus the development method and roadway layout
adopted should favour the lowering of the underground temperature. Since the lithological
characteristics of the seam VI roof are weak and the stability is poor, the main roadways of the
mine should be located in the seam VI floor bed, of which the lithological characteristics are hard,
more stable, fire-proof and allow a low level of long-term maintenance (PWC, 2013).
Considering all the geological, geotechnical and hydrological parameters CMC proposed
underground mining of the abnormally thick coal seam VI by the multi-slice longwall method in
descending order in the central part of the mine. CMC proposed 6–8 slices, each having 3–6 m
with a parting of 3 m in between the slices. The accumulated mining height is considered as 24.0
m. A coal barrier of around 6–10 m width is being left between the adjacent longwall panels so
that the barrier yields easily and complete caving of the roof is facilitated.
The mining method for the Barapukuria coal exploration was selected, keeping in mind:
• the presence of the thick and heavy aquifer above the coal seams;
• to control subsidence of the overlying strata;
• proneness to spontaneous combustion of coal and goaf fire control;
• medium standard of mining and driving mechanisation to suit Bangladesh.
The underground mining is ongoing using two vertical shafts: one as the main shaft (air return)
and the other as the service shaft. The shaft position was selected to be between boreholes DOB
8 and DOB 11. Considering the high underground temperature and the complicated hydro-geo-
logical conditions, a double-entry layout was suggested in the CMC report (April, 2000). The
south belt roadway and track roadway are established at the -260 m level after completion of
the shaft.
The coalfield is divided into two mining districts, i.e. No. 1 mining district called the southern
district, having an area of 2.2 sq km (south of the central part of the coalfield, where the thickness
of the lower Dupi Tila (LDT) is greater than 10 m) and No. 2 mining district called the nor-
thern district area, having an area of 1.4 sq km (at the deep end of the north wing) (Figure 3.7).
During the initial period, the -260 m south roadways, dip entries and inclines are used for the
development of No. 1 mining district. The ventilation type in each of the mine faces is the ‘U’-
type ventilation. Local fans (smaller capacity fans) were proposed to be used in the headings.
A double-ended ranging drum shearer on each face is used to mine the coal. Coal loading is
done with a combination of the drum helical scroll and the conveyor ramp plates. Loaded coal is
transported along the face by a flexible scraper conveyor.
To upgrade the longwall mining system, the longwall top coal caving (LTCC) method was
adopted for the extraction of the coal from the Barapukuria coal mine. Productivity was signifi-
cantly enhanced after the introduction of this method. In this method, coal is extracted at a higher
rate by mining out slices of 3 m cutting height from the front armoured face conveyor (AFC)
and those of 2 m caving height from the rear AFC. Later on, after completion of the first slice, to
produce more, the longwall top coal caving (LTCC) method is adopted, depending on the face
condition.
3.2.1.6.1 Mining of Coal from the Northern Side

The northern part of the coal beds has thin layers or only the overlying lower Dupi Tila
Formation. Even Gondwana layers over the coal beds are thin or directly in contact with the
high water-bearing Dupi Tila aquifer. For this reason, it is not possible to extract coal using
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77
FIGURE 3.7 The mining area (north, central, and south) of Barapukuria coal
Source: After PWC (2013).
the underground mining method. A feasibility study of the development of an open-cut mine
in the northern part of Barapukuria coal mine was conducted by Barapukuria Coal Mining
Company Limited (BCMCL). The northern part of seam VI has been designated as an ‘open
window area’ because the thickness of LDT aquiclude in the area varies from 0–10 m. This
part of the coal basin has in-situ 135 Mt of coal in five seams in an area of 2.71 sq km (see
Figure 3.7). Opencast mining in the area will involve excavation of 94–120 m thick upper
Dupi Tila (UDT) formation consisting of mainly sand beds, silt, etc. The safe slope angles
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78
78 Md. Nehal Uddin
of the quarry high walls in the UDT formation on all sides of the quarry should be identified
by slope stability studies. The ground-bearing capacity of the alluvial layer at the top (usu-
ally 10–12 m thick) of the UDT sand bed (usually around 100 m thick) and of the LDT bed
(usually less than 10 m where present) needs to be studied in detail. However, the bearing
capacities of these beds are expected to be sufficiently low to support the pressure exerted by
the earth-moving equipment. Whether it will be possible to form individual benches in the
UDT formation needs to be studied in detail. The effect of lowering the groundwater table in
the surrounding areas also needs to be assessed. Open cut mining in the area needs detailed
hydrological, ecological, technical and socio-economic studies.
3.2.1.7 Coal Production

For coal production from the Barapukuria coal basin a management, production and maintenances
service contract (M&P contract) was initialled between BCMCL and a consortium of CMC and
Xuzhou Coal Mining Group Company Limited (XMC). The term of this M&P contract was
71 months, and during this period a total production of 4.75 Mt was planned to be achieved.
In 2011, the contract term was completed with a total production of 3.651 Mt of coal. For con-
tinuous production of coal from the mine, a new M&P contract was signed between BCMCL
and CMC-XMC Consortium in 2012 for 72 months with a target of 5.5 Mt coal production.
After completion of the second contract, a new M&P-2017 contract was signed with XMC-CMC
Consortium for the purpose of ensuring the production activities of the mine for 48 months with
a target of 3.205 Mt coal production.
Currently, the Barapukuria mine is producing 3,000–3,500 metric tons of coal per day.
Commercial coal production from 2005 to 2012 was 41.67 lac metric ton from the first slice. On
completion of the first slice, coal production from the second slice was 58.60 lac metric tons from
2012 to 2018 (BCMCL, 2020a).
Since the mine began operations, a total of 11.39 million metric tons of coal have been
produced up to 2019. In 2019, a total of 0.908 million metric tons of coal were produced. The
total amount of the produced coal is being used to operate the Barapukuria 525 MW coal-fired
power plant (Petrobangla, 2020).
To increase the present production of the Barapukuria mine, a feasibility study was completed
for a north-south extension of the existing mine. The outcome of this feasibility study suggests
that about 3.2 million metric tons of coal can be extracted from the northern part over 6 years,
and about 6.9 million metric tons of coal from the southern part over 7 years. All the necessary
measures have been undertaken to extract coal from the extended northern and southern area,
where it is expected to commence production from 2024 (ibid.).
3.2.1.8 Environmental Impact Assessment

Coal mines, whether open cut or underground, always have some negative impact on the envir-
onment, as coal itself contains sulphur, arsenic, heavy metals, elemental carbon, ashes, etc. The
Barapikuria coal mine is an underground mine developed by the longwall mining method. The
principal impacts of the mine are associated with the following:
1. Subsidence: The mine area was agricultural land, where wheat, paddy and other crops
were cultivated. The present underground mining area covers in central 3 sq km and the
third slice of mining is going on. The first slice started with 12 coal faces. It was reported
that 5.88 m subsidence occurred after the mining of 9 m coal in 2017. It is a rule of thumb
that 30–70% subsidence is due to the mining of coal. Besides, the zone of influence due to
mining subsidence was observed in the mining area. About 623 acres of land were acquired
at the periphery by BCMCL for safety reasons (Ahmed et al., 2017). The subsidence has
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79
occurred mainly in the Kalupara, Baidyanathpur and Gopalpara villages. The subsided
areas are now water-logged (about 300 acres). The ecosystem has switched from terrestrial
to aquatic. Vegetation in waterlogged areas disappears. Instead, alkaline-resistant vegeta-
tion appears in the mining area (Hossain et al., 2016).
2. Depletion of groundwater: The groundwater in the mining and adjacent areas has lowered
during the dry season due to the pumping out of water, on average of 2300 m3 per hour
(BCMCL, 2020). In the mine area, the groundwater level at 10–15 m below the surface
forms a cone of depression in the surrounding areas. In the lean period the lowering of
groundwater affects the vegetation and normal tubewell waters.
3. Water pollution: All the water quality parameters (e.g. temperature, pH, EC, TDS, DO,
and BOD) were within normal levels, but the value of COD was higher (200 mg/l), which
affects the aquatic environment (Fardushe et al., 2014).
4. Air pollution: Dust generated from coal, especially during cutting, blasting, crushing and
transportation in the mines, is generally a cause of concern for the miners and for the
surrounding localities. Hossain et al. (2015) studied the air quality of the mine area and
found SOx loading 0.85 tonne/h, CO percentages range from 3×10−4 to 0.02%, the per-
centage of CO2 ranges from 2×10−6–8×10−6%, CH4 percentages range from 6×10−6–1.8×
10−5%, and the concentration of SOx was 0.318×10−3 ppm. Some of these parameters are
higher than the normal level. The interior air of the Barapukuria coal mine is polluted by
coal bed methane, at a greater depth of coal seam, by improper ventilation and inappro-
priate mining methods. The most common pollutants in a coal mine could be CO, CO2,
H2S, SO2, CH4, NO2, H2, etc. (Quamruzzaman et al., 2014).
5. The problems of the miners in the mine: The miners are facing the risk of spontaneous com-
bustion and an increase in toxic gases in the mine. The geothermal gradient within seam VI
ranges from 5.96°C/100 m–22.44°C/100 m, and 10.46°C/100 m on average, which is quite
high with a significant variation gradually rising from the basin edge to the basin depth
with an increasing rate (CMC, 1999). The virgin rock temperature of the main mine district
at the lower part of seam VI is about 40°C. Since the geothermal gradient of the mine is
quite high, the mine belongs in the category of high geothermal mine.
3.2.1.9 Impact of Coal on Economic Development

Barapukuria coal mine is the only coal mine in Bangladesh. The mine started its journey in 2005
and a total of 11.78 million tons of coal have been extracted from the mine up to June 2020
(BCMCL, 2020). The coal is sold to the Barapukuria coal-based power plant at rates varying
from US$110–130 per ton. The highest production rate is US$82 per ton as per the management
production maintenance and provisioning servicing (MPM PS) contract with the Chinese com-
pany. The company created the work opportunity for permanent employment of 310 officers and
119 staff. Besides, there are provisions of 483 outsourced staff. Moreover, more than 1,000 local
minee workers under Chinese supervision are employed to work in the mine. Barapukuria 525
MW (1.25x2+ 275 MW) power plant is run on this coal. Local industries and agricultural pumps
are run with the power generated by the coal-based power plants. All these activities are based on
the coal mine and are having a positive impact on the economy of the country.
3.2.2 PHULBARI BASIN

The Phulbari coalfield is located in the northwestern part of the country just south of the
Barapukuria coal basin. The area is well connected by roads and railways. Sayedpur Airport
is about 45 km north of Phulbari town. Dinajpur is about 40 km northwest of Phulbari (see
Figure 3.3). The area is drained by small rivers: Little Jamuna, Khari Pul and Nalsissa Rivers.
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80 Md. Nehal Uddin
The north-south elongated coal basin occurs east of Little Jamuna River covering half of Phulbari
town. The area is a plain land with an elevation between 25–32 m above mean sea level (AMSL).
Broken Hill Proprietary (BHP) was awarded an exploration licence in 1994 by the Bureau
of Mineral Development (BMD). Under the exploration licence, BHP conducted gravity and
seismic surveys and later on confirmed the existence of the Gondwana coal deposit by drilling six
boreholes in 1997. In 1998, BHP transferred the licence to Asia Energy Corporation (AEC) and
AEC engaged GHD Pty Ltd. (GHD) to conduct a detailed survey of the coal basin for mine devel-
opment. The Phulbari coal basin is a southern extension of the Barapukuria coal basin. A total
of 118 boreholes were drilled in the Phulbari coal basin to estimate the resources, hydrogeology
and other purposes. Of the 118 boreholes, 104 were drilled for resource assessment and 14 were
drilled for pumping test purposes. The average borehole density was 4 boreholes per one sq km
(Hossain, 2016).

The Phulbari coal basin is located in the Dinajpur Shield of the Bengal Basin. The sediments
in the basin are preserved in fault-controlled troughs surrounded by an Archaean basement at a
shallow depth. BHP drilling identified two high-magnitude faults with a vertical displacement
of about 150 m. The major basin boundary NNW-SSE trending fault is in the eastern side of
the basin, but in the south, there are more lower displacement normal faults (AEC, 2005). The
coal-bearing sequence is mildly folded into a symmetric plunging syncline almost parallel to
the eastern basin boundary fault (Figure 3.8). Geophysical survey and drilling in the coal basin
suggest that the southern area may be characterised by N-S and E-S trending faults which have
interrupted the coal sequences. On the northern boundary of the Phulbari basin, the coal either
is a sub-crop and possibly extends into the Barapukuria basin or is truncated beneath the over-
lying Tertiary sediments. The basin and the strata deepen from west to east, and the depth of coal
appears to be maximum in the central part (Towfique et al., 2019).
The structural map (Figure 3.9) prepared on the basis of seismic and drilling data by AEC
(2005) shows four fault patterns in the basin. (1) The east boundary fault with a dip of 60–700;
(2) the north-south fault set in the southern area with a 40–600 dip; (3) the east-west fault in the
middle area with a dip of 70–800; and (4) the northeast-southwest fault in the southern part with
a 40–600 dip (AEC, 2005; Gray, 2006).
FIGURE 3.8 Geological cross-section of Phulbari coalfield

Source; Redrawn from Towfique et al. (2019).
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81
FIGURE 3.9 Structural map of the Phulbari coal basin at -150 m elevation showing measured structural
data from drill core, and geophysical data
Source: Redrawn from AEC (2005).
The major basin-forming fault controlled the deposition as well as the preservation of the
coal-bearing sequence, and these were reactivated in different periods. The basin and coal strata
deepen from west to east and the depth of coal seams is maximum in the central part of the basin.
The stratigraphic succession of the Phulbari coal basin (Table 3.11), prepared on the basis of
drilling data, shows that the Archaean rocks of granitic composition are unconformably overlain
by the Permian coal-bearing Gondwana Group. This in turn is unconformably overlain by the
loosely consolidated Upper Tertiary (Plio-Pleistocene) Dupi Tila Formation followed at the top
by the Pleistocene Madhupur Clay unit. Below the coal-bearing sedimentary succession, the
basement of the Phulbari basin is comprised of granodiorite and granitic rocks. At the top of the
basement, a thin weathering profile of less than 10 m and a highly fractured zone from weathered
to fresh basement below are indicated by drilling. The basement is overlain by the Gondwana
Group which comprises sandstone with a lesser proportion of mudstone and coal seams of vari-
able thickness. The thickness ranges from 60 m to more than 150 m (Towfique et al., 2019). The
upper part of the Gondwana sequence is weathered.
The Dupi Tila Formation overlies the Gondwana Formation. This formation is divided into
two units: (1) the lower Dupi Tila (LDT); and (2) the upper Dupi Tila (UDT). The lower Dupi
Tila consists mainly of clay with minor sand beds. The thickness varies from 30–60 m. The upper
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TABLE 3.11
Stratigraphic succession of the Phubari coal basin
Depth Average
Age Formation Lithology range (m) thickness (m)
Pleistocene Undifferentiated Alluvial associated with streams. Clays 1–12 9

Madhupur Clay red-brown
Plio- Upper Dupi Tila Inter-bedded sands and gravels, 10–120 90
Pleistocene Sands, Gravels generally micaceous 90–130 30
Lower Dupi Tila Clay Mudstone and clays 120–130 1.5
Lower Dupi Tila Inter-bedded sands and weathered 150–170 10
Kaolin Intercalated quartz sand and silty clay
Lower Dupi Tila Silica sands
Permian Gondwana Group Mudstone and sandstone, weathered 200–232 32
Coal seams: Upper, main, lower I and
lower 2
Mudstones and sandstone, weathered
Achaean Basement granite/granodiorite 120–300 150 +
Source: AEC (2005); Hossain et al. (2012); Hossain (2016).
Dupi Tila is composed of unconsolidated, fine to medium-grained sand with clay and silt bands.
Gravel beds are also present in the basal part of the UDT. The unit lacks any cementing material.
The thickness of the unit varies from 90–100 m. The UDT is fully saturated with water and this is
the main aquifer in the region from which all sorts of domestic and drinking water is abstracted.
Overlying the Dupi Tila Formation is the Barind residual clay. This is composed of silty and
sandy clay, stiff but soft when soaked with water.

The Asia Energy Corporation (AEC) drilled 52 boreholes for quality assessment of the coal in the
Phulbari Basin. The seams have been named top, upper, main, lower and base (Hossain, 2016).
The economically significant coal deposit occurs mainly in two major coal seams: the upper
seams averaging 11.0 m thickness and the main seam averaging 23 m in thickness. The seam is
separated by a 5 m sedimentary layer. The total coal sequences are grouped into five coal seams
by AEC (2005). In the basin the coal strata deepen from west to east, and the depth of the coal
seams is maximum in the central part of the basin.
The top coal seams appear up to 6 m thick and are separated by a carbonaceous sand parting.
The upper coal seams are about 11 m thick, and are separated by carbonaceous coal partings. The
main seam contains high quality thermal coal and the thickness varies from 20 m to more than
30 m. The main seam is subdivided into four distinct coal beds, each separated by carbonaceous
sandstones. The lower coal seam represents two beds having a thickness of up to 6 m in places.
The lower seam is separated by the carbonaceous sandstone from the main seam. The base coal
seams contain two beds having a thickness up to 6 m. The base seams are separated from the
lower seam by carbonaceous Permian sandstone and shale.

The Phulbari coal basin area is north-south elongated that stretches for an area of 8 km by 3
km. The minimum depth of coal is 165 m in the northwest corner of the coalfield. There are
six seams but the upper four seams are considered for resource development by AEC. The coal
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TABLE 3.12
In-situ coal resources in the Phulbari coal basin
Seam Measured (Mt) Indicated (Mt) Inferred (Mt) Total
Top – 1 – 1
Upper 51 61 12 124
Main 237 124 28 389
Lower – 39 – 39
Base – 19 – 19
Total 288 244 40 572
Source: AEC (2005); Hossain (2016).
TABLE 3.13
The chemical properties of Phulbari coal
Relative
Moisture density Energy Sulphur
Seam Av. thickness (%) Ash (%) V.M (%) F.C (%) t/bcm MJ/Kg (%)
Top 3.4 2.9 14.1 32.1 50.9 1.38 27.9 1.10

Upper 10.6 2.6 16.5 29.4 51.5 1.40 27.3 1.009
Main A 7.3 2.5 15.2 29.4 52.9 1.39 27.7 1.02
Main B 5.8 2.4 14.2 30.5 52.9 1.38 28.3 0.97
Main C 4.8 2.3 16.2 30.1 51.4 1.40 27.6 0.81
Main D 4.7 2.3 18.3 28.9 50.5 1.42 26.6 0.78
Lower 4.7 2.0 27.4 26.1 44.5 1.51 26.1 0.77
Base 11.2 2.4 27.4 24.8 45.4 1.51 24.8 0.58
Source: AEC (2005).
thickness (four seams) varies from 20–40 m and the maximum depth is 330 m. In the Phulbari
coal basin the in-situ reserves are estimated in five seams. Three minor seams (top, lower and
base) represent the combination of the two splits of two seams. The main and upper seams are
reported separately for the north and south areas; The lower seam occurs in the north, central and
south areas and the top and base seams occur in the south area only (AEC, 2005). The in-situ
reserves are shown in Table 3.12.

The coal is similar to Barapukuria coal. The ash content of the upper and main seams varies
between 15% and 19%. The ultimate analysis of the Phulbari coal shows that it is composed of
78% carbon, 4.8% hydrogen and 1.7% nitrogen. The vitrinite content is consistent throughout
the seams. The Phulbari coal samples indicate that the coal has moderate to high inherent spon-
taneous combustibility (Hossain et al., 2012; Hossain, 2016). The characteristics of the major
Permian coal seams in the Phulbari basin are given in (Table 3.13) and the thickness and the ash
percentage of the upper and main seams are shown in Table 3.14.
Phulbari coal is classified as high volatile bituminous coal. The vitrinite content is low in
the range of 40–50% and the coal has weak coking properties. The sulphur content is less
than 1%.
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TABLE 3.14
Thickness and characteristics of the upper and main seams of Phulbari coal basin
Average Depth Average Thickness In-situ RD Average Ash
Seam depth (m) range (m) thickness (m) range (m) (ad) ash (%) range (%)
Upper 224 152–287 11.8 7.4–16.5 1.43 16.7 11.9–19.8

Main 225 149–340 22.2 6.6–39.5 1.42 15.8 13.9–20.8
Moisture Ash Sulphur Specific Energy
2.7 6.5–9.0 < 1.0% 6600 kcal/kg
Source: Hossain et al. (2012).

Bangladesh is one of the energy-starved countries though per capita energy consumption is low.
Many developing and developed countries use coal as a fuel for power plants, though the trend
is declining due to the environmental consequences. In Phulbari coal basin, 372 million tons of
in-situ coal deposits are present at a shallower depth (165 m). The Phulbari coal, if mined and
satisfying the environmental consequences, can contribute to the energy sector to generate power.
There are two options for mining: underground and open pit.
An underground mine is running at Barapukuria just north of Phulbari coal basin. Phulbari
basin is structurally and geologically the same as the Barapukuria basin. From the Barapukuria
coal mine about 20% of coal is expected to be mined out over the whole life of the mine. Moreover,
the mine is facing many problems, such as water inrush from the upper Dupi Tila Formation.
Underground heat generation and humidity, spontaneous coal combustion, roof collapse, subsid-
ence, resettlement, air and water pollution, etc. are major problems with slicing the abnormally
thick seams. In the long run, the economic rate of return of the mine will remain in question.
The open pit option always has higher recovery, high production rate, no roof collapse, no
gas explosions and controlled water rush but there are severe environmental problems, such as
damage of the top soil, damage to the aquifer, contamination of the aquifer, lowering of ground-
water level, crisis of water during the lean period, ecological imbalance, loss of agricultural
land, recovery of the land with fertility, resettlement issues, etc. Considering all the parameters,
AEC proposed an open cut mine at Phulbari coal basin with a target of about 15 Mt per year for
36 years. The mine will progress segment-wise from the north where the depth of the coal is
shallowest (160 m), i.e. after completion of one segment, the next one will start. After few years,
the depth of the mining floor will be 270 m. The overburden excavation of 160 million cubic
metres (Mbcm) is required to reach the first coal bed. At the SW corner of the mine, the pit depth
will reach 330 m and the overburden excavation will be 220 m Mbcm. The proposed mining will
be along the strike using the haul back mining method. After an initial box cut using hydraulic
excavators and trucks, waste is hauled back into the mined out area and the dump area is then
rehabilitated. As per the design, 5192 hectares of land will be required for the mine development
and an additional 741 hectares will be requisitioned for town extension, new villages and trans-
port infrastructure (Nostromo Research, 2008). However, the exact design of the mine drive will
depend on the geological, geotechnical and hydrological characteristics of the deposits over the
coal beds.
The open cut mining at Phulbari has certain elements which are common in open cut mining
around the world; clearing the agricultural land of trees and vegetation, removal of the top soil
and storing it in a separate place so that it can be replaced during the restoration of land, exca-
vation of overburdens and restoring it in a separate place, mining of coal and transporting it to
a stockyard, coal processing to meet the market demand. The major challenges are as follows:
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1. One of the major challenges will be pumping the groundwater from the overburden and
managing the water to maintain the water balance for seasonal demands. In this case, sur-
face water reservoirs should be made to store the pumped water and, after treatment, it
may be re-injected to the periphery of the mine to maintain the groundwater table. This
water also is used for surface irrigation in the area. The UDT has a transmissivity range of
650–11500 M2 per day, hydraulic conductivity of 6–15 m/d, storability 0.001–0.0001 and
specific yield of 0.15–0.25.
2. Maintaining the slope stability of the loose Dupi Tila Formation sand will be another big
challenge for the open cut mine. Heavy vehicles have to move in the area during mining
operations and these will create vibrations. Moreover, during the rainy season, there will be
water in-rush through this loose sand that may make the slope vulnerable.
3. Restoration of the mine will be another challenge. After mining, there will be a gap due
to mining of the 200–300 m thick coal seam areas from underground, before restoring the
overburden Dupi Tila sands, this coal-cut gap has to be refilled with imported soils. There
could be an option of dredging soil from the nearby rivers. This will increase the cost of the
mine but without filling the gap, it will not be wise to fill the pit with Dupi Tila and other
overburden soils.
4. The other key issues are: air and dust pollution, contamination of ground and surface
water, health problems of the mine workers and people living nearby, shifting of Phulbari
town, etc.
However, considering the energy scenario of the country and the development plan of the gov-
ernment, the development of Phulbari coal mine may be an option for open cut mining that will
satisfy all the environmental and socio-economic issues. The mine design and mitigation plan
may be revisited before taking any decision.
3.2.3 KHALASPIR BASIN

The coalfield is under Pirganj upazila of Rangpur district. The coalfield area covers Khalaspir,
Khayerbari, Kadirabad, Magura, Brapholia and the adjacent villages. It is between latitude
25o23’14“ and 25o30’0” N and longitude 89o09’12” and 89o15’0” E. Pirganj sadar (thana head-
quarters) is situated adjacent to the Dhaka-Rangpur highway and is about 48 km south of Rangpur
city. Pirganj is about 290 km north of Dhaka city. The coalfield area is well connected by met-
alled road and fairweather earthen roads and 13 km away on the western side (from Pirganj)
of the Dhaka-Rangpur highway. The nearest airport at Saidpur is about 70 km northwest in
Khalaspir. The area lies 40 km east of the broad-gauge railway line and about 35 km northeast
of the Dangapara railway station. The area lies 60 km southwest of the Barapukuria coal mine in
Dinajpur district. Rangpur is well connected with metalled roads and railways (see Figure 3.3).
The Geological Survey of Bangladesh undertook extensive investigations for the discovery of
coal at shallow depths from 1980 to 1990. As a result, Barapukuria coal deposits were discovered
in 1985 and huge deposit of coal in the Khalaspir basin in 1989. Four holes were drilled by
the GSB in the basin, of which three holes penetrated the Permian coal at depths ranging from
257.16–482.93 m below the surface.
The China Jinan Mining Development Corporation (CJMDC, 2006) conducted detailed geo-
logical, geophysical, hydrological and related studies in the Khalaspir coalfield area for Hosaf
International Ltd and its consortium Shandong Ludi Xinwen Mining Group. The work included
exploratory drillholes, hydrological tests, 3D and 2D seismic surveys and down-hole geophysical
surveys to decipher the detailed geological conditions and mining prospects of the Khalaspir coal
basin during the 2005–2006.
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Regional forces control the geometry and depositional characteristics of the Khalaspir basin. The
Permo-carboniferous diastrophism developed sets of faulted troughs or grabens in the basement
(Banerji, 1981). The Khalaspir basin is thought to be the outcome of such a faulted trough or
graben. Later on, the basin acquired dynamic characters and readjusted them. Some blocks are
uplifted and some are down-thrown. The uplifted blocks went up and eroded to the base level.
As a result, the Gondwana sediments are missing either partially or completely. In the Khalaspir
basin, coal seams of Gondwana are missing in GDH 48.
The Geological Survey of Bangladesh interpreted the structure of the Khalaspir basin on the
basis of drillhole data and gravity map (Islam et al., 1992). The basin is elongated and of a fault-
bounded asymmetric nature with the longest axis in the southeast-northwest direction. The shape
of the basin can be visualised in the gravity anomaly map (Mia and Arifuzzaman, 1988). The
gravity anomaly map reveals that the Khalaspir coal basin is bounded by Pirganj gravity high in
the east, Bhaduria gravity high in the southwest and Nawabganj-Madhyapara gravity high in the
northwest and Bhendabari in the northern sides of the basins. The steep (closely spaced) gravity
contours (ibid.) also suggest that there are possibilities of faults in the eastern, northern and
western side of the basin (Figure 3.10). On the eastern side, the fault may be in the N-S direction,
on the northern side the fault may be in the E-W direction, and on the western side the fault is in
the NW-SE direction. The drilling data reveals that there is a prominent fault in the north-north-
east side of the basin between GDH 46 and GDH 48. The alignment of this fault is NNW-SSE
(Islam et al., 1992). The throw of this fault is calculated as 150 m. The down-thrown block is on
the SSW side. This fault is considered one of the major basin marginal faults. Seismic 2-D and
3-D surveys of the basin were completed by the Chinese company Shandong Provincial Geo-
Mineral Engineering Co., Ltd in 2005–2006. The seismic data also shows a prominent fault in the
NE side of the basin. The throw of the fault as calculated from the seismic data is 42 m. Besides
the major structures, fractures in the coal seams are common. Shearing stresses are seen in some
of the shale and coal fracture planes.
Detailed structure of the Khalaspir coal basin is determined from the seismic data. The southern
basin stratum has the higher dip (250). The basin is bounded by faults (Figure 3.12). Seven faults
have been recognised from the seismic data (Figure 3.11) and these faults are categorised into
four depending on the size of the vertical displacement (throw). Faults F1, F3, F6 have more than
50 m throw, Fault F5 has throw between 50 and 20 m, fault F2 has throw between 20 and 10 m
and fault F7 has a throw between 10 and 5 m. All the faults located in the basin are normal faults
and the inclination angles vary from 600 to 650 (CJMDC, 2006). The nature of the faults indicates
that the faults in the basin are post depositional but they were re-activated at different scales and
different times. Due to the faults some blocks are up along with the coal seams; and are eroded and
truncated with the base of the Surma Group but none of the coal beds is found to be completely
missing in this basin. They are rather displaced due to faulting. The SW-NE and SE-NW cross-
sections of the basin show up-thrown and down-thrown blocks of different faults in Figure 3.12.
The stratigraphy of the coalfield area was established on the basis of the drillhole data (Islam
et al., 1992). Barind clay residuum and alluvium sediments cover the surface of the area. The
stratigraphic sequences are identified as Gondwana Group of Permian age, Surma Group of Mio-
Pliocene age, Dupi Tila Formation of Plio-Pleistocene age, Barind clay residuum of Pleistocene
age and alluvium of the Holocene age. The generalised stratigraphic succession of the Khalaspir
coalfield area as established from the drillhole data is given in Table 3.15. The lithologic logs of
the drillholes are given in Figure 3.13.
3.2.3.2.1 Gondwana Group

The rocks of the Gondwana Group contain the coal sequence. The Gondwana sequence starts
from 243 m to 1,097.50 m below the surface. The top of the Gondwana sequence varies in
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FIGURE 3.10 Probable faults interpreted from gravity Bouger anomaly map of Khalaspir coal basin area
different drillholes. The Gondwana sequence is composed of sandstone (carbonaceous and feld-
spathic), pebbly sandstones and conglomerates, siltstone, shale and coal beds.
The sandstone is mostly grey to dirty white in colour, some sandstone with carbonaceous
material is dark grey, fine to coarse, mostly sub-angular. Matrix is kaolin (decomposed feld-
spar) and carbonaceous. The sandstone is composed of quartz, mica, feldspar and dark minerals.
Vertical and oblique burrows are present in the bottom part of the sequence. Some sandstone
shows cross-beddings but most of the sedimentary structures are obliterated due to burrowing.
It is moderately hard and compact. Pebbly sandstone and matrix-supported conglomerates are
common in the upper part of the Gondwana sequence. The matrix of the conglomerate is ill-
sorted fine to coarse sandstone. These are composed of angular to sub-angular, quartzite, partly
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FIGURE 3.11 Detailed structure of Khalaspir basin showing the faults drawn from seismic surveys
Note: Lines A–B, C–D, and E–F are cross-sections shown in Figure 3.12.
Source: CJMDC (2006).
decomposed feldspar, fragments of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. It is moder-

ately hard and consolidated.
The siltstone is present in the lower part of the Gondwana sequence in drillhole GDH 45
(central part of the coal basin). It is regularly bedded and severely burrowed. It is hard and
compact. Carbonaceous shale is present in between the coal beds. The shale at the bottom part
of the sequence is grey. Shale is bedded to laminated and contains leaf impressions (mainly
Gangamopteris and Glossopteris). It is moderately hard and compact.
The coal is present in the upper part of the Gondwana sequence. It is dark grey in colour and
the thickness of the individual coal beds varies from a few centimetres to more than 15 m. The
coal beds are separated by sandstone, conglomeratic sandstone and carbonaceous shale. There
are bright, dull and dirty (fusain) coal. It is hard and fractured.
3.2.3.2.2 Surma Group

The sediment of the Surma Group overlies the Gondwana Formation and is composed of sand-
stone and mudstone. Sandstone and mudstone are found alternated in the Surma Group. The
mudstone is grey to dark grey, thinly laminated and contains vegetal matter. The maximum
thickness of the mudstone is 70 m in the central part of the basin. The mudstone may be laterally
changed into sandstone. The sandstone is present in the northeastern side of the basin. It is absent
in the central part of the basin. The maximum thickness of the sandstone is 119 m. The sandstone
is light grey to yellowish grey, medium- to fine-grained, in places it is coarse-grained.
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FIGURE 3.12 Cross-sections along NE-SW lines A–B, C–D, E–F, showing faults, vertical:horizontal
ratio A. 1:1.4, B. 1.2, and C. 1.2, respectively
Source: After CJMDC (2006).
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FIGURE 3.13 Log of borehole GDH 45 at Khalaspir coal basin showing lithologic sequences
Source: Redrawn from Islam et al. (1992).
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TABLE 3.15
Stratigraphic succession of the Khalaspir coalfield areas as revealed from the
drillhole data
Max. thickness
Formation Lithology in metres Age
Alluvium Sand, silt and clay, unconsolidated 4.26 Holocene

Unconformity
Barind Clay Clay is mixed with silt and sand. Colour varies from light 6.10 Pleistocene
Residuum brown to orange, fairly compact.
Unconformity
Dupi Tila Formation Sandstone, light yellowish grey, medium to coarse-grained, 162.12 Pliocene
fairly consolidated
Unconformity
Surma Group Grey to dark grey mudstone, sandstone and pebbly 184.14 Miocene
sandstone
Unconformity
Gondwana Group Sandstone, carbonaceous shale, pebbly sandstone and 814.93 Permian
alternating with coal seams. Bottom part shale and
siltstone with rare conglomeratic bands
Base not seen
3.2.3.2.3 Dupi Tila Formation

The maximum thickness of this formation is 162 m and is not uniform. The sandstone is yellowish
grey to grey, fine- to coarse-grained and unconsolidated. The pebbly sandstone is present all over
the coalfield area and the thickness of the pebbly sandstone varies from place to place. The max-
imum size of the pebbles is 4 cm x 1.5 cm and they are composed of angular to sub-rounded
quartzite, sandstone, shale and other rock fragments. Bluish grey mudstone patches are common
in the Dupi Tila Formation. These are poorly sorted and loose. The pebbles are of quartzite,
quartz, shale and other rock fragments. The Dupi Tila Formation is the main aquifer and paying
zone for drinking and domestic water of the area. The people depend on this water for irrigation
and drinking purposes. The Dupi Tila sandstone is very important for the groundwater resources
and also for mine development.

In the Khalaspir basin the coal seams occur in the upper part of the Permian Gondwana strata (top
183 m). Coal beds are found alternated with the feldspathic sandstone and carbonaceous shale.
Coal deposits have been encountered from 257.16 m to 582.93 m below the surface. Islam et al.
(1992) identified eight coal zones in the Khalaspir coalfield. Each of the coal zones contains a
number of coal beds. The maximum thickness of the coal-bearing sequences is found in the cen-
tral part of the basin (GDH 45). The top of the coal-bearing sequence is an erosional surface. Coal
beds of reasonable thickness (30 cm or more) are considered a seam. Each of the coal seams has
several beds separated by the sandstone layers/lenses. Splitting and pinching out of the coal beds
are present. There are vertical and lateral variations of the coal seams (Figure 3.14).
Seams I, II and IV are the main coal seams in the coal basin. The thickness of these seams is
not uniform, and separated by medium hard to hard feldspathic sandstone, carbonaceous sand-
stone and carbonaceous shale. In GDH 45 Seam I has direct contact with the overlying Surma
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FIGURE 3.14 Possible correlation of the coal seams
Note: Seam I is split at GDH 45 and GDH 46; Seam II is split at GDH 46.
Source: Islam et al. (1992).
Group. The thickness of the seam and number of beds are calculated by Islam et al. (1992) as
follows:
Seam I: Seam contains 6 beds in GDH 45, 2 beds in GDH 46 and 1 bed in GDH 47. The com-
posite thickness of seam I varies from 6.02–32.32 m. The upper part of this is eroded in
some places.
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93
Seam II: The seam II is the main seam in the coal basin and contains I, VI and II coal beds
in GDH 45, 46 and 47, respectively. Thickness of the seam varies from 7.14–12.19 m
(GDH 45).
Seam III: The seam III contains only one bed and thickness varies from 0.91–1.83 m (GDH 47).
Seam-IV: The seam IV is one of the major seams in the coal basin. The thickness varies from
3.50–8.89 m and contains 5, 3, 3 beds in GDH 45, 46, and 47, respectively.
Seam V: The thickness of the seam varies from 1.52–3.43 m (GDH 46) and contains 1, 2, 3
coal beds in GDH 45, 46 and 47, respectively.
Seam VI: The seam VI is not well developed all over the basin. The thickness of the seam
varies from 1.19–28.66 m (GDH 45) and contains 2, 3, 3 beds in GDH 45, 46 and 47,
respectively. The seam is thicker in the central part while on the periphery it is thinner.
Seam VII: The seam VII contains 1, 2, 2 coal beds in GDH 45, 46 and 47, respectively. The
thickness of the seam varies from 1.27–2.44 m (GDH 45).
Seam VIII: The seam VIII is the lowermost seam and contains 1, 2, 2 beds in GDH 45, 46 and
47, respectively. The thickness of the seam varies from 0.30–2.11 m (GDH 46).
The structure of the basin suggests that coal seams of the basin are present in three major blocks
created by faults (see Figure 3.12). Coal is well preserved in the central block and coals seams are
truncated in the eastern and western blocks (see Figure 3.13). The lower part of the Gondwana
sandstone sequence is devoid of coal seams. This part contains thick mudstone at GDH 45 and
sandstone and conglomerates in all the holes.

The Khalaspir coalfield is a northwest-southwest elongated oval shaped basin. The probable
area of the basin was calculated from the gravity anomaly map of the basin (the area lies within
the –44 milli gal/mGal). Islam et al. (1992) identified the probable area of the coal basin as 685
sq km and the proved area of the basin is 252 sq km encompassing only three boreholes. For the
calculation of reserves, the average thickness of the coal seams was taken into consideration. The
proved and probable reserves of the coal in the field are 142 million tons and 685 million tons in
an area of 2.52 sq km and 12.26 sq km, respectively. The detailed reserves of coal at Khalaspir
coalfield after Islam et al. (1992) and CJMDC (2006) are given in Table 3.16.
Based on drilling and seismic data, CJMDC calculated the total in-situ reserves of coal in
eight seams of the 7.5 sq km surveyed area as 451.093 million tons. The measured reserves are
277.11 million tons and the indicated reserves are 173.98 million tons. Of these reserves, seams
I, II and IV have a considerable amount of coal and have potential for mining. The in-situ mine-
able reserves base of seams I, II and IV are 277 million tons. The entire reserves base cannot be
recovered by mining. Different mining methods in different geological, geotechnical and hydro-
geological settings result in a wide range of percentage recovery rates. For the underground
mines, the recoverable reserves will be 25–30% of the mineable reserve base. Seam VI may have
potential for mining as it is situated below the upper potential seams.

• Physical properties: The coal is black with shining patches. It is normally banded with dull
(durain) and bright (vitrain) bands. The thickness of the bands is from a few millimetres to
15 cm. The bright bands are thinner than the dull bands. Fusains are rarely present in the
coal. It is present as spots and or lenses. The coal is fractured. Vertical and oblique fractures
are common. Pyrite and other secondary minerals are present in the fracture. The pyrite is
present as round spots or thin layers on the fractured surface. The vitrain bands break into
small cubical blocks and the others into small pieces. The coal is not heavy. The coal beds
sometimes grade into carbonaceous shale.
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94 Md. Nehal Uddin
TABLE 3.16
Proved and probable reserves of coal in different coal seams of Khalaspir coalfield
Islam et al. (1992) based on three drillholes and
gravity anomaly data CJMDC (2006)
Proved
Area reserves In-situ reserves based on 17 drillholes
Proved Probable Av. Thickness

Seam No. (Probable) Av. Thickness M tons reserves Area of coal Reserves Mt
I 2.52 sq km 16.95 m 56.38 685 MT 7.5 sq km 9.79 90.31

II (12.26 9.93 m 33.03 9.8 90.40
III sq km) 1.22 m 4.05 1.41 13.00
IV 6.96 m 23.15 10.45 96.40
V 2.77 m 7.55 2.9 26.75
VI 2.67 m 8.88 5.6 51.66
VII 1.66 m 5.52 2.55 23.52
VIII 131 m 4.35 1.48 13.65
Total 142.92 Total 405.69
Source: After Islam et al. (1992) and CJMDC (2006).
TABLE 3.17
Average analytical results of the coal of Khalaspir coalfield
Fixed Volatile
Moisture (%) carbon (%) matter (%) Ash (%) Sulphur BTU/ Lb Quality
0.57– 5.10 32.09–66.55 6.02–28.63 7.60–50.51 Much less 7388–13,561 Bituminous with
<1.0% some cocking coal
Source: Islam et al. (1992).
• Chemical properties: The coal samples were analysed in the USA and in the GSB,
Bangladesh. The summaries of the chemical properties (Islam et al., 1992) are as follows.
The moisture content of the coal varies from 0.36–5.99%. The average is 1.28%. The ash
content ranges from 50.51–7.60%, and the average is 21.80%. Volatile matter varies from
30.47–2.93%, and the average is 22.86%. The fixed carbon of the coal varies from 80.81–
32.0%, and the average is 54.14%. A comparatively high percentage of fixed carbon is
present in two major coal zones (coal zone I and coal zone II). On a moisture and ash-free
basis, the fixed carbon ranges from 91.71–65.86%. The sulphur content of the coal varies
from 3.15–0.248%. The average sulphur content is 0.77%. The calorific value of the coal
ranges from 13880 BTU/lb–11264 BTU/lb. The heating value is relatively less in the north-
eastern side of coal zone I. The heating value of the moisture and ash-free basis varies
from 14424 BTU/lb–15168 BTU/lb. The average analytical results of the coal are shown
in Table 3.17.
• Petrographic characteristics of the coal: The petrographic characteristics of the coal were
analysed in the USGS. A total of 41 samples from different beds of 5 coal zones were
analysed for petrographic characteristics. The maceral analyses show that most of the
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95
FIGURE 3.15 Triangular diagram showing the great range of maceral group compositions of coal samples
of GDH 45, Khalaspir
Source: Redrawn from Islam et al. (1992).
coal would stand apart from the usual bright (gelitite) coal used in the North America and
European countries, and would be classed as semi-dull (inerto-gelitile) coal. The maceral
analyses show more than 70% vitrinite in six samples (Figure 3.15). Fusinite is rare in the
samples and pyrite is present as veinlets or nodular pore fillings. Coal seams I and II have
relatively high inertinite contents with low volatile matter. The upper 6 m of coal seam II
contains about 100% inertinite which can be mined as a special cut for blending with high
vitrinite coal to increase the coking strength. Samples from several beds show good coking
properties with a high free swelling index (7.5).
The inertinite and liptinite in the coal appear to be attrital. Much of the inertinite appears
to be spongy heterogeneous plant material of uniform high reflectance which may indi-
cate in-situ oxidation. Samples from several individual beds show good coking proper-
ties with a free swelling index as high as 7.5. The vitrinite fluorescence indicates that the
vitrinites in the coal have reached the stage of secondary bituminisation characteristics of
vitrinite in good coking coal. The high inertinite content of many coal beds reduces the
volatiles matter. X-ray analyses of several samples show the presence of sphalerite and
sparx emission, and indicate 96–3500 ppm zinc in different beds of coal zone I and II
(Islam et al., 1992).
• Rank of the coal: The ASTM rank of the coal is medium volatile low sulphur bituminous
type. Some of the coal shows the rank of high volatile bituminous A to low volatile
bituminous B. Coal can be used for all sorts of thermal conversion such as electricity
generation. One 3 m part of coal seam I has 80% vitrinite content and can be used for
metallurgical use.

The area lies in the Rangpur Platform of the Bengal Basin. The area is stable and no high mag-
nitude earthquake has been recorded in and around the area. The area is drained by the Karatoya
and Akhira rivers but these will not create any problem due to erosion. Burning of the coal will
not create any major environmental hazard as the sulphur content of the coal is very low. The
Khalaspir coal can be mined by open cut or by underground mining by sinking a shaft, as in the
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96
96 Md. Nehal Uddin
Barapukuria coal mine. A detailed study to determine the mining method is necessary. For open
cut mining, ecological parameters should be taken into consideration. The Dupi Tila sandstone
sitting above the coal seams is a good aquifer. For the open cut mining, a water reservoir on the
surface may be required to store the water that comes out.
Open cut mining is applied for the shallower depths, where the overburden thickness is less.
The method has higher recovery, less risk, higher noise, higher pollution, and higher cost for
ground and surface water management, higher investment and higher economic return. The
method has difficulties with environmental management. In a densely populated country like
Bangladesh, it is difficult to decide on open cut mining. On the other hand, underground mining
has less recovery (25–30%), higher risk of gas explosion and high temperature, groundwater
in-rush underground though the work is not affected by weather, minimum effect on land (sub-
sidence). Considering the parameters such as the depth of the coal seams, the stripping ratio and
the overburden characteristics (geological and geotechnical), underground mining of the coal
will be more suitable. The feasibility study conducted by the Hosaf-Chinese consortium (Jinan
Mining Development Corporation) and IMC advocated for underground mining of the upper
coal seams. Experience in the Barapukuria coal mine can be very useful when developing under-
ground mining at Khalaspir coal basin. Coal from the mine will help to generate electricity. The
other domestic uses of coal will reduce the activity of deforestation. It will also generate scope
for employment.
3.2.4 KUCHMA BASIN

Kuchma derives its name from the Kuchma village about 25 km southwest of Bogra district
town (see Figure 3.3). The extent of this basin is not known but it is thought that this basin may
extend up to the Jamalganj basin. The place is about 18 m above mean sea level. High quality
Gondwana coal was first discovered at Kuchma basin by Standard Vacuum Oil Company Ltd. in
1959 at sub-sea depth between 2,364 m to 1,858 m while drilling for oil. This discovery was the
pioneer for finding the Gondwana coalfields at the shallower depths in this region. Only one well
was penetrated (Kuchma X-1) in this basin. The latitude and longitude of the well are 24°41’34“
N and E 89°16’15”.

The Kuchma basin is situated on the southern slope of Rangpur Saddle. The structure of the
Kuchma basin is not well known. However, the trend of low gravity anomaly through Kuchma–
Natore-Sardah is observed. The steep gradient of gravity anomaly along Bogra-Santahar and
Manda may be suggestive of a fault. The northern flank of the Bogra graben shows steep gradient
(5–6 milligals per 1.6 km) that strongly suggests faulting. The fault is suggestive of an east-west
alignment which is about 12 km northwest of Bogra town (Ahmed and Zaher, 1965). The seismic
evidence suggests a northeast-southwest direction fault near Bogra called the Bogra fault. The
down-thrown (southeast) side of this fault is the Kuchma basin. The down-thrown is about 152 m
(Anwaruddin, 1964; Ahmed and Zaher, 1965).
The area is flat covered by alluvium. The rock sequences of the Kuchma Formation
(Figure 3.16) are composed of coarse-grained feldspathic sandstone, sometimes gritty with a
number of coal seams. The formation is correlated with the Barakar series on the basis of the
following: (1) coal is low volatile coking coal with high fixed carbon and low ash content; and
(2) the Kuchma well might have Gondwana close to the peripheral part of the basin as Bogra
X-1, Gondwana is absent over the basement. Reimann (1993) placed this unit in the next higher
stratigraphic division, i.e. the Damuda Series. The stratigraphic succession of the well is shown
in Table 3.18.
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97
FIGURE 3.16 Log of Kucma X1 at Bogra
Note: Elevation 12.40 m G.L, Log drawn from GL.

Source: Redrawn from Ahmed and Zaher (1965).
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98
98 Md. Nehal Uddin
TABLE 3.18
Stratigraphic succession of drillhole X-1 at Kuchma, Bogra
Age Formation/ Group Lithology Thickness in m
Pleistocene Alluvium + Up. Tertiary Sandstone, siltstone and thin clays. Lower part clay 1,089.60
Fms. with silt.
Unconformity
Miocene? Surma Gr.? Sandstone and clay alternations 670.52
~?Unconformity
Eocene Kopili Fm. Sandstone and clays 7.62
?Unconformity
Eocene Sylhet Lime stone Massive grey lime, hard. 196.28
Unconformity
Eocene Cherra stage Sandstone with occasional shale and thin coal beds 341.97
Unconformity
Cretaceous Sylhet Trap (Rajmahal) Basalt and dolerite 68.58
Unconformity
Permian Barakar Sandstone, carbonaceous sand -stone and shale with 494.36
5 coal seams
Hole closed at (2857.05 m) depth.
Source: Ahmed and Zaher (1965).
TABLE 3.19
Depth and thickness of the coal seams at Kuchma basin
Depth in metres
Thickness
Seam number From to metre
I 2,699.79 2,706.19 6.40

II 2,788.78 2,810.73 21.94
III 2,807.07 2,820.18 13.11
IV 2,820.79 2,824.75 3.96
V 2,838.16 2,844.56 6.40
Total thickness of coal 51.81


In the Kuchma basin, the total coal of 51.81 m thick has been found in five seams. The depth and
thickness of the coal seams are shown in Table 3.19.
The dip of the coal beds varies from 5–10o. The seam extent or continuity is not known due
to the lack of data.

It is not possible to estimate the extent and reserves of the coal as only one well has penetrated
the basin area. However, the geophysical data suggests the basin may have extended up to the
vicinity of Jamaganj coalfield in the north and Singra at the southwest. For a better understanding
of the extent, quality and feasibility, a detailed study of the basin is yet to be done.
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99
TABLE 3.20
Proximate analyses of coal from Kuchma basin
Moisture (%) Ash (%) V.M. (%) F.C (%) T.S (%) Heating value BTU/lb
1.10 9.10 23.50 66.30 0.52

1.10 9.18 22.25 67.47 0.50
1.20 6.00 26.25 66.55 0.56
1.10 9.27 24.35 65.28 0.57
1.01 15.51 20.12 63.36 0.62 12900
1.09 7.65 19.57 71.69 0.36 13850
1.00 9.76 21.35 67.89 0.41 13450
Source: Ahmed and Zaher (1965), and Khan (1991).
TABLE 3.21
Dilatometer test (-100 mesh sample) of top three samples of seam I at Kuchma basin
Testing parameters Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Softening point °C 310 315 318

Re-solidification points 0C 362 339 372
Plastic range °C to °C 310/362 315/339 318/372
Contraction Vol. (%) 25 2 2
Expansion Vol. (%) 37 70 25
Coking characteristics Medium coking with much development Weakly
of gases in plastic range coking

Coals seams contain good quality bright and dull coals with streaks and lenses of fusain. The coal
is low volatile coking coal with high fixed carbon and low ash content. The proximate analyses
of seven samples from the 6.40 m thick top coal seam (Seam I) are shown in Table 3.20. The
dilatometer test of the coal shows medium to weak coking properties in Table 3.21.
The ash content of the coal is low in the lower part. The coal can be ranked as medium vola-
tile low sulphur, low ash bituminous coal. The coal is medium to weak coking with tolerable ash
content. This type of coal does not give hard coke.

Considering the depth of the coal seams, open cut mine is not feasible and even underground mining
of the coal will not be economically feasible. Either coal bed methane (CBM) extraction or in-situ
underground coal gasification (UCG) may be possible from this coal deposit. A detailed study of
the prospect of CBM and UCG will provide the feasibility of extraction of gas from this coal basin.
3.2.5 JAMALGANJ BASIN

The Jamalganj coalfield was discovered in 1962. A total of 10 wells (both open hole and core
drill wells) were drilled in the Jamalganj–Paharpur area of Joypurhat district. Coal seams were
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100
100 Md. Nehal Uddin
FIGURE 3.17 Map showing the borehole locations, proposed mining location and accessibility of
Jamalganj coalfield
encountered in 9 out of 10 wells. The coal occurs in Gondwana succession within the depth range
of 640–1,158 m. The nine boreholes that penetrated the coal seams are spread over an area of a
maximum east-west distance of 12.5 km and a maximum north-south distance of 4.8 km. The
lateral extent of the coal deposit is about 11.7 sq km. After the discovery, consultants including
Friedrich Krupp Rohstoffe, Powell Duffryn Technical Services, and Robertson Research
International Ltd. conducted feasibility studies for mining of this coal and recommended that
mining in Jamalganj was technically feasible (Rahman and Zaher, 1980). However, no mining
project has been implemented due to the depth of the coal seams. Finally, the idea of mining
coal from the Jamalganj field was abandoned when a large deposit of coal was discovered at a
shallower depth of 116 m below the ground surface at Barapukuria basin in Dinajpur district in
1985 (Imam, 1997).
The Jamalganj coalfield is located in Joypurhat district in the vicinity of Jamalganj town and
to the west of the north-south broad-gauge railway line. The coal basin lies in between latitudes
25º01’30“ N to 25º06’00” N and longitude from 88º54’00” E to 89º03’00” E (Figure 3.17). It is
well connected to all parts of Bangladesh by road and railway. The Jamalganj coalfield is about
2 km southwest of Joypurhat district Head Quarter.

The Jamalganj coal basin has been subsequently faulted down within the Basement complex. The
coal occurs in a typical half-graben basin that was protected from erosional and weathering agents
(Ahmed and Zaher, 1965). The structural information on the coal deposit is based on seismic and
borehole data. The Jamalganj coal basin is bounded to the north by an east–west trending fault
known as the Buzrak–Durgadah boundary fault (Figure 3.18). The down-thrown side of this fault
is towards the south. Further to the south, another east-west fault dipping to the south is located
01_9780367531805pre-c08_pi-316.indd 100 22-Oct-21 19:55:18

101
01_9780367531805pre-c08_pi-316.indd 101
Gondwana Deposits and their Coal Potential
FIGURE 3.18 Map showing the structure and faults of Jamalganj coalfield
101
Source: Redrawn from Rahman and Zaher (1980, and Halloway and Baily (1995).
22-Oct-21 19:55:18
102
102 Md. Nehal Uddin
between wells EDH 9 and EDH 11. Further south, a north dipping fault is present between wells
EDH 10 and EDH 14. The down-throw of the Buzrak-Durgadah fault is about 457 m as recorded
south of EDH 3. The dip of the fault is 65–750. The E-W fault is a composite fault comprised of
three or four sub-parallel faults with a narrow belt. As a result, a series of step faults are formed
that slope towards the south. The Eocene limestone south of the Durgadah fault is slightly elevated;
this may be due to the differential movement of the faults. It means that the faults were reactivated
during the Himalayan upheavals (Uddin, 1994). The western, eastern, and southern limits of the
Jamalganj coal deposit are not known adequately at this stage. However, based on the regional
geology of the region, the coal measure is expected to continue to the east and possibly to the west
of the drilled area. The coal seams very likely extend further south at somewhat greater depth.
The coal deposit has been affected by several faults, but there is no evidence of any folding. The
Gondwana rocks generally dip 5°–10° but in places dips up to 15° are recorded. More gentle dips
of 2°–5° are observed in boreholes EDH 10 and EDH 11. The seismic reflection data indicate that
the rock horizons have a regional south-east dip (Holloway and Baily, 1995).
Stratigraphy: The area is flat land covered by alluvial deposits. The ground level is about
15.24–21.34 m above the AMSL. Stratigraphically the Jamalganj basin area is classified into
three large complexes (Rahman and Zaher, 1980):
1. About 609.57 m of thick Tertiary sediments.

2. About 554.71 m of Gondwana sediments.
3. Precambrian crystalline basement.
The stratigraphic succession of the Jamalganj coal basin is shown in Table 3.22 and Figures 3.19a
and 3.19b in which the Gondwana group succession is overlain by the Tertiary succession, with a
major unconformity in between. The coal occurs within the Gondwana Group. No well has reached
the base of the Gondwana sequence and the Achaean basement below. The Gondwana sediments
has a dip 5o–10o. The overlying rock is the Palaeocene-Eocene Cherra sandstone, Sylhet Limestone,
and Kopili Formation, Miocene Surma Group, Plio-Pleistocene Dupi Tila and Recent Alluvium.
The total thickness of Gondwana rocks in the Jamalganj coal basin is not known. A maximum
of 577 m of Gondwana sediments has been drilled in the EDH 6 well. The Gondwana Group
consists predominantly of hard, compacted, low-permeability arkosic coarse to medium-grained
TABLE 3.22
Stratigraphic succession of Jamalganj area
Age Formation Thickness in m Lithology
Recent Alluvium 25.91- 82.29 Clay, silt, sand and gravels

Unconformity
Pliocene Dupi Tila 12.19 -70.10 Coarse to fine and coarse sand
Unconformity
Miocene Surma Group 277.35 -411.46 Silt, fine sand, clay, gravel, shaly clay and shaly coal
Unconformity
Eocene Kopili 30.48 Shaly clay and sandstone
Sylhet Limestone 15.24 -33.53 Limestone and shaly clay
Palaeocene Cherra 51.81- 106.67 Sandstone, shaly clay, silt and shaly coal
Unconformity
Permian Upper Gondwana 249.92 max Medium to coarse feldspathic sandstone, interbedded with
conglomerate and dark siltstone layers.
Lower Gondwana 335.30 max Coal seam in a dominantly sandstone sequence
Source: After Rahman and Zaher (1980).
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103
FIGURE 3.19a The stratigraphic succession of Jamalganj coalfield, EDH 3–EDH 7
Note: All logs are drawn from the ground level.

Source: Redrawn from Ahmed and Zaher (1965).
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104 Md. Nehal Uddin
FIGURE 3.19b The stratigraphic succession of Jamalganj coalfield, EDH 8B–EDH 11
Note: All logs are drawn from the ground level.

Source; Redrawn from Ahmed and Zaher (1965).
01_9780367531805pre-c08_pi-316.indd 104 22-Oct-21 19:55:19

105
sandstones with coal layers and few shale and conglomerate beds. The group is divided into two
parts, i.e. Lower Gondwana and Upper Gondwana (Rahman and Zaher, 1980).
The Lower Gondwana of Permian age is represented by a 305 m-thick sequence consisting
predominantly of feldspathic sandstones, with several coal seams and minor carbonaceous
shales and siltstones. The sandstones are hard, compact, and kaolinitic. This unit has been tenta-
tively correlated with the Raniganj Formation (Permian) of the eastern Indian coalfields (ibid.).
However, Robertson (1976) suggests that this unit is equivalent to Barakar Formation (Permian) in
India, based largely on the thickness of the coal seams at the Jamalganj coalfield, which are much
thicker than those of the Raniganj Formation of India. Seven major coal seams are encountered
in the Lower Gondwana sequence with an average cumulative thickness of 64 m. The individual
coal seams show considerable thickness variation from well to well and these occur at depths ran-
ging from 640–1158 m below the surface. The Upper Gondwana unit is believed to be of Lower
Triassic age and consists of approximately 250 m of medium to coarse-grained feldspathic sand-
stone inter-bedded with micro-brecciated conglomerate and minor siltstones.
The Jurassic volcanic Rajmahal Trap Formation encountered in the Kuchma coal basin
(Rahman and Zaher, 1980) is absent in the Jamalganj coalfield. The Gondwana Group here is
overlain with a major unconformity by the Palaeocene–Eocene Jaintia Group (185 m). The Jaintia
Group is divided from the base upward into Cherra Formation (104 m) consisting predominantly
of sandstones with subordinate shale, Sylhet Limestone (38 m) with predominant fossiliferous
limestone and Kopili Formation (42 m) with predominantly shale lithologies. The Oligocene–
Miocene Jamalganj Formation consisting of about 400 m of alternating sandstone, shale, and
siltstone, overlies the Jaintia Group. This is succeeded by about 270 m of Pliocene Dupi Tila
Formation of predominantly rather loosely consolidated medium to coarse-grained sandstone with
minor shale–clay lithofacies. The above is overlain by Recent alluvium with sand, silt, and clay.

There are seven coal seams found in the Jamalganj coalfield and designated as seam I –seam VII.
The depth of the coal seam ranges from 641–1126 m below the ground surface (Table 3.23) and
119–512 m below the base of Tertiary unconformity. The depth of the thickest and most well-
developed coal seam (seam III), as recorded in different wells, ranges from 659 m (EDH 9) to
1032 m (EDH 14) below the surface. The deepest coal seam (seam VII) has a recorded depth of
1013 m (EDH 7) to 1124 m (EDH 10) below the surface. The depth of the coal seams at different
boreholes is shown in Table 3.23.
TABLE 3.23
The depth (m) of the coal seams below ground level in Jamalganj coalfield
Western Part Eastern Part
EDH 5 EDH 6 EDH 7 EDH 8b EDH 9 EDH 10 EDH 11 EDH 12 EDH 14
Seam I 913 M M M M 687 M S

Seam II 940 M 786 699 614 886 892 S
Seam III 1000 930 838 725 659 909 977 1,223 1,032.1
Seam IV 1037 995 882 807 679 967 1005 United with seam-III
Seam V 1070 1,018 942 866 Hole terminated 1024 1036 TD TD
Seam-VI 1126 1,102 981 902 Earlier 1109 1093 TD TD
Seam VII United with 1,014 M 1124 1101 TD TD
seam VI
M = Seam missing, TD = Borehole stopped above coal seam, S = Shaly coal

Source: Friederich (1992).
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106
106 Md. Nehal Uddin
The thickness of the seven coal seams in the Jamalganj coalfield is not uniform (Figure 3.20).
The individual coal seams range in thickness from less than 2 m to more than 46 m. The indi-
vidual coal seams show wide variations in thickness laterally, as recorded from well to well
(Table 3.24). The average cumulative thickness of coal is taken as 64 m. Coal seams III and VII
are the two most important coal layers in terms of thickness, lateral continuity, and reserves.
A third seam, i.e. Seam IV, also records significant thickness and lateral continuity. The Seam III
records a thickness of 46.82 m in well EDH 11 and 40.82 m in well EDH 10 in the eastern part of
the field, and a reduced thickness of only 4.26 m in well EDH 6 in the central part. In the eastern
part of the coalfield, Seam III combines with seam IV.

In Jamalganj Basin, seven coal seams have been encountered in depths ranging from 550–1122 m
below mean sea level. Nine drillholes were drilled in the coalfield in an area of 12.55x4.83 = 60.50
sq km. The recommended mine area is about 25.90 sq km. The explored area 37.26 sq km.
The proven reserves calculated by M/s Friedrich Krupp Rohstoffe in an area of 11.52 sq km
for 6 seams is 1053.9 million tons (seam I was ignored). Breakdown of the reserves shown in
Table 3.27.
According to the feasibility study by Friedrich Krupp Rohstoffe (1969), the two main seams,
i.e. seam III and seam VII, contain 50% and 35% of the total reserve respectively. Seam I is not
developed and has not been taken into account. Seam II contains 39.5 million tons (Mt), seam
III 526.8 Mt, seam IV 32.4 Mt, seam V 30.00 MMT, seam VI 50.8 MMT and seam VII 374.4 Mt
of coal.
Friedrich Krupp Rohstoffe (1969) calculated the mineable reserves of the seam III as less than
23% and daily initial production from the mine will be 500 tons and later will be raised to 10,000
tons. The life of the mine will be more than 60 years.
Savornin (1964) estimated the total reserves of seams III–VII are 1,563 million tons, of
which 716 million tons are indicated and 847 million tons are inferred. Ahmed and Zaher (1965)
calculated 760 million tons as proved and 1,460 million tons as probable reserves. All the reserves
were calculated in an area of 11.50 sq km but coal seams may extend over 25.90 sq km and the
reserves may increase to that of the estimate.

The Jamalganj coal is banded, composed of bright and dull bands, with a few millimetres to sev-
eral centimetres of shaly and carboniferous shale partings. The coal in most parts of the basin
shows a laminar texture of bright and dull bands, but in general, mostly bright. In certain parts,
the coal has developed laminated shale texture to such an extent that it imparts a dull appearance.
This type of coal is termed dull shaly coal. Vertical and lateral changes of the coal facies are
common in the Jamalganj coal basin.
The ash content of the coal fluctuates considerably in the range of 10–60% with an average
of 22.4%. The upper part of the seams contains the highest ash. The volatile matter on dry basis
ranges from 30–40%. In the drillholes EDH 10 and EDH 11, a decreasing content of volatile
matter towards a greater depth is observed. The fixed carbon content of the raw coal varies greatly
from 33–54% with an average of 47%. The amount of carbon residue from coal containing 10–
20% of ash. The ultimate analyses of the coal show an average of 71% carbon, 4.8% hydrogen,
1.6% nitrogen, and 11.0% oxygen on dry basis. The sulphur content is about 0.65%. The content
of chlorine is about 0.04%. The results of proximate analyses and ultimate analyses of the coal
are shown in Table 3.25.
The calorific value of the coal is 11,878 BTU/lb, the swelling index of the coal varies from
0–1% with exceptions of 3–4% (on an air-dried basis).
01_9780367531805pre-c08_pi-316.indd 106 22-Oct-21 19:55:19

107
01_9780367531805pre-c08_pi-316.indd 107
FIGURE 3.20 Bar diagram showing the thickness of individual coal seam of the Jamalganj coalfield
Source: After Ahmed and Zaher (1965).
107
22-Oct-21 19:55:19
108
108 Md. Nehal Uddin
TABLE 3.24
Thickness of coal seams in Jamalganj coalfield
Western part Eastern part
EDH 5 EDH 6 EDH 7 EDH 8b ED 9 EDH 10 EDH 11 EDH 12 EDH 14
Seam I 1.52 – – – – 12.68 – – –

Seam II 4.56 12.46 4.26 7.9 5.17 2.56 3.19 – –
Seam III 19.41 4.26 20.37 20.67 8.87 40.76 46.82 26.21 5.01
Seam IV 20.22 7.9 10.34 24.78 4.55 5.22 8.97 – –
Seam V 2.36 5.17 13.68 20.98 – 16.42 16.42 – –
Seam VI – 2.56 7.6 10.99 – 6.04 6.04 – –
Seam VII – 3.19 15.05 – – 15.81 15.81 – –
Source: Rahman and Zaher (1980).
TABLE 3.25
Coal seam and coal reserves of Jamalganj coalfield
Range of thickness (m) after Coal reserves (million ton) after Friedrich
Coal seam Rahman and Zaher (1980) Krupp Rohstoffe (1969)
I 1.5–2.6 Ignored
II 2.5–12.4 39.5
III 4.2–46.8 526.8
IV 4.5–24.7 32.4
V 2.6–20.9 30.0
VI 2.6–10.9 50.8
VII 3.1–15.8 374.4
Total= 1053.9
Source: After Friedrich Krupp Rohstoffe (1969) and Rahman and Zaher (1980)
A petrographic study indicates that Jamalganj coal is mostly vitrinite with intercalations of
resinite in the form of thin layers. Vitrinite shows telenite structures with visible cells which
are filled with resinite. The coal shows fine-grained clay particles closely intergrown with car-
bonaceous substances. Micrinite particles are scattered in some parts and secondary fissures
filled with calcite (Ahmed and Zaher, 1965). Petrographic analysis of the upper seams shows
the vitrinite content of 33.2–34% and the lower seams show 46.7%. The percentage of exinite
is much lower (5–10%) than the upper seams (19–22%). Intertinite content in the upper seams
varies from 27.6–41.7% and in the lower seams it is within the range of 21.5–22.5%. The mean
reflectance value in oil (Ro max%) of vitrinite in the upper seam is 0.69% and the lower seams
have weak-to-moderate coking properties. Mineral matter within the coal varies from 1.7–18.5%.
The average vitrinite, exinite, inertinite, and mineral matters of seams III and VII are shown in
Table 3.26.
The coal is of a high volatile, low sulphur bituminous type. The carbon content of the coal
gradually increases (slightly) towards depth. The rank of the coal also increases towards the
centre and deeper part (south and southeast) of the basin (Hoque, 1988). On the basis of volatile
matter content, the coal is ranked bituminous VII as per ‘European Standard’ (Ahmed and Zaher,
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109
TABLE 3.26
Proximate analysis of Jamalganj coal
M/S Roberson Research M/S Waheduddin and Friedrich Krupp
Parameters International (1976) Zaher (1965) Rohstoffe (1966)
Proximate analysis
Ash content (Av.) (%) 24.2 22.4 (range 10–60) 25.70
Volatile matter (Dry basis) (Av.)% 36.9 30–40 40.60
Fixed carbon (Dry basis) (Av.) (%) 36.7 47.0 (range 33–54) -
Moisture (Av.) (%) 3.58 – –
Calorific Value (Clean Coal) BTU/lb 11,878 BTU/Ib 12,100 BTU/Ib 11,870 BTU/Ib
Calorific Value (20–25% ash) BTU/lb 11,000 BTU/Ib
Ultimate analysis
Carbon (%) 80.10 79.00 80.25
Hydrogen (%) 5.39 5.40 5.34
Nitrogen (%) 1.83 1.81 1.87
Sulphur (%) 0.55 0.65
Oxygen (%) 12.02 12.50 11.80
Chlorine (%) – 0.04 –
Source: Zaher and Rahman (1980).
TABLE 3.27
Vitrinite, exinite, inertinite and mineral matter content of the coal (%)
Seam no. Vitrinite Exinite Inertinite Mineral matter
III 34.0 22.0 28.1 15.9

VII 46.7 10.0 22.5 20.8
Source: Rahman and Zaher (1980).
1965; Rahman and Zaher, 1980). Robertson Research International (1976) placed this coal on the
boundary between sub-bituminous to high volatile bituminous coal.
Vitrinite reflectance, as measured by Friedrich Krupp Rohstoffe (1966) and Robertson (1976),
ranges from 0.66–0.84% and indicates that seams I–V are of high volatile bituminous B rank and
seams VI and VII are of high volatile bituminous A rank coal (Holloway and Bailey, 1995). The
hydrogen oxygen ratio of Jamalganj coal suggests a bare prospect of being coked in a conventional
method. However, it may be mixed with other good coking coal in use (Rahman and Zaher, 1965).

In the Jamganj coalfield the coal occurs between 670.52 m and 1158.18 m depth. Mining of
such deep-seated coal is difficult. Friedrich Krupp Rohstoffe (1969) recommended seam III for
mining from a depth of 914.35 m by sinking two vertical shafts of 7.20 m diameter by freezing
the unstable overlying strata. Three mining methods were suggested for the development of mine
at Jamalganj.
1. Room and pillar.

2. Auger.
3. Longwall without stowing.
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110 Md. Nehal Uddin
The room and pillar method was suggested by Friedrich Krupp Rohstoffe (1969) and it was stated
that ‘the great depth of the coal seams presents a special problem, because of the dead weight of
the overlying strata is greater than the uniaxial compressive strength of the coal when split into
pillars’. As regards longwall, Duffryn (1969) commented that a longwall panel to extract coal
from the bottom of the seam would necessitate sand stowing but suitable sand for the purpose is
not available in the nearby area.
There were differences in opinion regarding the methods of mining. Friedrich Krupp Rohstoffe
(1969) suggested two vertical shafts having a diameter of 7.20 m and focused on the room and
pillar method, whereas the other view focuses on the longwall method. However, mining of this
coal was stopped. Now the technology has improved, it is the time to review all the data and
make socio-economic analyses for the development of Jamalganj coal mine. The consulting firm
appointed by BCMCL in 2017 stated that 5.45 billion metric tons of coal resources are present
over the 64 sq km area of the Jamalganj coal basin. The consulting firm recommended a detailed
exploration prior to extracting the coal eventually from Jamalganj coalfield. They also opined
that the coal is extractable by underground mining, especially in the northwestern 15 sq km area
of the Jamalganj basin, where the upper coal seams occur at a comparatively shallower depth
(600–800 m). A proposal for feasibility study (PFS) has been prepared with a view to developing
an underground mine in the northwestern comparatively shallower area of Jamalganj coalfield
(Petrobangla, 2020).
The groundwater hydrology of the coalfield area is an important factor for mine development.
The stratigraphy of the Jamalganj coalfield is established on the drillhole data. The stratigraphic
sequence of Alluvium, Barind Clay, Dupi Tila Formation, Jamalganj Formation (undifferentiated
equivalent to Surma Group), Kopili Formation, Eocene Sylhet Limestone Formation, Cherra
Formation and Gondwana Formation is found. In the Jamalganj coal basin about 275 m of the
Dupi Tila aquifer is found. Below this aquifer about 413 m shale and sand alterations of Jamalganj
Formation are present. The sand of the Jamalganj Formation is a confined aquifer. Below this,
there is about 42 m Kopili Shale, 30 m Eocene Sylhet Limestone and Cherra Formations. The
Cherra Formation is an aquifer. Below this, the Gondwana Formation is found which is mainly
consolidated sandstone but contains water. The salinity of the formation water in the Jamalganj
basin is shown in Table 3.28.
Rock mechanics are important for mine development. The engineering properties of the rocks
of different formations of the Jamalganj coalfield (according to Friedrich Krupp Rohstoffe, 1966)
are shown as follows:
1. Alluvium and Dupi Tila: Sample collection = 33.53 m–117.34 m from the drillhole EDH
12. Angle of friction = 34.4°–38.3°; Cohesion = 3.5 kg/cm2; Coefficient of uniformity,
U = 2.5.
TABLE 3.28
Salinity of formation water in Jamalganj coalfield
Jamalganj depth Porosity (%) Salt content (g/1 NaCl equivalent)
445 m 39 2.5
480–505 m 35 3–3.36
510–520 m 29 3.0
810 m 22 2.9
960 m 22 4.1
Source: after Friedrich Krupp Rohstoffe (1966).
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111
2. Jamalganj Formation (equivalent to Surma Group): Sample collection = 188.05–189.27 m

(EDH 12). Triaxial compression = 25 kg/cm2; Uniaxial compression = 16 kg/cm2; Angle of
friction = 30°; Coefficient of uniformity, U = 8–6; Cohesion = 2.4 kg/cm2; Moisture con-
tent = 19%; Lime content =11–14%.
3. Kopili Formation: Sample collection = 464.80–465.40 m (EDH 6), Mechanical properties
were not determined. Lime content = 50%.
4. Eocene Sylhet Limestone: 468.80–469.40 m (EDH 6), Compressive strength = 764 kg/cm2,
Module of elasticity = 44,00 kg/cm2Lime content = 100%.
5. Cherra Formation: Sample collection = 615.67–643.09 m (EDH 10), Coefficient of uni-
formity: U = 46; Lime content = very low; other mechanical properties were not determined.
6. Gondwana Complex: Sample collection = 644.62–866.80 m (EDH 10). Compressive
strength = 149–637 kg/cm2, Module of elasticity=7000 kg/cm2 at a depth of 763.49 m and
59,000 kg/cm2 at a depth of 866.80 m; Fracture = 16–18.5%.
3.2.6 DIGHIPARA BASIN

The Geological Survey of Bangladesh delineated 10 prominent gravity low anomalies in different
places of the areas of Rangpur-Dinajpur. These gravity low areas are thought to be the Gondwana
basins. Drilling in some of these basins revealed the existence of Gondwana rocks with coal beds
in Barapukuria in 1985, in Khalaspir in 1989, and in the Dighipara in 1995.
In 2013–2014, BAPEX completed a 2-D seismic survey. Later on, the Barapukuria Coal
Mining Company Ltd (BCMCL) completed a ‘feasibility study for the development of the
Dighipara coalfield at Dighpara, Dinajpur, Bangladesh’ by engaging a consortium of the
MIBRAG Consulting International GmbH, Germany, FUGRO Consult GmbH, Germany, and
Ges Runge Pincock Minarco Limited, Australia, which conducted a detailed feasibility study of
the Dighpara coal basin from 2017 to 2020. The consortium submitted its report on 2020.
The coal basin area is located in Dighipara of Nowabganj upazila under Dinajpur district.
The village of Dighipara is 12 km from Bhaduria bazar of Nowabganj Thana and 1 km from
Dhalardargah bazar of Gabindaganj-Phulbari Highway (Figure 3.21). The places Birampur,
Dhalardargah and Bhaduria are well connected by metalled road. Saidpur, the nearby airport, is
about 75 km from the basin area.

Structurally, the Dighipara basin is within the southern slope of the Rangpur Platform.
Dighipara basin is a north-south elongated, oval-shaped and fault-bounded basin. This basin
is separated from the Khalaspir basin by the Bhaduria high (see Figure 3.15, Khalaspir).
The eastern side of the basin is fault-bounded (evidenced from the gravity Bouger anomaly
map) and the fault in the eastern side is considered to be the basin boundary fault. Dighipara,
Dangapara and Daudpur may be the sub-basins of one big basin and these sub-basins may be
separated from each other by secondary faults. The northeast-southwest trending fault may
be the northern limit of these basins. These basins may have been formed by faulting in the
crystalline basement during the Permo-Carboniferous time (Banerji, 1981). Later on, these
basins were reshaped, and basin marginal adjustments occurred from time to time due to the
Himalayan upheavals (Uddin, 1994).
The MIBRAG consortium reported (BCMCL, 2020) that a north-south fault is present in the
central part of the basin and an east fault and west fault are present on the eastern and western
side of the basin. These faults have created a graben structure in the Dighipara basin. The strati-
graphic sequence of the Dighipara basin is established on the basis of borehole data. Like most of
the nearby basins, in the Dighipara basin, the Tertiary rocks directly overlie the Gondwana rocks
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112 Md. Nehal Uddin
FIGURE 3.21 Borehole location map of Dighipara coal basin, Nawabganj upazila, Dinajpur district
under which lies the Basement complex. The lithological log and stratigraphic succession of the
basin are shown in Figure 3.22 and Table 3.29.
The description of the coal-bearing Gondwana sequences in the area is as follows.
• Basement complex: The basement complex is mainly gneiss with thin bands of granite. It is
greenish grey with shades of pink, fine-grained to medium-grained, grains are interlocked
with each other tightly aligned in one direction (~60°) and formed gneissic structure. The
rock is fractured and the fracture is filled with secondary calcite. The rock is hard and
compact.
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FIGURE 3.22 Lithologic log of GDH 49, Dighipara coal basin, Nawabganj, Dinajpur
Note: Elevation 25 m AMSL.
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TABLE 3.29
Stratigraphic succession of Dighipara area, Dinajpur district
Thickness
Age Formation/Group Lithologic description Max. (in m)
Holocene Alluvium Silty clay: light brown, soft, root lets 0.30
Unconformity
Pleistocene Madhupur Clay Red clay: brown, variegated, sticky and plastic when wet, 7.92
hard on drying. Ferruginous nodules present.
Unconformity
Plio-Pleistocene Dupi Tila Sandstone, pebbly sandstone and occasional clay stone 320
Formation
? Kopili Fm.? Reworked Kopili shale with fossils and sandstone 135
Permian Gondwana Group Feldspathic sandstone, carbonaceous sandstone, 166.72
carbonaceous shale, conglomerate and coal beds
Pre-Cambrian Basement Complex Diorite, Gneiss and schist, granite gneiss, granite; highly 41.15+
fractured
Source: Uddin et al. (1996).
• Gondwana Group: The Gondwana Group lies unconformably over the Basement complex.
Rocks have not been assigned to any particular formation of the group. But the lithological
characteristics and the coal beds with Glossopteris and Gangamopteris flora found in the
basin suggest it might be the part of Lower Gondwana. The rocks are composed of feld-
spathic sandstone, carbonaceous sandstone, carbonaceous shale, shale, conglomerate and
coal beds. At the top of the Gondwana Group, there are grey to greenish grey, fine-grained
to medium-grained, loose clean sands with occasional clay. This unit is confused with Tura
sandstone. Descriptions of different rock types are almost the same as in the Barapukuria
coal basin. They are as follows
• Conglomerate: It is greenish grey with shades of pink, dark grey and off-whites (variegated).
The clasts are composed of rounded to sub-rounded quartzite, diorite, gneiss, schist and
microdiorite, and few sedimentary rock fragments. The maximum size of the clast is about
40 cm in diameter. The clasts are embedded in a sandy matrix. The rocks are hard and com-
pact and highly fractured.
• Sandstone: The feldspathic sandstone is grey to off-white and the carbonaceous sand-
stone is grey to dark grey with white spots. These sandstones are fine-grained to coarse-
grained, sub-angular to sub-rounded, and composed mostly of quartz with feldspar (partly
decomposed) and other dark minerals. Shale is present in alternation with sandstone.
• Mudstone: The mudstone is carbonaceous and laminated. It is hard and compact. In places,
the mudstone grades into low-grade coal. It breaks into laminar planes.
• Coal: Coal is present at the top of the Gondwana Group. This facies is composed of thick
coal beds with sandstone. The coal is black, normally banded and fractured. The fractures
are filled with secondary calcite and pyrite with other unidentifiable minerals. The coal
layers are intercalated with carbonaceous shale and sandstone in some cases. In some
places, the sandstone, conglomerate, shale and coal beds alternate.
• The Kopili Formation: The Kopili Formation at the top of the Gondwana sequence is
reworked (transported to the basin from the nearby calcareous shale and limestone-
bearing areas). The sandstone is unconsolidated and lacks cementing materials, clay is
found in thin layers within the sandstone. The fossils are mainly larger foraminifera and
broken shells.
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• The Dupi Tila Formation: The Dupi Tila Formation is composed of sandstone, pebbly sand-
stone, and occasional claystone. This is the main water-bearing zone, and the domestic,
irrigation and drinking water source of the area. The depth of this formation varies. The
average depth is thought to be about 300 m from the surface. Sandstone, pebbly sandstone
and claystone are found alternating.
• Sandstone: The sandstone is yellowish-brown, grey and off-white. It is fine-grained to very
coarse-grained, the grains are angular to sub-rounded. It is composed mostly of quartz,
a few mica, feldspar and other dark minerals are also present. The sandstone is poorly
consolidated. This sandstone contains water and is the main aquifer in the area.
• Pebbly sandstone: It is bluish-grey with various shades of green, yellow and white. The
pebbles are mostly sub-angular, composed of quartz/quartzite (60–70%), feldspar, shale,
greenish and pink-coloured rock fragments. It is unconsolidated.
• Claystone: The clay is bluish grey, in places reddish bands are present. It is sticky and
plastic when wet and hard on drying. The claystone contains sand partings and lignitic
materials. It is soft, and found in between the sandstone beds.
• Barind clay residuum: This formation unconformably lies over the Dupi Tila Formation. In
this formation only red clay facies is recognised. It is composed of brown, variegated, with
various shades of yellow, red, coffee and white-coloured clay. The clay is very sticky and
plastic when wet and hard when dry.
• Alluvium: Alluvium is present on the top of the Barind clay residuum. It is a silty clay, light
brown and soft.

In the Dighipara coal basin seven coal seams of 58 m composite thickness have been identified
between the depths of 323.07 m and 455.04 m. The maximum thickness of the individual seam is
36.57 m and the minimum is 0.34 m. The top seam I and seam II are the main coal seams of the
basin. The coal seams and their thicknesses are shown in Table 3.30.
Seam I: This seam is present between the depths of 521.04 m and 345.12 m below the surface
in GDH 49, 383.511 m and 400.49 m in GDH 58, 355.07 m and 355.68 m in GDH 60 and,
323.07 m and 342.88 m in GDH 61. The maximum and minimum thicknesses of coal in
this seam are 19.81 m and 9.91 m respectively. The average thickness is 15.94 m. The coal
is black with shining patches. It is normally banded with dull (durain) and bright (vitrain)
bands. The thickness of the bands is a few millimetres to 15 cm. The bright bands are thinner
than the dull bands. Fusains are rarely present in the coal. It is present as spots and or lenses.
The coal is fractured. Vertical and oblique fractures are common. Pyrite and other secondary
minerals are present in the fracture. The pyrite is present as round spots or thin layers on
the fractured surface. The vitrain bands break into small cubical blocks and the others into
small pieces.
Seam II: This seam is present from the depth of 348.47–382.32 m below the surface in GDH
49, 403.60–438.89 m in GDH 58, 368.79–402.77 m in GDH 60, and 348.06–384.64 m
in GDH 61. The maximum thickness is 36.57 m in GDH 61 and the minimum is 33.84
m in GDH 49. The average thickness is 34.92 m. This is the thickest seam of the basin.
Carbonaceous shale, sandstone and feldspathic sandstone are present between seams I and
II. The physical properties of the coal seam are the same as seam I. Sharing effects are pre-
sent at the bottom of the basin. Core samples were not taken from the depth of 361.89–375
m in GDH 49. Only small pieces of badly fractured coal seams which seem to be pulverised
are found in the return mud.
Seam III: The third seam is present between the depths of 384.83–391.65 m in GDH 49,
44.33–442.55 m in GDH 58, 407.50–408.02 m in GDH 60, and 388.30–395.00 m in GDH
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116
01_9780367531805pre-c08_pi-316.indd 116
TABLE 3.30
Coal seams with depth and thickness of Dighipara coal basin in metre
Seam no. GDH 49 GDH 58 GDH 60 GDH 61 GDH 62
Seam I 327.94–345.15 = 17.21 383.51–400.49 = 16.98 355.07–364.82 = 9.75 323.07–342.88 = 19.98 387.99–393.78 = 5.79
Seam II 348.47–382.32 = 33.85 403.60–438.89 = 35.29 368–79-402.77 = 34.7 348.06–384.64 = 36.58 399.27–429.75 = 30.48
Seam III 384.83–391.65 = 6.82 441.33–442.55 = 1.22 407.15–408.02 = 0.87 388.30–395.0 = 6.7 430.36–431.57 = 1.21
Seam IV 396.34–398.55 = 2.21 444.77–455.74 = 1 0.97 416.34–419.23 = 2.89 - 397.29–400.64 = 3.35
Seam V 406.55–406.85 = 0.3 – – 411.97–412.78 = 0.81 450.47–453.57 = 3.10
Seam VI 406.55–406.85 = 0.30 – 411.97–412.78 = 0.81 450.47–453.57 = 3.10
Seam VII – – – 414.81–417.71 = 2.90 455.0–456.26 = 1.22
Thickness 60.69 63.24 47.30 67.90 45.15

Md. Nehal Uddin
22-Oct-21 19:55:19
117
61. The maximum thickness of this seam is 6.93 m and the minimum is 0.52 m and the
average is 3.83 m. The coal in the seam is dull with streaks of bright bands (vitrain) and
shaly in nature. It is heavier than those of seams I and II. The coal is highly fractured, and
pyrite is present in the fracture. The seam in GDH-49 is split into two seams by 0.30 m sand-
stone and carbonaceous shale.
Seam IV: This is limited within the depth of 396.34–398.55 in GDH 49, 444.77–455.04 m in
GDH 58, 416.34–419.23 m in GDH 60 and 397.29–400.64 m in GDH 65. The maximum
thickness of coal in this seam is 10.27 m in GDH 58 and the minimum is 2.44 m in GDH
49. No solid drill core was found in GDH 49. Only fragments of coal are found with the
return mud. The coal is dull and highly fractured. Some of the pieces of the coal are hard
and seem to be burnt.
Seam V: This seam is present in GDH 49 and GDH 60. In GDH 49 the seam is present between
the depths of 400.53 m and 402.13 m, and in GDH-61 this seam is present between the
depths of 407.95 m and 408.87 m. The maximum thickness is 1.60 m and the minimum is
0.91 m. The coal is black and mostly dull. In places alternations of dull and bright bands
(clarain) are present. The coal is badly fractured. Spots and thin layers of pyrite are present
in the fracture planes and core surfaces. Lenses and bands of fusain are found in the coal
seam. The coal is heavy and in places shaly. In GDH 49, the core surface is not smooth;
small pits are present on the core surface.
Seam VI: This seam is found in GDH 49 from the depth of 406.55–406.85 m, and in GDH 61
from the depth of 411.97–412.78 m. The coal is dull and dirty. Abundant fusains are present
in this seam. It is fractured and pyrite is present in the fractures. The coal in this seam is of
lower grade than those of the upper seams.
Seam VII: It is present only in the drillhole GDH 61 at depths ranging from 414.81–417.71
m. The coal in this seam is dull and shaly in nature.
From the study of the physical properties of the coal in the Dighipara basin, it is seen that the coal
of the top two coal seams is good quality, but the quality deteriorates as it goes down to depths.
In particular, seams V and VI are inferior to those of seams I–III.

Five drillholes have been drilled in the basin by the GSB in an area of 5 sq km. To the calculate
the reserves, the average thickness of the coal is calculated as 58 m and the average specific
gravity of the coal was taken as 1.375. The proven reserves in the 5 sq km area are calculated as
402 million tons. The basin area may be extended to 10.2 sq km and the reserves will stand as
611 million tons. The GSB suggests that the reserves may extend up to 22 sq km and there is a
possibility of more reserves of coal in the basin.
BAPEX carried out 102 line km 2-D high resolution seismic survey in 2014. The total coal
reserves were estimated to be 865 Mmt (million metric tons) within 24 sq km. Barapukuria
Coal Mining Company Limited (BCMCL) undertook the project ‘Techno-Economic Feasibility
Study of Coal Deposit at Dighipara, Dinajpur’. In the recent past the feasibility study had been
completed with the submission of the draft report by the consulting firm MIBRAG Consortium.
The report mentions that the total reserve of Dighipara coal basin in an area of 11.0 sq km is
706 million metric tons, of which 82 million metric tons are extractable by underground mining
(Petrobangla, 2020). The coal occurs between the depths of 320–506.0 m. There are three main
seams: Seam A has an average thickness of 14.56 m in an area of 8.30 sq km, Seam B has an
average thickness of 31.69 m in an area of 10.5 sq km and Seam C has an average thickness of
15.8 m in an area of 11.0 sq km (BCMCL, 2020b).
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The physical properties of the coal are almost the same as that of the Barapukuria and Khalaspir
coal basins. The coal is black with shining patches. It is normally banded with dull (durain) and
bright (vitrain) bands. The thickness of the bands is a few millimetres to 15 cm. The bright bands
are thinner than the dull bands. Fusains are rarely present in the coal. It is present as spots and
or lenses. The coal is fractured. Vertical and oblique fractures are common. Pyrite and other sec-
ondary minerals are present in the fracture. The pyrite is present as round spots or thin layers on
the fractured surface. The vitrain bands break into small cubical blocks and the others into small
pieces. In the Dighipara coal basin, the fusain contents increase towards the bottom seams. Coal
at Seam VI is heavier than the upper seams. The physical properties suggest that the coal in the
upper two seams is of better quality.
Chemical analyses of 79 coal samples from different coal seams were done in the GSB labora-
tory. The highest heating value is more than 14,500 BTU/lb and the lowest heating value would
be about 9100 BTU/lb. The fixed carbon ranges from 65–42%. The ash content varied from 20–
2.50%, volatile matter ranges from 39–24%. Moisture content varies from 4–2.5%. Total sulphur
would be below 1%. The detailed chemical composition of the coal is shown in Table 3.31 and
Table 3.32.
The coal is high volatile low sulphur bituminous type. The coal can be used for all sorts of
thermal conversion, like electricity generation and all other commercial purposes.

The Dighipara coal basin can be mined by the underground mining method and by the open-cut
mining method. In case of underground mining, about 90 million tons out of 706 million tons
could be mined. On the other hand, 121 million tons of coal can be mined by the open cut method
from an area of 24 sq km and maximum of 438 million tons from the entire basin area.
Considering the depth of the coal basin, the coal reserves, the groundwater management and all
the other technical options, the MIBRAG consortium suggested the underground multi-slice long-
wall top coal caving (LTCC) method for the Dighipara coal basin. The number of slices will be six
with an average slice thickness of 7.2 m. Coal will be mined where there are more than 30 m roof
rocks. The consortium suggested an inclined drift conveyor belt for coal transportations and a ver-
tical shaft for the air flow. The production capacity of the underground mine will be on an average
2.80 Mt for 30 years. A 1000 MW coal-based power plant can be run with this annual production.
The biggest challenge of the mine will be to manage the upper Dupi Tila aquifer, the thickness
of which varied from 40.50–228.50 m with an average of 134.80 m. The model analyses of the
consortium suggest that the highest water withdrawal from the aquifer for mining will be 19,494
cu. m/hour and the lowest may be 3,953 cu. me/hour. The consortium has suggested setting a
sealing wall (a cut-off wall) around the mine (8–10 km) to reduce the water in-rush into the mine.
The mine development will require a total of 13.98 sq km area, of which about 10.24 sq km
area may subside up to 33.0 m due to the underground mining. About 83% of the area is green
land. The project needs to resettle a large number of houses. The major environmental impacts
due to the mine will be: (1) soil erosion; (2) destruction of habitat; (3) noise; (4) groundwater
pollution; (5) lowering of the groundwater level; (6i) discharge of mine water; (7) air pollution;
(8) ground subsidence. The mining authorities should take proper measures to mitigate the envir-
onmental and social impacts due to the mine (BCMCL, 2020).
3.3 HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF GONDWANA COAL

3.3.1 INTRODUCTION
How to generate hydrocarbon from coal and in particular the expulsion mechanism are complex
and are known to depend on several factors, such as maceral type, maceral association, coal
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119
01_9780367531805pre-c08_pi-316.indd 119
TABLE 3.31
Proximate analyses of Dighipara coal
Moisture (%) Volatile Matter (%) Ash (%) Fixed carbon (%) Total sulphur (%) Calorific value BTU/lb.
Sl.
No. Max. Min. Av. Max. Min. Av. Max. Min. Av. Max. Min. Av. Max. Min. Av. Max. Min. Av.
S-I 4.73 0.49 3.2 38.23 14.74 30.89 38.57 2.53 9.18 73.15 35.04 56.29 1.29 0.33 0.65 14,981 9,110 12,836
S-II 4.71 0.32 2.67 39.56 13.42 32.08 37.56 1.34 8.17 79.9 37.69 57.13 0.91 0.4 0.67 14,250 9,200 12,983
S-III 3.59 2.11 2.71 33.59 20.36 28.46 30.2 4.6 12.50 62.85 45.32 56.33 0.86 0.37 0.58 14,600 9,250 12,497
S-IV 2.68 0.41 1.88 29.65 22.85 25.12 34.9 12.33 20.62 56.57 41.44 52.38 1.01 0.4 0.56 12,200 9,100 10,650
S-V 2.1 1.38 1.74 29.97 26.24 27.64 32.23 11.85 22.47 56.08 40.12 50.08 1.03 0.44 0.86 12,350 9,100 10,480
S-VI 3.15 1.58 2.37 32.94 27.57 30.26 14.71 9.66 12.19 59.62 50.77 55.20 0.89 0.5 0.70 13,200 12,170 12,685

119
22-Oct-21 19:55:19
120
120 Md. Nehal Uddin
TABLE 3.32
Results of the chemical analyses carried out by the MIBRAG consortium
Air Dry basis Average Value
Ash (%) 14.6

Fixed carbon (%) 52.60
Volatile matter (%) 30.60
Total sulphur (%) 0.85
Total moisture for ROM (assumed) (%) 10.0
Inherent moisture (%) Ranges from 1.1-2.1%
Specific energy 6645 Kcal/Kg or 27.82 Mj/Kg or 11952 btu/lb
Relative density 1.43 ton/cubic metre
As Received Basis
Specific Energy 5817 Kcal/Kg or 24.36 Mj/Kg or 10436 btu/lb
Source: BCMCL (2020).
micro-texture, etc. and also are interrelated with the original precursor material, the depositional
environment, microbial activity and mineral matter (Littke et al., 1989; Hunt, 1991; Scott and
Fleet, 1994; Snowdon, 1995; Hasiah, 2003).
Analysis of the petroleum system revealed the presence of Types I, II, and III kerogens and
three different active petroleum systems in the Bengal Basin, though Type III is the most common,
Type II is less common, and Type I is rare (Alam et al., 2006). The major hydrocarbon potential
in the Gondwana coals and associated rocks of the Gondwana Formation is found in the form
of either natural gas or unconventional gases, such as (1) shale gas, (2) tight gas, and (3) CBM.
Shale, tight gas and CBM are unconventional sources of energy found in non-porous rocks,
and are important in meeting the energy demand of many countries. Shale gas is a natural gas that
is found trapped within shale formations, which act as both a reservoir and a cap. The evaluation
of hydrocarbon potential in any basin is dependent on the following parameters (TNO, 2009):
• lateral extent and thickness – volume;

• total organic carbon (TOC) and types of kerogen and hydrocarbon contained;
• burial depth and thermal maturity – vitrinite reflectance;
• the seal;
• structural complexity, fracture systems, stress regime;
• the composition of the shale – content of quartz and clay, type of clays control on mech-
anical properties;
• the water content and composition;
• the gas pressure;
• porosity and permeability.
The study of coal samples from Raniganj and Barakar formations of the Indian region shows
that the organic richness, kerogen type and thermal maturity of the Permian shales signify fair to
excellent gas generation potential (Mishra et al., 2016; Boruah et al., 2017).
The hydrocarbon potential of eight samples from the Barapukuria coal basin was analysed by
Farhaduzzaman et al. (2012), using organic geochemical and organic petrological methods. They
identified a mixture of Type III and Type II kerogen. The total organic carbon (TOC) ranges from
61–74 wt.% and the recovered extractable organic matter (EOM) varies from 27,561–41,389
ppm. The hydrocarbon yield is high and it ranges from 12,192–20,799 ppm. There are mean
vitrinite reflectance values of 431°C–435°C and 0.72–0.81% Ro. The organic matter is thermally
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121
mature for hydrocarbon generation considering their T-max and vitrinite reflectance. The studied
Permian coals with high liptinite contents (up to 25%), high total extracts (32,232–41,389 ppm)
and very rich in hydrocarbon yields (14.77–30.66 mg HC/g TOC) indicate that they have already
generated and expelled hydrocarbons. The mean vitrinite reflectance of 0.72–0.81% values
support that these samples are thermally mature for initial hydrocarbon generation (Hunt, 1991).
The results suggest that the Barapukuria coals can be ranked as good quality source rock for
hydrocarbon (Farhaduzzaman et al., 2012).
The hydrocarbon potential parameters were reviewed in the Kuchma X1 well drilled by
Standard Vacuum Oil Co. (SVOC) in 1959. In the core samples, alternations of fine to medium
coarse, whitish feldspathic sandstone and carbonaceous shale compose the most dominant rock
types of the Kuchma Formation. In borehole Kuchma XI a 504 m-thick interval has been drilled
between 2,363 and 2,857 m, consisting of 307 m sandstone with shale and coal intercalations,
135 m of dark grey to black carbonaceous shale and 52 m coal (Khan, 2011). Evaluation of the
GR log shows just 58 m of shale with higher GR readings. The Late Permian Paharpur Formation
resembles the Kuchma Formation. Medium, coarse to very coarse, whitish to light grey feld-
spathic sandstones constitute the most dominant lithology. Abundant are carbonaceous shales
with streaks, pockets, lenses, bands of coal and carbonaceous materials (Khan, 2011). A repre-
sentative succession has been encountered in borehole EDH 10 with 322 m sandstone, 95 m shale
and 68 m coal. The volatile matter on a dry basis is between 30 and 40%, corresponding to high
volatile bituminous coal. DMT (2013) analysed the shale thickness, TOC, type of kerogen (OM)
and maturity of the Gondwana Group in NW Bangladesh are shown in Table 3.33. The maturity
and depth of the Gondwana shale sequence are favourable to shale gas formation (Figure 3.23;
after DMT, 2013).
The Gondwana Group in the stable shelf region has reached favourable maturity compared to
Tertiary shales (Figure 3.23). The reason for the greater maturity is the deep burial prior to the
upliftment during Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (Frielingsdorf et al., 2008). The mapping
by Islam and Eickhoff (2001) placed the sub-basins of Singra-Kuchma and Sherpur within the
essential depth window. The threshold for Shale Gas Maturity is 0.8% Ro.
The Gamma Ray Log from Kuchma X1 evidently specifies that the shale content stems from
intercalated intervals which do not exceed 4 m in thickness. These thin layers do not permit
adequate shale gas extraction. An additional constraint may arise from the TOC distribution.
Though one maximum TOC value of 9.88% has been noted, the remaining four samples are in
the range of just 1.2–1.5%. Finally, it should be noted that the Gondwana sediments in Kuchma
X1 were not commercial hydrocarbon-bearing ones, as confirmed by a drill stem test without
the presence of any hydrocarbon shows. From these results, it was decided that the Gondwana
Group in the sub-basins of Singra, Kuchma and Sherpur did not offer a valid shale gas potential
(DMT, 2013) and it can be concluded that the coal-bearing basins of the Gondwana Group have
TABLE 3.33
The shale thickness, TOC, type of kerogen (OM) and maturity of the Gondwana Group
in NW Bangladesh
Type of kerogen Maturity (vitrinite

Parameters Burial depth Shale thickness TOC (OM) reflectance)
Favourable >1 km <5 km > 20 m >2 wt% II 0.8>R0<3.3

Gondwana Group 0.2 to 10 230 1.2-9.8 III 0.9-1.8
Source: DMT (2013).
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122
122 Md. Nehal Uddin
FIGURE 3.23 Maturity vs. depth trends for source rocks from existing data in the northwestern
Bengal Basin
Source: Redrawn from DMT (2013).
favourable maturity, but contain only thin shale sequences. Furthermore, the total organic content
is a critical factor.
3.3.2 COAL BED METHANE POTENTIALITY OF GONDWANA COAL

The mode of occurrence of coal bed methane (CBM) differs from natural gas by its monomo-
lecular layer of methane absorbed into the surface of coal materials with the remaining (10%)
held in the free state within coal cleats, i.e. the naturally occurring vertical fractures in coal.
The most important parameters for CBM prospecting are the presence of a large volume of coal
with high methane content and sufficient permeability within the seam to allow gas production.
Appraisal of coal bed methane in recent times indicates that the gas content in coal is not gen-
erally a problem. Geologic targeting of thick coal seams at an appropriate depth with optimum
permeability is crucial for any CBM exploration activity.
The coal bed prospects of the Gondwana coal sequences have been studied by a number of
authors (Hoque, 1988; Friederich, 1992; Holloway and Baily, 1995; Whitworth, 1995; Imam
et al., 2002; Gustavson, 2009). All the authors are in favour of potential CBM prospects in the
Gondwana coal, especially in the subsurface Jamalganj coal of NW Bangladesh.
Factors favourable for Jamalganj coal bed methane development are – large coal reserves,
above-average thickness of the coal seams, suitable burial depths of coal seams, indications of
significant gas content, and the low permeability of the rocks above and below the coal-bearing
layers (Imam et al., 2002). The main advantage of the Jamalganj coal is the thickness of the
seams, especially the presence of a well-developed and thick seam (seam III) offering a primary
target for CBM development on the eastern side of the field.
The study team suggested that the Jamalganj CBM Development project should perform tech-
nical analyses, such as:
• special well testing and analysis;

• core sampling and analysis;
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123
• geologic mapping and reserve estimates;

• production monitoring;
• simulation.
Petrobangla carried out a feasibility study in 2015–16 on the possibility of extracting CBM from
Jamalganj coalfield. From this project, it is concluded that due to extreme gas under-saturation,
CBM production is not economically viable.
3.4 MAJOR COAL-BASED POWER PLANTS IN BANGLADESH

The present consumption of coal for power generation is about 3.5 million tons per year for the
two coal-based power plants, one is at Barapukuria (440 MW) in Dinajpur and the other is the
newly commissioned Payra plant (660 MW) in Patuakhali. If the Power Sector Master Plan 2016
is implemented, the coal consumption for power generation would be 10 times more in 2030 and
20 times more in 2041 than the present consumption level (Imam, 2021).
Bangladesh has one of the largest coal power pipelines in the world, a total of 29 power plants,
amounting to 33.2 GW of capacity, and, of these, 26 power plants accounting for 28 GW of cap-
acity are now going through review process to find less expensive alternatives (Boxter, 2020).
As per the 2019–20 annual report, of the Power Division of the Ministry of Power, Energy and
Mineral Resources eight coal-based power plants with a capacity of 9820 MW are in the planning
stage, and nine coal-based power plants with a capacity of 8359 MW are under construction
(Table 3.34 and 3.35).
TABLE 3.34
Coal-based power generation projects at the planning stage
Installed
capacity Tentative
No. Name of the power plant MW Owner date to start Present situation
1. Moheskhali 1200-1300 MW (ECA 1,320 BPDB 2027 Consulting firm has

Funding) been appointed.
2. Matarbari 1200 MW (JV of CPGCBL 1,200 JV(BD-Japan) June 2028 MOU signed on 2017
& Sumitomo, Japan)
3. Kohelia 700 MW (JV of CPGCBL- 700 JV, BD-Singapore June 2029 Feasibility study and
Sembcorp, Singapore) EIA complete
4. Moheshkhali 1200-1320 MW (JV of 1,320 JV BD-China December, 2nd meeting on 2018
BPDB & CHDHK, China) 2029 at Singapore
5. Patualkhali 1320 MW 1,320 APSCL June 2031 Land acquisition
6. Moheskhali 1200-1320 MW (JV 1,320 JV June 2033 JVA signed on July
BPDB &TNB-PTB, Malaysia) (BD-Malaysia) 2016
7. Moheshkhali 1200-1320 MW (JV of 1,320 JV BD-S. Korea June 2035) MoU signed
BPDB &SEPCO, S.Korea)
8. Moheskhali 1200-1320 MW (JV of 1,320 JV-BD-S. Korea) June 2037 MoU signed on Aug.
BPDB & KEPKO, S. Korea) 2016
Total 9,820
Source: Power Division (2019–20).
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124 Md. Nehal Uddin
TABLE 3.35
Coal-based power generation projects on imported coal under construction
Installed Tentative starting
No. Name of the power plant capacity Owner date Progress (%)
1. Payra Patuakhali 1,200-1,320 660 BCPL (JV Dec. 2020 98

MW (2nd unit) NWPGCL- &
CMC China)
2. Maitri Super 1,320 MW 1,320 BIFPCL (JV BPDB 1st unit Jan. 2022, 89
Thermal Power Plant & NTPC, India) 2nd unit July 2022
3. Patuakhali 1,320 MW 1,247 JV RPCL & 1st unit Feb. 2023, 12
Norinco, China 2nd unit June 2023
4. Payra, Patuakhali 1,200-1,320 1,244 BCPCL (JV 1st unit June 2023, Primary work
MW (2nd unit) NWPGCL & 2nd unit Dec, 2023
CMC, China)
5. Matarbari 1,200 MW 1,200 CPBCGL 1st unit Jan. 2024, 28
2nd unit July, 2024
6. Barisal 307 MW 307 CPBCGL June 2022 25
7. Chittagong 2x612 MW 1,224 IPP Dec. 2022 21
8. Maoa-Munshiganj 522 MW 522 IPP Dec. 2026 3
9. Dhaka 635 MW 635 IPP Dec. 2026 Agreement signed
with USA
Total 8,359
MW
Tender under Process for coal base power plants
Mirersarai 1,320 MW 1,320 IPP June 2025 Tender under
process
Source: Power Division (2019–20).
3.5 BANGLADESH’S COAL POLICY: A CRITICAL REVIEW

Bangladesh is an energy-starved country. The country needs energy to continue its development.
At present, about 39 coal-based power plants are in the pipeline. To run these power plants the
country needs huge amounts of imported and domestic coal. To manage the coal systems, the
country needs a coal policy like many other countries in the world. Considering the matter,
the Ministry of Power, Energy and Mineral Resources has taken the initiative to prepare a Coal
Policy for the coal resources of Bangladesh and in 2010 the draft coal policy was prepared and
submitted for approval to the higher authority of the government but the Coal Policy has not yet
been approved by the government.
However, special emphasis should be given to the following issues under the coal policy.
A guideline for the issues may be annexed to the coal policy for all those concerned.
1. Energy security: Energy security is one of the vital issues for Bangladesh’s coal develop-
ment. The country has more than 3 billion tons of in-situ coal reserves in five coalfields.
Mining coal from these fields may require huge foreign investment. For the quick
recovery of investment, the foreign partners may opt for coal export. Proper judgement
of Bangladesh’s requirement of coal in the future should be critically reviewed before
adopting such an option. The country should secure its future energy.
2. Infrastructure for coal-developing areas: Physical infrastructure, such as railway
lines, roads, electricity transmission, ports, riverine ways, water storage facilities, and
drinking water facilities should be ensured. Social structures, such as township,, villages,
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125
educational institutions, industries and welfare institutes need to be developed in the coal-
producing areas. Agricultural lands, groundwater flows, and the ecological balance need
to be maintained in a proper way. Rehabilitation of the affected people and ensuring the
expertise for the job is available also need to be addressed.
3. Environmental issues: Management of environmental effects, such as groundwater
lowering, management of pumped water, water contamination, air pollution, water
treatment plants, subsidence mitigation, surface water storage for agricultural uses and
injection to the ground, aquifer management plan, filling of excavated area by imported
sands/soils, mine closure issues and handover of reclaimed land, etc. should be properly
addressed and maintained during and after mining.
A strong monitoring team including all related professionals to be formed to oversee the issues
discussed above. The related universities should be strengthened in all respects, including labora-
tory facilities to analyse the samples of water and soil.
3.6 CURRENT SCENARIO AND FUTURE PROSPECTS: BANGLADESH AND

THE GLOBAL CONTEXT
In Bangladesh, about 63% of its energy demand is met by natural gas. Among other fuels, oil,
coal, biomass, etc. are vital. There is a huge reserve of coal in Bangladesh, but coal is less
produced as well as less used there. On the other hand, the natural gas reserve is not that substan-
tial, but its production and consumption record are the highest among the available resources. The
present demand for gas in the country is about 3392 MMscfd, whereas supply is 3331 MMscfd
(Gas + imported LNG), indicating a shortage of about 61 MMscfd. It is estimated that demand
for natural gas will rise to about 4622 MMscfd by the year 2030 (HCU, 2021). To fulfil the
vision for 2041, the net electricity demand is forecast to reach 61 GW in 2041, as estimated by
its GDP growth (Table 3.36). At present, the share of commercial energy of Bangladesh is largely
dependent on natural gas since the reserve of natural gas is higher compared to all other fossil
fuel-based energy resources (Figure 3.24). A meticulous analysis is required to find the best path
to attain the sustainability of the energy and power sectors while balancing the economic growth
(PSMP, 2016). However, natural gas is predicted to deplete by the year 2028, which threatens the
future energy security of Bangladesh (Das et al., 2020).
In PSMP 2016, the projection of the future energy supply scenario (Figure 3.25) shows that
the country needs a huge amount of coal to meet the future energy demands. In 2041, about
26,273 Ktoe coal (37.53 Mt) will be required to share 20% of the total energy demand (ibid.).
Most of the demand will have to be met by imported coal, if a major decision on the extraction
of Bangladesh’s domestic coal is not taken.
In the global context, coal remains a cornerstone of electricity generation in China, India and
other Asian nations, which together account for around 75% of the global coal demand. Although
coal generation has plummeted in the United States and Europe, growth in China and other parts
TABLE 3.36
Projected future demand for electricity
Fiscal year 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2041
GDP growth rate (%) 6.3 7.4 7.4 6.3 5.3 4.4
Projected electricity demand (MW) 12,098 16,900 24,147 33,800 45,014 60,836
Source: PSMP (2016).
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126
126 Md. Nehal Uddin
FIGURE 3.24 Share of total commercial energy in Bangladesh

Source: HCU (2021).
FIGURE 3.25 Projection of future energy supply in Bangladesh

Source: PSMP (2016).
of Asia has kept coal firmly in place as the largest source (36%) of power generation (IEA, 2020b).
In 2020, demand for thermal and metallurgical coal was 7,243 million tons, which is about 5% less
than the previous year. But the demand is predicted to rise to 7,432 million tons in 2021 (Reuter,
2020). Between 2018 and 2020, global coal demand fell by an unprecedented 7%, or 500 million
tons, the fall is due to the pandemic and the shift towards clean energy. Data for coal consumption
show that China and India are still the biggest consumers of global coal (Figure 3.26).
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127
FIGURE 3.26 Global country-wise coal consumption, 2020

Source: Coal (2020); IEA (2020a).
FIGURE 3.27 Global coal demand historical and projected view

Source: IEA (2020b).
By 2025, global coal demand is forecast to flatten out at around 7.4 billion tons (Coal, 2020).
It is expected that significant declines in coal demand in the developed countries will be by 25%
in the United States, around 20% in the European Union, and 5–10% in Korea and Japan (Global
Energy Review, 2020). But, the rate of decline will be much slower in the case of China and
India, the largest and the third-largest electricity users in the world. Demand for coal from a his-
torical point of view and projected view (Figure 3.27) suggests that coal will remain one of the
major energy sources in the world until another cheap source of energy takes over.
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Gondwana Deposits of the Bengal Basin (Bangladesh) and Coal Potential

Chapter · December 2021

Md. Nehal Uddin

Petrology of the Basement Rocks in Rangpur District, Bangladesh View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Gondwana Deposits of the

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60 Md. Nehal Uddin

3.2.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 99

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Gondwana Deposits and their Coal Potential 61

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Gondwana Deposits and their Coal Potential 63

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64 Md. Nehal Uddin

FIGURE 3.4 Structure of the Gondwana basins in Bangladesh

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Gondwana Deposits and their Coal Potential 65

3.1.2 HISTORY OF COAL EXPLORATION

3.1.3 THE ROLE OF COAL AS A PRIMARY/SECONDARY ENERGY FUEL

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66 Md. Nehal Uddin

3.2 THE PERMIAN GONDWANA COAL BASIN

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Gondwana Deposits and their Coal Potential 67

3.2.1.2 Structure and Stratigraphy

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68 Md. Nehal Uddin

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Gondwana Deposits and their Coal Potential 69

FIGURE 3.6 Structure of the Barapukuria coal basin

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70 Md. Nehal Uddin

Recent Alluvium Fm. Silty clay 1.83 m

3.2.1.3 Attributes of the Coal Seams

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Gondwana Deposits and their Coal Potential 71

3.2.1.4 Areal/Spatial Extent and Reserves

3.2.1.5 Coal Characteristics and Rank

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GDH 38 159.15–159.60 162.19–171.04 171.65–172.26 188.72–189.33 197.87–208.23 331.71–371.34 371.95–372.26

Source: Bakr et al. (1996).

Gondwana Deposits and their Coal Potential 73

I 1.39 3.46 31.66 19.20 1.33 45.68 10547

Source: Bakr et al. (1996).

II 8.2 m 18.00 25.00 47.00 0.43 10,355

Note: As received 10% moisture.

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74 Md. Nehal Uddin

A 6.20 m 21.50 24.30 44.20 0.52 9,615

Source: Armstrong (1991).

83.00 05.10 01.70 0.77 09.40

Source: Armstrong (1991).

II 41.6 0.0041 V 16.0 0.0016

Source: Bakr et al. (1996).

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