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Understanding Man-Mad-e Disasters - '-

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"Education is a liberating force, and in
our age it is also a democratising force,
cutting across tIle barriers of caste and
class, smoothing out inequalities imposed
by birth and other circumstances."
- Indira Gandhi
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Indira Gandhi National Open University MPA-002
� School of Social Sciences
Understanding Man-Made Disasters
7 I
MPA-002 Expert Committee
"-
Mr. Girish Pradhan Prof. Vinod K. Sharrna Mr. Chandi P.rasad Bhatt
Director NCDM Gram Swarajya Mandal
Yashwantrao Chavan IIPA, New Delhi (Convenor)
Academy of Development Uttarakhand (u.P.)
Mr. Raj an Gengaje
Administration
" Officer-in-charge. Mr. S.K. Swamy
Pune
UN Disaster Management Team Director, NDM
Prof. Vinod Menon UNDP Ministry of Agriculture and
YASHADA New Delhi Cooperation
Pune New Delhi
Dr. S.M. Kulshrestha
Prof. Santosh Kumar Former D.G., I.M.D.
IGNOU FACULTY
Rajasthan Institute of New Delhi
Public Administration Prof. A.K. Agarwal
Mr. R. Rangachari
Jaipur School of Health Sciences
Centre for Policy Research
Prof. Ravindra Pandey New Delhi Dr. E. Vayunandan
UP Academy of Administration School of Social Sciences
Dr. Anjan Prakash
Nainital (u.P.)
Safdarjung Hospital Dr. Alka Dhameja
Dr. Sheila New Delhi School of Social Sciences
Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital
Col. Puneet Yadav Dr. Uma Medury
New Delhi
DGAFMS School of Social Sciences
Prof. Mohit Bhattacharya New Delhi.
Dr. Dolly Mathew
Former National Fellow
Air Marshal School of Social Sciences
ICSSR
Dr. S. Kulkami
Kolkata Dr. Durgesh Nandini
Former Director
School of Social Sciences
Mr. S.M. Sal ins Centre for Advanced Strategic .
Commissioner Studies Prof. Pardeep Sahni
Gurgaon Pune Convenor
School of Social Sciences
PGDDM Programme Coordinator(s)
Dr.Urna Medury Dr. Dolly Mathew

Reader, Public Administration Reader, Public Administration
School of Social Sciences School of Social Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
MPA-002 Course Coordinator Course Editor
Dr. Durgesh Nandini Dr. S.M.· Kulshrestha

Reader, Public Administration Former Director General
School of Social Sciences India Meteorological Department
IGNOU, New Qelhi New Delhi
)
MPA-002 Course Team
Units Writer Units . Writer

Dr. (Col.) Rajive Kohli 9,10,11 and 12 Mr Sirajuddin Ahmed
Registrar, MPDD Reader
IGNOU, New Delhi Department of Civil Engineering
Jarnia Millia Islamia
" 2,3, and 4 Prof. V.K. Sharma
(Central University) New Delhi
Indian Institute of
Public Administration 13 Dr. (Col.) Rajive Kohli
New Delhi Registrar, MPDD
IGNOU, New Delhi
5 and 6 Dr. (Col.) Rajive Kohli
Registrar, MPDD 14 Mr. Indra Ghosh
IGNOU, New Delhi Member/RACrrraffic
(Railway Board) .
7 Dr. Satender
Ministry of Railway
Special Secretary
Government ofIndia
Disaster Management Department
Government ofBihar 15 Dr. Abhay Shrivastava
Patna Associate Professor
Haryana Institute of
8 Mr. H. P Singh
Public Administration
General Manager (S&EP)
Gurgaon
India Oil Corporation Limited
New Delhi 16 Dr. Prabhakaran Paleri
Inspector General
Indian Coast Guard
New Delhi
Print Production
Mr. Rajlv Girdhar Mr. Hemant Kumar Parida
Assistant Registrar (Publication) Section Officer (Publication)
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi
November, 2015 (Reprint)

© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2006
ISBN-978-81-266-3423-1
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)
CONTENTS
Page No.
"
Course Introduction
Understanding Man-Made Disasters 11
Unit 1
Nuclear Disasters 22
Unit 2
Chemical Disasters 28
Unit 3
Biological Disasters 36
Unit 4
Unit 5 Building Fire 46
Unit 6 Coal Fire 63
Unit 7 Forest Fire 72
Unit 8 Oil Fire 82
Air Pollution 95
: Unit9
! Unit 10 Water Pollution 110
I Unit 11 Deforestation 126
.Unit 12 Industrial Wastewater Pollution 134

I
I Unit l3 Road Accidents 147
[Unit 14 Rail Accidents 157
Unit 15 Air Accidents 169
Unit 16 Sea Accidents 183
I
COURSE INTRODUCTION
" In the previous course (MP A 00 1), we have studied Natural Disasters. In this course, we shall
deal with man-made disasters.
The difference between natural and man-made disaster lies in the source of disaster, that is, whether
the hazard is of natural origin or arises from human activities. The human activities that give rise to
,",
hazards are not always anti-people or nefarious. The industrial and technological advances (space
shuttle, refineries, nuclear power plants etc.) are indeed for human progress and comfort yet the
character and composition ofthese industrial and technological wonders make them the agents of
potential disasters. Similarly, development processes (so essential for human wellbeing and progress
especially for the people in developing nations) have in them the seeds of man-made disasters.
Numerous examples can be cited like excessive use of fertilizers or over irrigation or large dams in
seismic regions. Deployment offast means of transport leads to accidents on roads, rivers, seas
and air. These are all the results of well-intentioned human activities. Of course, man-made
disasters occur due to anti social activities as well. The current spate ofterrorism worldwide is the
prime example of this type of man-made disasters.
Man-made disasters have come to stay as part of human existence now and the society has to
understand these and learn to deal with them. We need to take stock ofthe present position ofthe
system( s) in place to deal with them and also visualise what more can be done to avoid them and
to reduce the severity oftheir impact. This course is an effort in this direction.
Unit 1: Understanding Man-Made Disasters

In this Unit, we shall discuss the meaning and nature of man-made disasters. It will be emphasised
that although such disasters can trace their origin to varied causes, predictability is nil in case of
almost all types of man-made disasters. The Unit will list the different types of such disasters and
the prominent categories will be briefly discussed in a general manner leaving detailed discussion
for the subsequent units in this course. The adverse effects of man-made disasters and typical
post -disaster needs will be presented along with risk reduction and confidence building measures.
The general concerns confronting the management of man-made disasters will also be discussed.
Unit 2: Nuclear Disasters

Nuclear Disasters can take many forms ranging from nuclear explosions, reactor accidents, theft
of radioactive material leak during transport and defective disposal of radioactive waste material.
The impacts of a nuclear disaster can be exceedingly disastrous - to put it mildly. In fact there is
little that the people themselves can do to escape a nuclear disaster, should it happen. There are
specialised government agencies who have the expertise and are charged with the responsibility.
Even then, the people should have an awareness of this most dangerous hazard which will deserve
greater attention with the increase in Nuclear Power Plants in the coming years. Moreover, nuclear
disasters can have adverse impacts across national boundaries and even globally. Therefore, this
Unit will discuss the causes and impacts of nuclear disasters, explain the system of management
and highlight the lessons learnt on the basis of past disasters.
Unit 3: Chemical Disasters

Chemical Disaster implies a disaster caused by chemical hazards. A chemical disaster can take the
form of a massive industrial accident involving chemical agents. In an industrialising or industrialised
society, there is no dearth of centres of production, storage, distribution and utilisation of corrosive
and dangerous chemicals.
/
This Unit will discuss the causes and impacts of chemical disasters and explain the essential points
of preparedness and response activities for mitigation.of chemical disasters. The Bhopal Gas
Tragedy of December 1984 will be discussed bringing out the lessons learnt. The essential aspects
of chemical disaster management plan will be highlighted. .
1
Unit 4: Biological Disasters
A biological disaster is a disaster which causes sickness and fatalities in human beings and animals
'. at mass scale when they come in contact with biological hazards in the form ofliving organisms
such as, bacteria, virus, fungi, etc. Destruction of crops and plantations through such agents also
falls under the category of biological disasters. All communicable diseases and epidemics are
potential biological disasters.
In this Unit, we shall describe the causes and adverse effects of biological disasters and suggest
risk reduction and preparedness measures.
·. Unit 5: Building Fire

Among all disasters, building fires are perhaps the most common place but take a disproportionately
large toll oflives and property. It is said that fire is a good servant-but a bad master and once out
of control, it spares no o~e. Furthermore, fire loss is a total loss because what burns never returns .
..This Unit will deal with the causes and impacts of building fires and describe their various types.
The safety and preventive measures that can protect us from building fires will be discussed.
Government policy (including Building Codes) in respect of precautions against fire hazards in
buildings will be explained. ~. . ---
Unit 6: Coal Fire

- India has abundant reserves of coal and uses it for its energy needs. At present, over 60 per cent
oflndia's power generation is coal based. Furthermore, coal mining industry employs around 6.5
.lakh wojkers directly and supports around a crore persons indirectly. Coal not only bums when
lighted on purpose, it can also suffer spontaneous ignition in large storage and inside coal mines.
The latter is the cause of coal mine fires. This Unit will explain this phenomenon and how it turns
into a disaster. The c~uses and impacts of coal fire in India will be described and the coal fire
disaster management practices will be explained.
Unit 7 Forest Fire

India's forests are a diminishing entity due to various reasons (explained later in Unit 11). Even
this dwindling asset of forests in the country often suffers from forest fires which the nation can ill-
afford. This Unit will explain the characteristics of forest fires and discuss the various causes. The
far-reaching impacts of forest fires not only on forests but also on the environment and society will
be discussed. The prevention, detection and suppression methods used in controlling forest fires
will be described and the role ofthe central and state governments in prevention and control of
forest fires will be highlighted.
UnitS OilFire
It can be stated without fear of contradiction that oil fire is most certainly the worst of fITedisasters.
The production, refming, storage, distribution and use of petroleum products are perhaps the most
frequent and dangerous fire episodes that can take place right from home kitchen to refineries and
oil excavation sites. This Unit will explain the problem of oil fires in India and describe the causes
and impacts of oil fires. Lessons learnt from past disasters will also brought out. Oil fire disaster
/
management practices followed in India will be discussed, and some suggestions will be made to
improve upon these on the basis ofthe lessons learnt.' -
Unit 9 Air Pollution

•
Air pollution is an increasingly significant environmental problem not only in urban areas but it is
now spreading to smaller towns and even the countryside. This fast spreading menace, that is Air
Pollution, is fast turning into an ecological disaster almost everywhere in the world but much more
so in highly populated and economically backward developing societies which are trying to
industrialise themselves. ' This Unit will begin by describing the status of air pollution in India and
will explain the nature and origin of various air pollutants. This will also bring out the causes and
impacts of air pollution. The air quality management strategies and the air quality standards will be
discussed.
Unit 10: Water Pollution

Water is so essential for human existence - not only for drinking, cooking, cleaning and cooling but
also for industrial production and navigation. With the increase in population specially in urban
areas and the rapid industrialisation, water sources are getting increasingly polluted to the extent
that most of the water from natural sources is unfit for human consumption. This Unit will bring out
the significance and importance of pure water and discuss the various resources of water in India
before highlighting the causes of water pollution. Water quality characteristics and water quality
standards will also be discussed.
Unit 11 Deforestation
Forests are an important part of the biosphere and are crucial to plant, animal and human life on
earth. India, as such, lacks adequate forest cover because forests cover only about 22 per cent of
our total land base. Ofthis rather low forest cover, about 41 per cent is already degraded mainly
due to deforestation of varying degree. This Unit will describe the status of deforestation in India
and discuss its causes and impacts in detail. The disaster management aspects of deforestation will
be explained bringing out the remedial measures to arrest deforestation disaster.
Unit 12 Industrial Wastewater Pollution

The rapid industrialisation has brought forth the problem of industrial effluents adding further to the
malady of water pollution. As all industries use water for some purpose or the other, industrial
wastewater pollution is a major hazard often leading to disaster situations. The industrial effluents
are as varied as the nature of industries themselves and so there cannot be one standard solution
for the problem. This Unit will describe the concept of industrial wastewater pollution and discuss
the characteristics of industrial effluents. The national scenario of industrial wastewater pollution
will be described explaining the likely disastrous impacts. Treatment options for industrial effluents
in general and some industry-specific treatment schemes will be presented.
Unit 13 Road Accidents

Road accidents in India have reached menacing proportions and roads and highways are no
longerhazardous but they are definitely disaster-prone. This Unit will describe the road accident
. scenario in the country and discuss its causes and impacts. The disaster management aspects of
road accidents will be discussed explaining the statutory provisions. Steps required to improve the
safety culture on roads will be highlighted .
/
. Unit 14 Rail Accidents
India has a very extensive rail network and rail accidents do.occur. This Unit will describe the'
causes and impacts of rail accidents and discuss the disaster management aspects analysing
components, such as, predictability, possible risk reduction measures, preparedness measures
and rescue and relief. The constraints faced by the system in the aftermath of a rail accidents will
" also be analysed highlighting the post-disaster needs.
Unit 15 Air Accidents

Air accidents, though not frequent, end in total disaster once they occur. The threats and actions
of terrorists in recent years have added a new dimension to the severe hazard of air accidents.
This Unit will describe the causes and impacts of air accidents analysing the specific factors
contributing to the occurrence of air accidents. Some of the past air disasters will be recalled and
disaster management aspects of air accidents will be discussed highlighting the possible risk reduction
measures and post-disaster needs. .
Unit 16 Sea Accidents

India is a vast peninsula of sub-continental size surrounded by sea on three sides. Therefore, sea-
fearing is a natural and inescapable national activity. The very long coastline as well as the island
territories in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea have to be protected and the territorial waters
. have to be kept safe for our economic activities. With so much activity on the seas, it is obvious
that we need to deal with sea accidents of various types including oil spills. This Unit will describe
the various types of sea accidents and explain the causes and impacts. The role and organisational
structure of agencies involved in, sea accidents, disaster management will be described highlighting
the pre-eminent role oflndian CoastGuard. Disaster Mitigation Action Plan, including the
international preventive measures against sea accidents, will also be discussed.
r
VNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING MAN-MADE
DISASTERS
Structure
"
1.0 Learning Outcome
1.1 Introduction
1.2 . Concerns in Disaster Management
1.3 Types of Man-made Disasters
1.3.1 Industrial and Technological Disasters
1.3.2 Fires
1.3.3 Environmental Disasters
1.3.4 Rail and Road Accidents
1.3.5 Air and Sea Accidents
1.3.6 Complex Disasters
1.4 Response to Man-made Disasters
1.5 Conclusion
1.6 Key Concepts
1.7 References and Further Reading
1.8 Activities
1.0 LEARNING OUTCOME.

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
• Understand the meaning and nature of man-made disasters;
• Enumerate the various types of man-made disasters;
• Discuss the adverse effects of man-made disasters and typical post-disaster needs along with
risk reduction and confidence building measures; and
• Appreciate the general concerns confronting the management of man-made disasters.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Man-made disaster could be defined as a man-made event, sudden or progressive, which impacts
with such severity that the affected community has to respond by taking immediate and exceptional
measures including help from outside the community. These disasters could also be termed as
human induced disasters or of anthropogenic origin. An even broader definition of human-made
disaster acknowledges that all disasters are caused by humans, because they have chosen for
whatever reason to be where natural phenomena occurs, which result in adverse impacts.
Hence, man-made disaster is an emergency situation of which the principal direct caus.es are
identifiable human actions, deliberate or otherwise. Like all disasters, man-made disasters disrupt
the normal pattern of life, affect people, impact on the social structures and wreak economic
damage.
,
/
12 Understanding Man-Made Disasters
Distinction from Natural Disasters

In most cases of natural disasters, the hazard is directly attributable, however the main causes of
man-made disasters are complex and inter-related'. Except for accidents, man-made disasters
have a slow onset, as the underlying cases would be brewing up over a period of time as for
.. example, social problems lead to riots or terrorism. Man-made disasters could also result from
natural disasters as, for example, earthquake may render large number of people homeless and
without livelihood, which could lead to social and political consequences. Like all disasters, man-
made disasters also exacerbate the vulnerabilities of an area and its people.
The manifestation of natural disasters like, droughts and floods could also be related to indiscriminate
human activities which result in degradation of the environment and of the delicate natural
infrastructure which is damaged. This causes imbalances in nature. Hence, to a certain extent, even
natural disasters may sometimes be considered as human induced disasters. Areas with severe
deforestation, erosion, over cultivation and over grazing tend to be hardest hit by disasters.
Causes of Man-made Disasters

Human induced disasters occur due to many and varied causes. They could arise from the
indiscriminate industrialisation, overpopulation, increased consumerism, use of hazardous substances
or processes or simply accidents of various types. Negligence on the part of professionals as well
as the public along with ignorance increases the possibility of man-made disasters.
Manmade disaster could also be caused due to unintentional or inadvertent activity, as a fall out of
poor maintenance, low quality work or human error. On the other hand, they could also result from
wilful, deliberate and intentional activity, such as sabotage, mischief, revenge, riots, mob fury or
. enemy attack. Sometimes, man-made disasters, especially those related to industrial and
technological causes, are the results of system or process malfunctioning as in the case of nuclear
radiation, gas leak, explosion and fire.
Nature of Man-made Disasters - Basic Facts

I
Notwithstanding what has been stated in the preceding paragraphs, man-made disasters have the
following distinguishing features which are basic characteristics of man-made disasters:
D Predictability is nil in most cases. Hence, forecasting and warning is not possible. Even in
case of ecological disasters, while we know that we are on a disastrous path, yet the time and
location when and where the hazard will turn into disaster cannot be predicted.
I
it) No system is really fail-safe. The safety can definitely be improved through careful and timely
maintenance and monitoring. Vigilance and monitoring tend to degenerate in the absence of
a mishap. Furthermore, safety and evacuation plans are either non-existent or not enough.
Practice drills are conspicuous by absence in most indlistrial or technological sites.
ill) Not only the "point-zero" and the immediate neighbourhood suffer, but the adverse effects
are carried farther by wind, water or travellers.
iv) System failures or mere accidents occur due to (a) Technical Malfunction and / or (b) Human
error/negligence.
v) .Man-made disasters shall increase in number and magnitude as hazardous industries grow in
number, size and technological complexity and spread into the countryside. The growing
population in general and very large cities with multi-million inhabitants increase the vulnerability
considerably.
vi) The awareness about the location ?f a serious man-made hazard in the neighbourhood of
community is minimal. General public is ill-equipped mentally and physically to deal with
r
, ,
man-made disasters and it is generally too late by the time information goes out and outside
help arrives.
1.2 CONCERNS IN DISASTER MANAGEJVIENT

Disasters are no strangers and occur quite frequently. Agencies responsible for managing these
disasters have played crucial role and the outcome of their efforts continue to receive mixed reactions.
The fact remains that there is need and scope for improving the disaster management systems
including those for man-made disasters. The main concerns are discussed below.
i) Weak Coordination
A disaster cannot be managed by one single agency, particularly when the magnitude of impact is
high. When more than one agency is involved in managing the disaster, the need for proper
coordination between them cannot be overemphasised. Weak coordination between the agencies,
or lackofit, render the rescue and relief operations ineffective.
ii) Inadequate and / or Irregular Flow of Resources

Adequate resources, such as materials, funds, trained manpower etc. need to be made available to
effectively manage any disaster. Generally, the resources are inadequate, but at times some of the
items may be in excess. The issue is how best the agencies can formulate resource plans and also
ensurethat the gap between the requirements and availability can be bridged.
iii) Frequent Transfer of Trained Personnel

The outcomes of disaster management efforts have a direct bearing on the availability of trained
manpower. While there is a serious shortage of trained manpower to manage disasters at the
place of occurrence, such resources are sometimes available elsewhere but not properly utilised.
Their availability at the right place at the right time' is a serious issue while managing disasters.
Thus, many a times trained manpower remains unutilised. In public systems, an officer after getting
trained in a particular discipline can be posted to a different place in due course.
iv) Lack of Motivation among Personnel

The personnel involved in disaster management must be motivated to be able to perform effectively.
The extent of preparedness for man-made disasters gets affected wherever the officers show
reluctance or are slow to proceed to the disaster prone or disaster affected area. Such an attitude
towards the responsibilities assigned to them only shows low level of motivation among officers
charged with the task of disaster management.
v) Lack of Accountability
The personnel in-charge of disaster management operations are generally not accountable to the
victims of disaster or the public at large. When a road accident takes place the pol}ce and other
department officers are responsible for recording the first information report, arranging for medical /
help for the victims, and clearing the road for traffic. However, in practice, the operations get
delayed which cause all round hardship. It is also difficult in such circumstances to hold anyone
responsible.
vi) Golden Hour Concept

The time taken to respond to an emergency after its occurrence is termed as 'Golden Hour'. This
concept is much more valid in a man-made disaster. If the time span could bereduced, loss oflife
and damages to property could be minimised.
'-, 14 Understanding Man-Made Disasters /'
'7
vii) Absence of Rewards and Punishments

The agencies associated with rescue and relief operations do not have a system of motivating the
personnel through rewards. This is perhaps one of the reasons for low level of motivation. A
scheme needs to be introduced to recognize the good performance with a reward system and at
the sa!lle time punish those who fail to discharge their duties effectively and efficiently.
1.3 TYPES OF MAN-MADE DISASTERS

The man-made disasters can be broadly categorized in the following types:
a) Accidents: Road, rail, air, river, sea, tr~nsport of hazardous material, building collapse.
bj Fires: Buildings, coal mines, oil (exploration sites, refmeries and storage depots), forest fires.
c) Industrial and technological mishaps: Leaks, fires, explosion, sabotage Technical system
failure, plant safety failure.
d) Nuclear Hazards: .Radioactive leaks, thefts, transportation, waste disposal, Reactor melt-
down.
e) Warfare: Conventional, Chemical, Biological and Nuclear.
f) Poisoning: Food, Hooch, Water supply.
g) Civil Conflicts: Arson, sabotage, terrorist and other criminal activities.
h) Ecological: Air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, soil erosion and degradation, waste
accumulation including toxic waste, disease and epidemics, loss ofbiodiversity, loss of habitat,
deforestation, global warming, sea level rise, depletion of stratospheric ozone and increase in
tropospheric ozone.
Needless to say, even this cannot be an exhaustive list because the possibility of man-made disasters
in the high tech and fast speed societies ofthe present day is practically endless.
In the succeeding fifteen Units (Unit 2 to 16) ofthis course, we shall deal in some detail with the
more important man-made disasters. It may be stated that these disasters in the succeeding Units
are not arranged in any particular order because it would be difficult to have a consensus on the
relative importance of a particular man-made disaster to individuals or a particular society.
While we shall deal with the prominent man-made disasters in the subsequent units in detail, it is
considered advisable to discuss these in a general manner briefly in the following paragraphs in this Unit.
1.3.1 Industrial and Technological Disasters

In highly industrialised cities, industrial and technological accidents cannot be ruled out. Industrial
development has led to concentration and localisation of industries in certain areas where attempts
at regulating them are essential. These require strong legal framework with adequate institutional
and implementation set-up.
Industrial disasters are caused due to malfunctions, failures, or unanticipated side effects of
technological processes. Industrial hazards can occur at any stage in the production process
comprising of extraction, processing, manufacture, transportation, storage, use, and disposal, like
technical spills, radiation fallout, explosion and fires, structural failure and transportation mishaps
may also bring these about.
Losses generally involve the release of damaging substances (e.g. chemicals.radioactivity, genetic
materials) or damaging levels of energy from industrial facilities or equipment into surrounding
environments. This usually occurs in the form of explosions, fires, spills, leaks, or wastes. Releases
/
Understanding Man-Made Disasters- 15
,may occur because of factors that are internal to the industrial system (e.g. engineering flaws) or
they may occur because of external factors (e.g. extremes of nature). Releases may be sudden and
intensive, as in a power-plant explosion, or gradual and extensive, as in the build-up of ozone-
destroying chemicals in the stratosphereor the progressive leakage of improperly disposed toxic wastes.
All technological innovations have benefits but also certain amount of risks. A technological disaster
is seen as a man made disaster because of failure of human being in one form or another. Threat of
or actual impact of toxic chemical spills, radiation fallout explosions and fire, structural failure or
transportation failure, aspects like toxic Poisoning, radiation contamination, air degradation, industrial
emissions, water pollution etc. Risk of accidents in various types of industries like manufacturing,
power production, and in storage or transportation of various hazardous materials constitutes the
hazard. These require developing counter measures to keep in check any type of casualty and
have adequate safeguards to handle the associated risks.
The manufacturing, processing, transportation, distribution, storage and the application or use of
the many products in the chemical or nuclear industries is hazardous and have multiple risks associated
with them. Chemical disasters can be of the nature of :fire,explosion, and toxic release or a combination
of these. Such chemical emergencies can be clubbed under the following heads, so as to determine
their emergency response procedures:
• factories / Static Installation Emergencies;
• Transportation Emergencies;
• Environmental Emergencies;
• Pipeline Emergencies; and
• Distributed / Uncharted Emergencies.
An example of hazardous material disaster is Bhopal Gas Tragedy that occurred in December
1984. Approximately 2500 people died in this tragedy and thousands of people were directly or
indirectly affected by this accident. .
Another threat really being faced by disaster management is the threat from atomic and nuclear
sources, This threat is really in the form of radiation of harmful rays. Problems like nuclear leaks
are likely because of development programmes in this field. The possibility of global war may have
receded over recent years but the possibility of nuclear weapons b~ing used in some lesser form of
conflict cannot be disregarded altogether. Even though a country is not directly involved in use of
such nuclear activities or terrorism, it could well suffer severely from the radioactive side effects.
1.3.2 Fires
The occurrence of fire is heavily tilted towards urban conglomerations with high-rises and slums
bunched into tight, flammablepockets, landfills with slow burning garbage, plastic discards and
polythene bags, factories with inadequate fire protection. In the countryside, forest fires siinmer
.~ unabated during hot summers ignited by locals clearing land, illegal loggers and poachers covering
, their track, orjust carelessness. Fires are common phenomena usually happening during dry season,
and could be grouped into various types like: '
~
• Fire accidents in squatter settlements in the towns and cities.
{~
'e;
• General fire accidents in cities.
• Industrial fire accidents.
• Coal Mine Fires.

• Forest fires.
/
Fires are not just physio-chemical phenomena but also related to social factors with varying frequency
offire incidents, loss pattern and extension techniques. The fire at Uphaar cinema hall in June
1997 was a great tragedy where everything ~at could have gone wrong did. In Asansol- Dhanbad
- Jharia coal belts there is slow bum underground fur decades in which thousands oftonnes of coal
have burnt and much more to go as these old mines were abandoned without filling.
"
-. --
1.3.3· Environmental Disasters
Environmental degradation is a real threat to human lives and property in our country. One ofthe
prices paid for development is some form of pollution. The environment degradation due to industrial
effluents and civic waste could also be considered as man-made disaster. Environmental degradation
is mostly borne by the poor who suffer from diseases, depletion of ground water, destruction of
land and properties and other economical losses. The various causes for environmental problems
are:
.
,
• Growth of population that increases demand on natural resources resulting in their unsustainable
exploitation,
• Indifference of industries and municipalities towards environmental safety and protection
aspects, leading to spread of unhealthy air, water and soil pollution.
• Increased energy consumption contributing to greenhouse gases.
• Low level of environmental awareness resulting in under-evaluation of economic and ecological
aspects ofbio-diversity causing extensive damage to life support systems.
,. Inadequate enviromnental incorporated policies in development projects that do not consider
long term ecological and social impact.
Many disasters are either caused or exacerbated by environmental degradation. The life ofliving :'
creatures is governed by atmosphere, land and water and the natural resources directly related to
environmental degradation are air, water, soil and forests. Deforestation leads to rapid rain run off,
which contributes to flooding. The destruction of mangrove swamps decreases a coastline's ability
to resist tropical strom winds and storm surges. The creation of drought conditions-and the relative
severity and length oftime the drought lasts-is mainly a soil erosion and degradation phenomenon.
Drought conditions may be exacerbated by: poor cropping patterns, overgrazing, stripping of
topsoil, poor conservation techniques, depletion of both the surface and subsurface water supply,
and, to an extent, unchecked urbanisation. Economic entitlements and ecological obligations should
be mutually considered for lasting natural resource based economic progress. At micro-levels the
causes of environmental hazards need to be identified.
1.3.4 Rail and Road Accidents

The disasters caused by various accidents are also a part of the enlarged scope of man-made
disaster management. Various issues related to accident disaster are to be treated for each ofthese
in a unique manner. The main issues in dealing with such disasters are:
• Fully effective systems are not in place due to procedural imbalances in terms of early warning,
availability of appropriate equipment for rescue operations and inadequacy of coordination.
• .There is no warning or very little indication of an impending disaster. There are a number of
agencies that get involved in accidents relief and the coordination required between them has
to be-improved in order to save lives and to contain the damages.
• It has also been found that the time factor gets aggravated due to the procedures followed by
certain departments and officials like accident casualties are not accepted by all hospitals and
!
this could cause a victim of an accident to lose life.

• Advance techniques available in the form of Satellite Aided Rescue systems could help in
reducing the response time.
• Coordination between the various agencies / departments needs to be specially ensured.
• Non-availability of trained personnel reduces the efficiency at various levels.
• There is also a lack of proper motivation in the persorinel involved in different activities.
Invariably the tasks are unpleasant and are executed under a lot of stress and physical difficulties. "-..
Some incentives for good performance and at the same time punishment for omissions in the
course of duty are to be considered.
i) Road accidents
Human road accidents are largely urban-centric while commercial road related accidents are
predominantly highway nightmares. India has one per cent ofthe total number of vehicles in the
world but records 6 per cent of the total road accidents in the world. The rate of road accidents on
the Indian roads is increasing at an alarming rate of eight percent. Studies carried out indicate that
out of the total accidents in a period of25 years, the 23 Metro cities in India account for 57 per
cent accidents. The road fatalities involving pedestrians and bicyclists are on the increase due to
the spiralling increase in number of vehicles clogging the roads. Road accidents are caused by the
negligence of the drivers, lack of proper road sense in the public and also by use of vehicles which
are not fully road worthy. ,
ii) Rail accidents

Railway is the principal mode of transport for both passengers and goods in the country. The
safety of railway operations is becoming all the more imperative in view ofthe railway endeavour
to lift more passengers and freight traffic. Accordingly, high priority is being given to various safety
measures to ensure greater safety in rail travel and transportation of goods. Factors contributing to
occurrence of Rail Disasters are:
• Breaches oftanks due to heavy rains
• Cyclone/flash floods
• Human failures
• Equipment failures
• Heavy rains leading to washing away of the track / collapse of bridges
• Landslides
• Non-observance of section 131 of Motor Vehicle Act, 1988, by road users leading to
unmanned railway level crossing accidents
• Sabotage
• Tampering with track
In areas prone to ~atural disasters, like cyclone and floods, Railways adopt measures to tackle
problems. Weather warning is received through the meteorological department and is relayed. The
track is patrolled on foot and the condition of track and bridges are observed and special watch is
kept at vulnerable locations.
Bomb blasts or anonymous calls are dealt with the help ofthe concerned government, railway
police/ state police who rush to the spot and conduct checks. The Accident Relief Train and
Medical Relief Train are moved to-the site.
r
Accidents at Unmanned Level Crossings occur mainly due to non-observance of safety precautions
mentioned in section 131 of motor vehicle act - 1988 by the road users while crossing the unmanned
railway crossing in the face of an approaching train ..
1.3.5 Air and Sea Accidents

.
"
Transportation by air and sea is an increasing requirement in the world as the world gets interlinked.
With increased traffic of aircrafts and ships, the possibility of accidents also becomes greater than
before. These require striI;gent adherence to safety and security procedures along with a well-
established international response network.
i) Air accidents
Air accident is an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between
the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight until such time as all such persons
have disembarked. Accident to aircraft can occur at any time and anywhere; however, majority of
them occur during takeoffs and landings. These occur within the airport boundary or a short
distance away. All airports should have contingency plans to deal with the accidents including the
air safety guidelines issued by the Director General of Civil Aviation. An accident can occur at any
phase of operation at ground, en-route and landing. The type of accident indicates the immediate
circumstances under which the accident occurs, e.g. in air, where it may be a collision or engine
tear away, a wheels-up accident during the take-off, or a nose-down type of accident.
The responsibility of aircraft accident investigation within the Indian territory and its territorial
waters lies with the Air Safety Directorate ofthe Director General of Civil Aviation. For accidents
beyond Indian territorial limits, the responsibility for carrying out the investigation rests with the
State of Registry of the aircraft or the country where the accident occurs.
ii) Sea accidents

With increased volume of ships and sea fishing in recent times, boat capsising is a distinct possibility.
. The factors, which contribute to this disaster have been identified as partly due to natural hazards
such as cyclones or floods and in greater measure, due to man made causes such as over loading
ofthe boat, poor quality of equipment in the boat, poor maintenance and consequent breakdown
and of course human error of judgment.
The areas prone to such type of accidents could be as fishing boats operating within 5 miles of
coastline or near harbours and at high seas, fishing trawlers/crafts operating deep inside the sea.
The factors, which will contribute towards causing sea accident, are as follows:
a) Natural conditions
b) Machinery breakdown.
c) Overloading of boat.
d) Poor quality of equipment used onboard.
e) Poor maintenance of machinery and life saving equipment.
f) Human error,
Search and Rescue Operations in waters surrounding the Indian Coast is the responsibility ofthe
Indian Coast Guard. Indian Navy, however, under the Charter of Duties, 'Aid to Civil Power' and
'Safety of Life at Sea', has a Search and Rescue Plan. There is coordination between Coast
Guard, Civil Aviation Department, Port Authorities, Mercantile Marine Department and Director
General of Shipping as member of the Regional Contingency Committee and with naval commands
and authorities, Indian Air Force, Police and Customs Organisations for supplementing naval
/
efforts at sea and for assistance over land in case of an aircraft in distress. On receiving the distress
call.information is immediately communicated to the nearest naval authority who immediately
passes the distress message to the appropriate naval authority for activation of assistance procedure.
Normally a duty ship is detailed for search and rescue duties.
Oil spill related disaster with damage to the oil tanker/facilities occur due to natural calamities,
tanker collision off the coast, defect or malfunctioning of oil extension pipe line, possibility of oil
tankers running aground along the coast; discharge of the bilge water mostly containing oil, danger
of oil spillage when the oil is being transferred from the offshore terminal to the ship and from the
ship to shore facilities in various ports.
1.3.6 Complex Disasters

Situations entirely due to human element, such as, famines; wars that may be conventional, guerrilla,
etc.; unrest or riots having political undertone; and terrorism are complex disasters. Apart from
technological disasters, human-made disasters many times involve situations in which civilian
population suffer casualties, loss of property, basic services and means of livelihood as a result of
war, civil strife, other conflict or policy implementation. In many cases people are forced to leave
their homes, giving rise to congregations of refugees or externally or internally displaced persons.
The trend towards growing urbanisation, in the midst of high-density areas with poorly built and
maintained infrastructure, subjects the inhabitants to greater risks in the event of a disaster. The
chaotic growth of massive urban conglomerations makes them ill equipped to deal with exponential
population accumulations. The failure of urban local bodies and other institutional set-ups expose
these areas not only to epidemics, fires, gas leaks and accidents, but also in the context of increasing
unemployment and social tensions turn them into ethnic and communal tinderboxes.
Another type, where the situations become worse for want of rational policies or lackadaisical
enforcement, is commonly observed and could be referred as policy disasters. These result from
sale of harmful drugs, banned pesticides, excessive displacement of people due to development
projects, systemic failure in civic services, exploitive trade and business practices, dumping of
hazardous and dangerous waste products, etc.
War and civil strife are also regarded as man-made disasters, that is, extreme events that produce
disasters. These often result in displaced people, a major cause of human suffering in the world.
The impacts of war and civil strife include competition for scarce resources, religious or ethnic
intolerance, and ideological differences.
1.4 RESPONSE TO MAN-MADE DISASTERS

There is very little scope for forecasts or warnings in case of man-made disasters, which makes
advance preparedness difficult. For example, accidents like fires, boat and road accidents, railway
accidents, air crash cannot be predicted, and only after they occur they can be attended to and
managed. Thus, these disasters invariably belong to the categories in which no prior warning could
be issued to support preparations for managing the disasters.
Each type ofthese disasters are dealt separately as each has its own peculiarities and do not lend
themselves to be treated alike. However, some of the issues of concern are:
i) Resource mobilisation is essential. Good communication of the specific requirement of each,
type of accident is considered essential for being able to respond at the earliest to any ofthe
accidents. This also calls for a greater coordination not only within the department directly
concerned with the accident but also with the help of other supporting departments / agencies
to deal effectively with the experiencesof accidents occurred in the past.
• ii) The time taken to respond to the victims of a:disaster is a factor of paramount importance.
This time taken to respond is appropriately known as 'Golden Hour', that provides
opportunities to undertake timely rescue,and relief operations, often, this opportunity is lost
due to the cumbersome rules and regulations
. ill) The details of the support systems that are available both in terms oftechnical and organisational
," nature must be known. These could be technical support like satellite aided search and rescue
system and the rules relating to policies in every disaster. The factors that contribute to the
occurrence of accidents, the areas where each of the accidents take place frequently, the
approaches followed, resources for tackling the events along with constantly improving the
system must be planned.
iv) Most of the accidents that occur are due to human error. In most of the cases and in a few
cases it is due to malfunctioning of both men and machine, which are again due to lack of
proper maintenance and monitoring by the persons responsible. Therefore, awareness and
implementation ofthe safety, and preventive measures, importance accorded to maintenance
at the individual level and observation ofthe codes for safety at the organisational level are to
be ensured.
v) The checks and balances instituted by government agencies for the purpose of monitoring the
adherence of codes for safety must be strictly implemented.
Specific Risk Reduction and Preparedness Measures

Apart from the above mentioned items of general response, it is essential to institute specific risk
reduction and preparedness measures as an inescapable part of response to man-made disasters.
Such measures will be specific to the particular hazard(s) at that site. But we have to remember
that the resultant impact of a man-made disaster depends both on the type of hazard and the
vulnerability of the people and property, that is, likely to be impacted. Therefore, the preparedness
measures have to be (a) source-specific, i.e., the source of hazard whether gas leak orradioactive
emission or accident prone site, and (b) target specific, i.e., the vulnerability ofthe site, property
and people. In other words, the preparedness plans should be made, publicised and practiced
both for on-site and off-site emergencies likely to result from a potential disaster source. .~
'"
Typical ~ost-Disaster Needs
As already mentioned, there is no forecast or warning in most cases of man-made disasters and
disaster management caters to post-disaster scenario: This requires a realistic appreciation of
typical post-disaster needs, which are as listed below:
a) Evacuation; -.
b)' Medical attention to survivors and arrangement for water and food;
c ), Search and Rescue;
d), Clean-up;
e) Identification, legal action and disposal of dead;
f) Remedial action;
g) Rehabilitation and Reconstruction; and
h) Monitoring environment effects - both short-term and long-term. .
1. 5 CONCLUSION
A disaster not only impedes progress but also sometimes disrupts the entire life stream and causes
deaths and for injuries, along with damage to property. The heterogeneity of human induced causes
indicates the variety of non-conventional disasters raising complex issues of responding to man-
made disasters. Such disasters, though localised, tend to occur frequently and.often with great
intensity. Promoting measures that ensure safety from such hazards are challenges to technology
and management. This introductory Unit has listed man-made disasters, briefly described them,
•discussed their adverse effects and typical post-disaster needs. The general concerns confronting
the management of man-made disasters have also been brought out.
1.6 KEY CONCEPTS

Man-made hazard It derives from technological processes, human interactions with
environments, or relationships within and between communities.
Population displacements These are usually associated with crisis-induced mass migration
in which large number of people are forced to leave their homes
to seek alternative means of survival and habitation. Such mass
migrations normally result from the effects of conflict, severe
food shortages or collapse of economic s~pport systems.
Technological disasters Situations in which large number of people, property,
infrastructure, or economic activity are directly and adversely
affected by major industrial accidents, severe pollution incidents,
nuclear accidents, air crashes, major fires or explosions.
1.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Astrid, Von Kotze and Alis Holloway, 1996, Reducing Risk - Participatory Learning Activities
for Disaster Mitigation in Southern Africa, International Federation of Red cross and Red
Crescent Societies and Department of Adult and Community Education, University of Natal.
Cuny, E, 1997, Displaced Persons in Civil Conflict, Disaster Management Training Programme,
UNDP, Geneva.
Goodwin-Gill G., 1996, International Law of Disaster and Armed Conflict, Disaster
Management Training Programme, United Nations Development Programme, Geneva.
Government of India, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, 2002,
High Powered Committee on Disaster Management Report, New Delhi. ,
-?-
Reed, Sheila B., 1997, Introduction to Hazards. Disaster Management Training Programme,'
United Nations Development Programme, Geneva.
Turner, Barry A. and Nick E Pidgeon, 1997, Man-Made Disasters, Butterworth Heinemann,
Oxford .
.United Nations Development Programme, 1995, Disaster and the Environment, Disaster
Management Training Programme, Geneva.
1.8 ACTIVITIES
1) Prepare a list of significant causes of man-made disasters. Please explain any three with the
help of examples .
. 2) Enlist the impacts of man-made disasters, and discuss the important issues concerning disaster
management.
UNIT 2 NUCLEAR DISASTERS
Structure
2.1 Introduction
"
2.2 Causes of Nuclear Disasters
2.3 Nuclear Disaster Management

2.3.1 Crisis Management Group (CMG)
2.3.2 Do's and Don'ts
2.4 Lessons Learnt

2.4.1 Chemobyl Nuclear Disaster
2.4.2 Nuclear Power Plant Disaster: Three Mile Island Nuclear Disaster
2.5 Conclusion
2.6 Key Concepts
2.8 Activity
2.0 LEARNING OUTCOME

• Understand the causes and impacts of nuclear disasters;

• Explain the system of management of nuclear disasters; and
• Highlight the lessons learnt on the basis of past disasters.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters occurring due to direct consequence of exposure of communities to nuclear hazards
can be termed as nuclear disasters. Nuclear disasters are the high-risk but low probability disasters
attendant with the advancement in nuclear science and technology. The nuclear accidents can
affect large areas often crossing international boundaries. In this Unit, we will describe the causes,
impacts, and mitigation of nuclear disasters. In this regard, we shall discuss the past disasters, that
is, the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in the then USSR and the nuclear power plant disaster at Three
Mile Island in USA.
2.2 CAUSES OF NUCLEAR DISASTERS

Nuclear disasters can essentially occur in two ways.
First of all due to deliberate actions, which include:
• Use of a nuclear weapon against civil population during a war or conflict. In this regard, the
devastation caused by atom bombs at Hiroshima and Nagasaki was unprecedented.
• Use ofnuclearradioactive material by terrorists who seem to be adopting newer methods to
further their cause by adopting violence as a tool to cause disturbance in societies. The attack
1
on Twin Towers, in New York city on 09 September 2001, indicates that terrorists are no
more reluctant or even hesitant to cause mass casualties. To that extent, use of nuclear material
by terrorists is now in the realms of possibiFty.
Secondly, the impact of nuclear disasters are seen due to accidental release of nuclear radiation, as
mentioned below:
• Accident at Nuclear Power Plants resulting in release of nuclear radiation.
• Loss or theft of radioactive material from the facilities using nuclear material for application in
research and development, medicines, industry etc.
• Transportation accidents, which involve nuclear material.
• Improper or deficient disposal of radioactive waste material.
Possibilities of nuclear disasters due to use of nuclear weapons are very remote because of various
international treaties and ongoing nuclear disarmament movement and above all due to the deterrent
nature of the consequences. There is, however, a relatively· greater possibility of nuclear disasters
occurring due to accidental causes or terrorist actions. The nuclear installations and disaster
managers, therefore, need to be prepared for such contingencies.
2.3 NUCLEAR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

• In India, the Department of Atomic Energy (D A E) is responsible as the nodal agency for
nuclear emergencies in public domain.
• An emergency in public domain implies that it is potential threat to people, outside the nuclear
power plants.
• All major nuclear facilities, such as, the nuclear power plants have an exclusion zone of 1.6
km surrounding the power station. No habitation is permitted in this exclusion zone
• Area beyond the exclusion zone is termed as public domain. An area of 16 km radius around
the nuclear facility is designated as off-site emergency planning zone (epz).
As a general practice, the DAE is responsible to ensure that elaborate and comprehensive
safety systems are in place for the operation of any nuclear facility. Personnel managing nuclear
emergencies need special protection equipment, such as, integrated Hood Masks, plastic suit,
anti-gas respirators, Iodide tablets, respirators, contamination monitors, water-poison detection
kits and decontamination kits.
2.3.1 Crisis Management Group (CMG»

The CMG functions under the DAE. It is responsible for coordinating all actions for meeting a
nuclear emergency between the national crisis management group at national level and the local
administrative authorities in the affected area. The CMG is constituted as under:
Chairman - Additional Seceretary, DAE
Members
Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)
BhabhaAtomic Energy Commission (BARC)
Heavy Water Board (HWB)
Directorate of Purchase and Stores (DP&S)
Nuclear Power Corporation ofIndia (NPCIL)
Department of Telecommunication (DoT)
DAE Secreteriat
7
2.3.2 Do's and Don'ts

The DAE has laid down guidelines to be followed by people in case of an incident at a nearby
nuclear facility or for any other nuclear emergency in an area, which may not even involve any
nuclear facility.
"
• Go indoors. Stay inside.

• Close doors / windows.
• .Switch on Radio / TV and look out for public announcements or advice.
• Cover food, water, and consume only such covered items.
• If in the open, cover your face and body with a.wet handkerchief, towel, dhoti or saree.
.
, Return home; change / remove clothes. Have a complete wash and use fresh clothing.
• Extend full cooperation to local authorities and obey their instructions completely - be it for
taking medication, evacuation etc.
Don'ts
• Do not panic.
• Do not believe in rumours.
• Do not stay outside / or go outside.
• As far as possible, avoid water from open wells / ponds, and also crops and vegetables,
food, water or milk exposed to radiation.
• Do not disobey any instruction of the District or Civil Defence Authorities who would be
doing their best to ensure the safety of yourself, your family, and your property.
2.4 LESSONS LEARNT
2.4.1 Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster

Chemobyl is located in Ukraine, erstwhile USSR. On 26th April 1986 one ofthe atomic reactors
in the Chemobyl Nuclear Power Plant had a core melt down. It is believed that the accident
occurred due to human error as at the time of accident the plant was partly shutdown and certain
safety mechanisms had been relaxed or disabled. This accident resulted in a fire at the power plant
and a huge quantity of radioactive isotopes leaked out in the atmosphere and spread in the nearby
areas.
Impacts
• About 134 persons suffered from acute radiation sickness immediately. 28 of them died.
• About 135,000 personnel were evacuated from the areas in the proximity ofthe disaster site.
• The radioactive release is said to have affected 17 million people to varying degrees.
• About 155,000 square kilometres of area containing a population of7 million was affected.
• About 800,000 personnel were pressed into service by the Soviet government for
decontamination. Upto 45 per cent of these persons also received unacceptable doses of
radioactivity.
7
l
• Though the disaster occurred due to human error, the design of the plant was also an important
factor.
2.4.2 Nuclear Power Plant Disaster':Three Mile Island-USA

The accident occurred on March 27 and 28, 1979 at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant
at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, USA. In this case, a partial melt-down occurred in a nuclear power
plant, which was only six months old. The accident occurred due to human and mechanical failures.
The off-site release of radioactivity was limited though no casualties were reported. Large-scale
evacuation was carried out from the area. It is considered as USA's worst nuclear accident.
The accident was attributed to a series of events both technical failures and human errors as
presented below.
• Cooling system ofthe plant developed a snag due to technical problems.

• Secondary cooling system, which was to compensate for shut down of the primary system,
did not function because of human error.
• Some valves ofthe secondary cooling system were left closed during maintenance, two days
ago.
• Indications ofthe technical snag appearing on the control panel were not timely noticed.
• Ultimately there was a leakage of radioactive water from the around reactor core.
• The containment building was flooded with radioactive water; the reactor core was uncovered
and overheated.
• Timely preventive action, at this stage, by one ofthe workers to stop the flow of water from
the core prevented a complete core meltdown and a likely breach ofthe containment area.
Impact
• As radioactive water escaped the containment building into one ofthe auxiliary buildings of
the plant and a serious damage to the core was becoming evident, a site emergency was
declared.
• No casualties were reported.
• The public was informed of the emergency, and the communities around the plant were
evacuated.
2.5 CONCLUSION
This Unit highlighted the fact that the Disaster Management Administration needs to be prepared
for any emergency, especially due to the radiation. This is a very specialised area. Therefore, for
all nuclear plants in India, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) prepares and sanctions the
Plan. However, it prepares the Site Emergency Response Plans also. At the state level, the State
Government prepares Off-Site Emergency Plans with inputs from the Nuclear installations within
their areas and subject to review by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) as these
involve nuclear safety of the public. In this regard to coordinate the activities, role of the Crisis
Management Group has been described. In addition, the prominent cases ofChemobyl Nuclear
Disaster and Nuclear Power Plant Disaster in Three Mile Island-USA have been dealt.
1.<.
"
7 I
2.6 KEY CONCEPTS

AERB Atomic Energy Regulatory Board.
CMG Crisis Management Group.

"
DAE Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India.
How does radiation The body's cells contain molecules, many of which are held
cause casualties? together by electrons. When radiation either excites or ionizes
the molecules in cells; chemical bonds may be broken and the
shape of a molecule may be changed. These changes disrupt the
normal chemical processes of the cells, causing the cells to
become abnormal or die.
If radiation affects molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),

the hereditary material in living cells, it may cause a permanent
change called a mutation. In rare cases, mutations caused by
radiation may pass on undesirable traits to offspring. If the damage
to an organism's genetic material is severe, the cell becomes
cancerous or dies whiletrying to divide. The effect produced
depends on the radiation's ionizing ability, the dose received, and
the type oftissue involved.
Local Emergency Plans These plans are for the contingency of a nuclear emergency within
a nuclear facility. Each of the nuclear power plants in the country
has a plant specific emergency plan.
NCMC National Crisis Management Committee.
Nuclear Radiation Nuclear radiation implies radiation of high-energy particles and

rays given off during a nuclear reaction.
Off-Site Emergencies These plans are for the contingency of a nuclear emergency in
Plans the public domain. The local district administration is responsible
for making such plans in consultation with the DAE. In case of a
nuclear emergency in the public domain, the situation is handled
mainly by the civil administration with due assistance and
coordination from the CMG of the DAE and NCMC. The local
administration is also responsible for periodic rehearsals and mock
drills for these plans. Representatives of the DAE and AERB are
also involved in coordination and action on feedback of such
rehearsals .
Radiation si kness . It is the term for a variety of symptoms that follow a person's
exposure to damaging amounts of certain types of radiation. The
radiation may come from nuclear sources and the resulting fallout,
from medical and industrial uses of radioisotopes, or from particle
accelerators or even X-ray machines. Ionization from the
radiation causes a series of reactions in human tissue that results
in damage to the body's cells.
Radioactive Fallout It is radioactive material that settles over the earth's surface
following a nuclear explosion in the atmosphere. It consists of
atoms known as radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes. Fallout
/
can be dangerous to plants, animals, and people because ofthe

radioactive elements it contains. These elements include about
200 isotopes of fllore than 30 chemical elements produced by a
nuclear explosion.
After an explosion, the radioisotopes in the air, on the ground,

and in the bodies ofliving things decay (break down) into more
stable .isotopes. They do so by emitting radiation in the form of
alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. The process
goes on for very long periods oftime depending on the nature of
the elements involved. Exposure to large amounts of radiation
can result in immediate sickness and even death. Exposure to
radiation over longer periods can cause cancer and damage genes.
Radioactivity The testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere once produced

large amounts of fallout. Today, underground testing has eliminated
fallout from above ground testing. However, a serious accident
in a nuclear reactor can also create fallout.
It is a process under which a nucleus naturally converts into the

nucleus of another isotope or element. The process is
accompanied by release of energy essentially in the form of
nuclear radiation.

Goel, S.L., 2006, Encyclopedia of Disaster Managerment (3) Management of Man-made
Disasters, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi.
Nuclear Emergency Response at www.dae.gov.in/regulat.htm
Nuclear Safety and Regulation at www.dae.gov. in/ index 1. html
Parasuraman, S. and P'VUnnikrishnan (Ed.), 2000, India Disaster Reports, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi,
Siromony, P. Michael Vetha (Ed.), 2000, Source Book on District Disaster Management,
LBSNAA, Mussoorie.·
Takada, Jun, 2005, Nuclear Hazards in the World: Field Studies on Affected Populations
and Environment, Kodansha Ltd., Tokyo.
World Book Millennium 2000. at www.ibm corp (cd)
2.10 ACTIVITIES
1) Outline the structure of nuclear disaster management in India.
2) Enumerate essential do's and don'ts in case ofa nuclear disaster.
r
UNIT 3 CHEMICAL DISASTERS
Structure
3.1 . Introduction
3.2 . Chemical Disasters: Causes and Impacts
3.3 Chemical Disaster Management: Institutional Aspects
3.4 Chemical Disaster Management :Preparedness and Response
3.5 Lessons from the Past- The Bhopal Gas Tragedy
3.6 Conclusion
.. 3.7 Key Concepts
3.9 Activities
3.0 LEARNINGOUTCOME
• Understand the causes and impacts of chemical disasters;
• Explain the management of chemical disasters;
• Discuss the essentials of preparedness and response activities for mitigation of chemical
disasters;
• Highlight the essential ingredients of chemical disaster management plans; and.
• Describe the lessons learnt from a prominent past chemical disaster case viz., the Bhopal .
Gas Tragedy.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Since independence, India has seen rapid industrial development. Industries have come up all over
the country based on the availability of raw material, cheap unskilled and skilled labour, means of
transportation and the policies of the State and Central Government. It has also resulted in migration
of rural people to industrial cities for livelihood opportunities. As a result, the traditional industrial
centres have become more congested, and new ones have also come-up. A phenomenal increase
in industrial units of all types, both in organised and unorganised sectors have increased the
vulnerability of people working in industries and also of those staying in the vicinity of industrial
hazards. In this Unit, we will deal with chemical disasters. A chemical disaster is essentially a
massive industrial accident involving chemical agents. Hazardous materials is the term used for
chemicals, which cause accidents or large scale environmental damages.
By definition, chemical disaster simply implies a disaster caused by chemical hazards. A chemical
disaster being essentially a massive industrial accident involving chemical agents, fits into the basic
definition of a disaster, i.e., it needs external help for affected people to cope-up and recover from
the effects of such disasters. This Unit will bring out the causes and impacts of chemical disasters
/
in India. In addition, it will highlight the institutional arrangements for disaster management. Last but
not the least, in this Unit we will also discuss the lessons learnt from the past. .
3.2 CHEMICAL DISASTERS: CAUSES AND IMPACTS

i) Causes
A Chemical disaster may take place due to anyone or more ofthe following.
• An accident or explosion at the production facility of hazardous material.
• An accident at the storage facility of hazardous material.
• An accident during transportation of hazardous material through population centres.
• Inadequacies in toxic waste management. This results in long-term health effect on
communities. Toxic waste can cause environmental pollution as well as ground water pollution.
• Failures in safety systems of chemical plants.
• Deliberate sabotage of a manufacturing area or storage facility of a hazardous chemical
substance or a sabotage during transportation of such substance.
• Occurrence of natural disasters, such as, earthquakes, cyclones etc. can also trigger chemical
disasters essentially through damage and destruction to chemical industrial units storing or
producing hazardous material.
Chemical Terrorism
Chemical disaster can also be caused due to indiscriminate use of chemical warfare agents by
terrorists. Such chemical agents include Sarin, Chlorine, Sulfur Mustards, Hydrogen, Cyanide and
VXetc.
ii) Impacts
Chemical disasters lead to serious and varied impacts. These can result into explosions and/or
fires. The most hazardous impact of a chemical disaster lies in the extreme pollution of air, water
and food chain upto life-threatening levels even. The long-term health impairment can even extend
to coming generations.
A chemical disaster may result into one or all of the following.
Physical Damage
This includes damage or destruction of structure and infrastructure. A transportation accident may
damage the means of transport used for transporting hazardous material viz. vehicle, rail etc.
Industrial fires, if not contained, may affect large areas.
Casualties
Chemical disaster may result in large-scale casualties. While quick medical relief is essential to
save lives, immediate disposal of dead bodies will also need planning.
Environmental Damage
Chemical disasters affect the environment because oflikely contamination of air, water supply,
land, crops, vegetation and animal life. In some cases 'certain areas may become uninhabitable for
humans and animals. The possibility of mega scale migration/evacuation/resettlement could loom
large.
30 ' Public Policy and Analysis
3.3 CHEMICAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT:

INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS
i) In India, at the Central Government level, the Ministry of Environment and Forests is the
. nodal agency for management of Chemical disasters. The ministry maintains a nationwide list
" of major hazardous units. I
I
ii) The Department ofEnvironinent of the Ministry and Controller of Explosives are jointly
responsible for setting and monitoring the safety standards. The Central Pollution Control J
Board (CPCB) is responsible for all environmental aspects.
ill) The Chemical Disaster Management procedures are outlined in the Chemical Accidents
(Emergency, Preparedness, Planning and Response) Rules- 1996. A layered structure to
manage such disasters at central, state, district and local levels is stipulated. For this, Crisis
Management Groups are required to be nominated at each level as under:
a) Central Government National Level
b) Chief Secretaries of State State level
c) District Collector District and Lower Levels
iv) As per law, all industrial accidents have to be reported to the Director General Factory
Advice Services and Labour Institute (DGFASLI).
3.4 CHEMICAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT:

-PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE
Hazard Mapping
An accurate information oflocation, type and quantities of hazardous material being stored, used
or produced should be known at district and state levels.
Hazardous Material Identification

The hazardous material should be stored and handled as per laid down norms. These are usually
divided into different categories with eachhaving identification mark for packaging and transportation.
Inspection of Chemical Plants & Storage Facilities

A regular and systematic inspection of chemical plants and storage facilities of hazardous material
is important. Most of the chemical disasters can be avoided iflaid down norms are followed
strictly by all. A common understanding on requirements of safety by government officials and
those running industries with hazardous material is essential.
Monitoring of Toxic Waste Disposal

Disposal oftoxic waste by industrial units must be monitored. There have been cases where toxic -,
wastes dumped underground have resulted in pollution of sub-soil water. Disposal oftoxic waste
in rivers and drains, especially passing through populated areas, needs to be stopped in totality.
Monitoring Pollution Levels

Monitoring of pollution levels gives warning oftoxicity in land, water or atmosphere. It can also
forewarn the authorities of any unusual and hazardous substance in the environment. -
'I'
/
Preparation of On-site and Off-site Emergency Management Plans

Emergency management plans need to be prepared for on-site and off-site contingencies. On-site
contingencies are those where the impact of the accident is localised and it is likely to cause
damage or destruction of plant and equipment or injury or loss of life to workers. In off-site
emergencies, the impact of the accident is widespread i.e. beyond the premises of a hazardous
industrial unit.
The chemical disaster management plans should generally include the following aspects:
• Awareness among workers and the people likely to be affected.
• Procedure for warning.
• Immediate action to be taken.
• Specific responsibilities of officials and their training.
• Plan for casualty evacuation and medical aid.
• Fire fighting arrangements.
• Command, Control and Communication system.
• List of specialists, personnel, and organisations who could provide assistance.
• Practice Drills.
Rehearsal of Plans
Emergency plans, both off-site and on-site, should be periodically rehearsed. An honest feedback
and prompt action to plug the gaps observed during such mock drills is one ofthe most important
features of preparedness. .
Awareness
Improvement in awareness of potential hazards particularly in the vulnerable section of population
is essential. This includes workers closely associated with hazardous material or with industrial
units handling hazardous material, and also the people staying in vicinity of such units.
Training
Industry, plants and hazard specific training in safety and handling of emergencies, if any, is essential.
Different training orientation is needed for government officials, managers of industrial units, both
technical and administrative, and the workers.
3.5 LESSONS FROM THE PAST: BHOPAL GAS

TRAGEDY
The accident occurred on the night of2-3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide Factory at
Bhopal producing pesticides. .
About 40 tonnes of Methyl Iso- Cynate (MIC) and other toxic gases including Hydrogen Cyanide
(HCM) leaked from the plant. The gas affected the residents ofBhopal in a big way. Most affected
were those staying in the localities downwind in the vicinity of the plant. About 8000 persons were
killed. Health of more than 530,000 persons were severely affected causing multi-system injuries.
Thirty-six municipal wards were affected. The toxic gas was absorbed into the blood stream of the
people causing lasting and damaging effect to lungs, brain, kidney, reproductive, as well as immune
system of victims.
/
32 Public Policy and Analysis
Causes of Disaster
The Bhopal Gas Disaster was caused by a complex set of independent human, organisational and
technological errors. The salient aspects are summarised below.
Human Factors
,"
• Inadequate safety training of employees.
• Low employee morale.
• Lack of awareness regarding the hazard potential of the plant among the managers and
workers.
• Overlooking minor indicators of a possible accident occurred on earlier occasions. (There
was a technical snag in storage tank E-6l 0 on 21 October 1984 which was ignored and not
investigated)
Organisational Factors
• Lack of resources and inadequate managerial attention, which contributed to lower safety
standards.
• Lack of urgency in preparing contingency plans for possible accidents in the plant.
Technological Factors
• Numerous design errors
• Absence of computerised early warning system.
• Long-term storage of huge quantities of MIC.
• Outmoded manual safety system. (An electronically controlled four stages back-up safety
system was used in similar plants elsewhere).
• Poor maintenance.
Certain Observations on Response to the Disaster

The medical facilities were over stretched. Besides, the doctors in Bhopal were not aware of the
possible cause of the disaster. They were unaware of the type of gas, which had leaked out, and its
toxicity. The plant officials insisted that MIC was not lethal; it was only an irritant.
There was no awareness of the hazard potential of the plant among politicians, government officials,
media and the general population. This resulted in a total lack of preparedness to meet the eventuality
of a disaster of such a magnitude. There was no credible public information system in place that
resulted in total confusion, fear and pani~:
Lessons Learnt
• Environmental impact assessment of hazardous units is an inescapable necessity.
• Public education and awareness towards hazards oftoxic material are important.
• Need for developing high standards of operator skills and safety in industrial units.
• Lack of contingency plan to meet possible emergency situation. It is important to work on,
and be prepared for worst-case scenario.
• Mandatory safety audits should be implemented that will ensure safety ..
• A comprehensive medical emergency plan should be prepared. In addition, the medical fraternity
should also be trained and be prepared to handle mass casualties with prior knowledge ofthe
toxic chemicals causing the disasters and with adequate medicines and supporting systems.
• Requirement of buffer zones around hazardous industrial units.
r
3.6 CONCLUSION
A Chemical disaster may take place either due to an accident or explosion involving hazardous
material or due to indiscriminate use of chemical warfare agents by terrorists. This Unit has brought
out the institutional aspects in India. At the Central Government level, the Ministry of Environment
and Forest is the nodal agency for management of chemical disaster. A layered structure to manage
such disasters at the central, state, district and local levels is essential. For this, Crisis Management
Groups are required to be set up at each level.
The severity and impact of chemical disasters depend upon the extent of physical damage, casualties
and environmental damage. Chemical disasters affect the environment because of likely contamination
of air, water supply, land, vegetation and animal life. .
In this Unit, we have identified the preparedness and response measures for chemical disasters,
which include hazard mapping, hazardous material identification, inspection of chemical plants &
"storage facilities, monitoring oftoxic waste disposal, and monitoring pollution levels.
It is suggested that emergency management plans be prepared for on-site and off-site contingencies.
Rehearsal of these plans, improvement in awareness of potential hazards particularly in the vulnerable
section of population, and training is essential for mitigation of chemical disasters. This training
should be specific to Industry, plants and hazards.
3.7 KEY CONCEPTS
Sulfur Mustards
Sulfur mustards are vesicants and alkylating agents, more commonly known as blister agents. They
are colorless when pure but are generally a yellow to brown colour and have a slight garlic or
mustard odour. Sulfur mustard in vapour and liquid forms can be absorbed through the eyes, skin
and mucous membranes.
Health Effects
Sulfur mustards cause skin, eye and respiratory tract injury. They may also cause bone marrow
suppression and neurologic and gastrointestinal toxicity. Although cellular changes occur within
minutes of contact, pain and other clinical effects are delayed for one to 24 hours.
"Antidote
There is no antidote for sulfur mustard toxicity. Decontamination of all potentially exposed areas
within minutes after exposure ~sthe only effective means of decreasing tissue damage.
Hydrogen Cyanide
Hydrogen cyanide is an extremely flammable, colorless gas or liquid. It gives off toxic fumes in a
fire and is highly explosive.
Health Effects
Exposure irritates the eyes, the skin and the respiratory tract. Symptoms are burning and redness
for the skin and eyes, inhalation causes confusion, drowsiness and shortness of breath, leading to
collapse. The substance can affect the central nervous system, resulting in impaired respiratory and
circulatory functions. Exposure can be fatal.
I
34 Public Policy and Analysis
Antidote
Fresh air in the case of inhalation and rinsing with plenty' of water in the case of skin or eye
exposure.
Sarin
. .•
" Sarin is a highly toxic compound in both its liquid and vapour state that attacks the central nervous
system.
Health Effects: Sarin can cause death minutes after exposure. It enters the body by inhalation,
ingestion, through the eyes and the skin. Symptoms vary but commonly include a running nose,
watery eyes, drooling and excessive sweating, difficulty in breathing, dimness of vision, nausea,
vomiting, twitching and headache. It kills by attacking the body's voluntary muscle and gland "on
switch", causing the muscles to tire so they can no longer sustain breathing.
.
,
Antidote
Immediate treatment is decontamination by removing clothing and flushing eyes and skin with
water.
Chlorine
Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas with a pungent odour and is heavier than air. It reacts violently
with "manyorganic compounds, creating a fire and explosion hazard.
Health Effects
Chlorine is corrosive to the eyes and the skin and can cause tearing, blurred vision and bums.
Inhalation may cause laboured breathing and lung edema. The symptoms oflung edema often do
not manifest until a few hours after exposure. High exposure levels may result in death.
Antidote
Fresh air in the case of inhalation and rinsing with plenty of water in case of exposure to skin and
eyes.
Hazardous Material
Hazardous material isthe term used for chemicals which cause accidents or large scale environmental
damages. A Chemical substance can be hazardous ifit is explosive, flammable, corrosive, poisonous,
radioactive or a human disease causing micro-organism. Hazardous materials include pesticides,
fertilizers, and other chemicals as well as petrol, natural gas, and other fuels. Many hazardous-
materials disasters involve truck or train accidents in which a dangerous substance is accidentally
spilled.

Biological and Chemical Weapons at www.CNN.com
Government of India, 2002, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,
High Powered Committee on Disaster Management Report, New Delhi.
Parasuraman, S. and P.Y.Unnikrishnan (Ed.) ,2000, India Disaster Reports, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.
Siromony, P. Michael Vetha (Ed.), 2000, Source Book on District Disaster Management,
LBSNAA, Mussoorie
UNDP, 1992, An overview of Disaster Management, 2nd editon, Part 1 Chapter 4.
7
3.9 ACTIVITIES
1)· Enlist the causes of chemical disasters arid explain how they differ from other types of
disasters?
2) Visit a chemical industry or the district level agency for disaster management and analyse the
institutional arrangements for chemical disaster management?
3) On the basis of your observation suggest the essential elements of the preparedness and
response activities for mitigation of chemical disasters.
..
7
UNIT 4 BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS
Structure
4.1 .. Introduction
.
4.2 'Classification of Communicable Diseases
4.3 Factors contributing to Vulnerability
4.4 Typical adverse effects
4.5 Biological Disaster: A Study of Plague at Surat
4.6 Biological Disaster: Preparedness and Mitigation
.
,
4.7 Conclusion
4.8 Key Concepts
4.1 0 Activities
4.0 LEARNINGOUTCOME
• Explain the causes of biological disasters;
• Describe the typical adverse effects of biological disasters; and
• Suggest the risk reduction and preparedness measures.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Biological disaster has coexisted with human society since primitive days. With rapid advancement
in medical sciences and prevention and social medicine, the impact and frequency of such disasters
have reduced to some extent in advanced countries. But the poor and developing countries continue
to suffer due to biological disasters. It is, therefore, important to understand the measures of
managing biological disasters and mitigating their impact on communities.
What is a Biological Disaster?

A biological disaster is the disaster, which causes sickness and fatalities in human beings and
animals at mass scale, when they come in contact with biological hazards in the form ofliving
organisms, such as, bacteria, virus, fungi, etc. Destruction of crops and plantation also falls within
the ambit of biological disasters.
All communicable diseases, either of human beings or livestock are potential biological disasters.
They spread widely,affecthuge number of people in communities, sometimes across the geographical
limits of provinces and nations.
Biological Disasters have caused havoc in human settlements in the form of communicable disease
since times immemorial. Plague savaged Europe for 300 years from 1300s to 1600s. About 20-
25 million or about one-third ofthe population was eliminated by the deadly epidemic across the
continent. Plague killed 200 people at Surat in Gujarat in 1994.
. The pendemic influenza outbreak caused 20 million deathsacross the world in 1918-1919. Similarly
small pox, ebola, and yellow fever have been causing havoc throughout the world, mainly in
underdeveloped and poor societies. The small pox has been eradicated with its virus. It is preserved
only by some advanced countries for research purposes.
Biological disasters essentially appear in the form of epidemics or.pandemics, which are caused by
microorganisms. Different microorganisms cause different types of communicable diseases. The
micro-organisms, which cause co~unicable disease could be categorized as follows:
• Bacteria - These are small free-living organisms. They can be grown on solid or liquid
culture media. The disease caused by bacteria is usually treatable with specific antibiotic
therapy.
• Virus - These microorganisms replicate in living cells and cause disease, which are mostly
non-responsive to antibiotics. Such disease may sometimes respond to antiviral compounds.
• Rickettsiae - These microorganisms share characteristics of bacteria and virus. In the case
of virus, they grow only within living cell; and in case ofbacteria, they too have cell membranes
and metabolic enzymes. Besides, they use oxygen and are susceptible to antibiotics.
• Chlamydia- these are intracellular microorganisms not capable of generating their own energy
source. They grow in living cells like viruses, and respond to broad-spectrum antibiotics as in
the case of bacteria.
• Fungi - These are primitive plants, which draw nutrition from decaying vegetable matter.
Most fungi form spores, and free living forms are found in soil. Fungal disease normally
responds to anti-microbial drugs.
• Toxins - These are poisonous substances produced by living plants, animals or
microorganisms. Some toxins can be produced by chemical means also.
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

One way to classify the communicable diseases is to list them according to pathogenic agents that
cause the disease, i.e., whether virus, bacteria, or parasite. Communicable diseases, manifesting
themselves in association with natural disaster situations, such as, earthquake, cyclones or floods,
are customarily classified according to the way they are transferred. Following simple classification
is suggested for practical reasons.
• Diseases transmitted by contact
Scabies
Trachoma
Conjunctivitis
Mycosis
• Sexually transmitted
Gonorrhoea
Syphilis
AIDS
• Vector transmitted diseases
Malaria
Dengue
7
Recurrent fevers
Trypanosomiasis
Yellow fever
Onchocerciasis
~ Schistosomiasis
.
"
• Diseases transmitted through faecal matter

Non specific diarrhea diseases
Cholera
Amoebiasis
Hepatitis
.
, Typhoid fever
Ascariasis
I
Aneylostomiasis (hookworm disease)

• Diseases transmitted through air
1
Acute respiratory infection
l
Tuberculosis
Measles
I
-::' Meningitis
~
Whooping cough 1
Global efforts to eradicate communicable diseases succeeded to eradicate smallpox among the . J
1
communicable diseases totally eradicated so far. It is a matter of concern that thirty new pathogens
have been identified since eradication of small pox. Some of these have already swept the world in
the form of a pandemic (viz. HIV /AIDS), and for many of these (Ebola, virus, lassa virus etc.)
there is no cure, treatment or vaccine and the possibility of preventing or contesting them. Recently
recognised pathogenic microbes and infections diseases are given in the following table.
1
Table 4.1: Pathogenic Microbes and Infectious Diseases
Year
1973
Microbe
Rotavirus
Type
Virus
Disease
Major cause of infantile diarrhoea
worldwide
j
••
1975 Parvovirus B-19 Virus Aplastic crisis in chronic heamolytic
anaemia I j
1976 Cryptosporidium parvum Parasite Acute and chronic diarrhoea ~
I
1977 Ebola virus Virus Ebola haemorrhagic fever
1977 Legionella pneumophila Bacteria Legionnaires disease
1977 Hantaan Virus Virus Haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. I
(HRFS) I
j
1977 Campylobacter jejuni Bacteria Enteric pathogen distributed globally
1980 Human T- lymphotropic Virus T-cell lymphoma --leukaemia
l
virus I (HTLV-l) .
1981 Toxin producing strains of Bacteria Toxic Shock Syndrome
Staphylococcus aureus
7 I
1982 Escherichia coli 0157:H7 Bacteria Haemorrhagic colitis; heamolytic Ureamic

syndrome
1982 HTLV-II Virus, Hairy cell leukaemia
1982 Borrelia burgdorferi Bacteria Lyme disease
1983 HIV Virus AIDS
1983 Helicobacter pylori Bacteria Peptic ulcer disease
1985 Enterocytozoon bieneusi Parasite Persistent diarrhoea
1986 Cyclosporacayatanensis Parasite Persistent diarrhoea
1988 Human herpes virus-6 Virus Roseola subitum
(HHV-6)
1988 Hepatitis E Virus Virus Enterically transmitted hepatitis
1989 Ehrilichia chafeensis Bacteria Human ehlichiosis
1989 Hepatitis C Virus Virus Parenterally transmitted liver infection
1991 Guanarito virus VIrus Venezuelan haemorrhagic fever

1991 Encephalitozoon hellem Parasite Conjuctivitis; disseminated disease
1991 New sps. of Babesia Parasite Atypical babesiosis ,
1992 Vibriocho1erae 0139 Bacteria New strain associated with epidemic
cholera
1992 Bartonella henselae Bacteria Cat -scratch disease; bacillary
angiomatosis
1993 Sin nombre virus Virus Adult respiratory distress syndrome
1993 Encephalitozoon cunculi Parasite Disseminated disease
1994 Sabia virus Virus Brazilian haemorrhagic fever
1995 HHV-8 Virus Associated with Kaposi sarcoma in AIDS
patients
1999 Nipah Virus Encephalitis
Source: Global perspective of communicable diseases, Biological Disaster Management Plan, HPC
on Disaster Management, part Vol.-IV.
J Lederberg, "Future of infectus diseases in Drug resistance mechanisms and management",
communicore, 1998, p.5.
4.3 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO VULNERABILITY

In India, urban, semi-urban and rural population all are vulnerable to biological disasters, though
for different reasons and in varying degree. Some of the factors uniformly applicable are:
• Population growth
Leading to sub-standard and unhygienic living conditions, presenting a perfect condition for
epidemic to set in.
• Poverty
A logical consequence of over population limits the capacity of individuals and communities
to limit or nullify the impact of epidemics.
• Lack of Rapid Response Epidemic Control and Containment Mechanisms
Paucity of medical resources coupled with geographical locations and problems of
communication make communities in rural areas comparatively more vulnerable.
r I
• Low Public Awareness

Lack ofbasic health and hygiene education and in some cases superstitions add to vulnerability
of certain sections of population. .
• Poor Health and Malnutrition

Poor health and malnutrition lead to depleted body resistance to diseases. Thus, certain
'. groups in urban areas, and women and children in backward rural areas become more
vulnerable .
• ' Poor state of Health Care System
, Callous approach to public health' and safety coupled with meagre resources at the disposal
of civic bodies at all levels also contribute to enhancement of vulnerability to biological disasters.
• Congestion in Urban Areas
.. Congestion in urban areas leads to problem of waste disposal, which provides fertile ground
for various diseases to spread.
, • Bio Terrorism
Ignorance towards emerging threats ofbio-terrorism, in general, enhances the vulnerability.
• Modern Means of Transport and Communication
It is a paradox that modem means of transport and communication have made the world
shrink, which also add vulnerability to communicable diseases because of frequent travel and
greater social mixing.
Bio Terrorism
Possibilities of occurrence ofthe biological disasters due to certain dangerous biological agents,
which are used by terrorist organisations have increased. Biological warfare is nothing but bio-
terrorism and is universally condemned.
Biological Disasters: Causal Phenomenon

Communicable diseases leading to biological disasters often erupt and spread due to poor and
unhygienic living conditions of individuals and families within communities. The general living conditions
and state of medical services coupled with awareness levels of individuals also determine the
vulnerability of individuals and communities to biological hazards. It is very natural, therefore, that
affiuent communities are less vulnerable to biological hazards as cornparedto poor communities.
Causes for epidemics and pandemics may be generalised as under:
• Congested living areas with inadequate hygiene and sanitation arrangements.
• Movement of infected personnel to non-epidemic areas carrying the micro-organisms during
their incubation period.
• Movement of non-immune persons to endemic areas. In case of malaria, for example, the
mortality rate in endemic regions is very high during first two years oflife. In groups from non-
endemic areas who move into endemic regions, all individuals run the risk of developing
severe form of malaria.
• Malnutrition, particularly among children.
• Ecological changes conducive to breeding of vectors.
• Poor or insufficient water supply system, leading to consumption of contaminated water,
leading to water borne diseases.
• Poor Health Services and lack of programmes for immunisation and vector control.
/
4.4 TYPICAL ADVERSE EFFECTS

Typical adverse effects of biological disasters include following aspects:
• Enhances vulnerability due to economic consequences and levels of poverty.
"
• Loss oflivelihood, even for personnel in unorganised sectors due to decline in business and
economic activities in general.
"
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD).
• Crisis of availability oflabourers, who migrate in search of employment in normal conditions
and work in other areas.
4.5 BIOLOGICAL DISASTER: A STUDY OF PLAGUE AT

SURAT
Surat, one ofthe largest industrial towns ofGujarat was hit by plague epidemic in October 1994.
Approximately six hundred people died and about 1/3 ofthe population of the town are believed
to have fled mainly due to fear and panic. The epidemic had far reaching economic repercussions
too.
Some ofthe major observations, which could be noted as lessons for improving biological disaster
response, are listed below.
Conditions before the outbreak of Plague

• Congestion in town.
• Inadequate garbage disposal arrangements.
• Lack of functional disease surveillance organisations.
• Lack of overall preparedness on behalf of civic administration to combat outbreak of an
epidemic of this nature.
Conditions during the outbreak of Plague

• Paucity of drugs.
• Rumour mongering - there was a rumour that water in the city was poisoned.
• Lack of credible public information system.
• Lack of co-ordination within the medical authorities as well as in various government
departments,
• No plans existed for moving people to safer areas.
• No public health programme to educate common masses to cope with plague epidemic was
m vogue,
• Lack of judicial provisions to enforce medical practitioners to fulfill their social obligations. A
number of private medical practitioners fled the town and many private nursing homes closed
down.
• Inadequacy of medical infrastructure to handle a disaster of such a dimension. It was very
creditable on part of medical personnel to work under great odds. At places even the medical
personnel did not have protective gowns and the sanitary staff ofthe municipal corporation
worked without masks and gloves. . '
,
/
• Availability of sanitary staff was reduced to about 50 per cent due to prevailing fear and
panic, which affected garbage disposal and removal of carcasses. '.
Thus, it is evident from the study that specific preparedness measures are required to mitigate the
biological disasters, which are mentioned below.
"
4.6 BIOLOGICAL DISASTER: PREPAREDNESS FOR
I
MITIGATION
1
• _ Create a pool of well-trained medical professionals.
• Ensure availability of vaccines and drugs. 1 I
• Ensure adequate stocks and ready availability of diagnostic re-agents. l

• Develop an effective network of surveillance system to detect outbreak of epidemics.
• Improve skills of medical professionals towards early diagnoses and identification of epidemics.
• Improve public awareness to enable people to help the administration and medical authorities
in disaster management.
• Have a reliable and credible public information system for dissemination of factual information
to avoid fear and panic among masses.
The analytical study of plague in Surat revealed the need to immediately implement following
suggestions to mitigate the disaster. Conceptually the epidemic can be resisted and fought against by:
• . Organising mass scale immunisation programme;
• Providing effective and efficient (timely) treatment;
• Maintaining high standards of hygiene and sanitation in the communities;
• Preventing spread of disease; and
• Creating public awareness towards health care. In this regard, following information that
includes symptoms and treatment about certain epidemics will prove to be useful.
Plague
The plague bacterium could be disseminated by aerosol, resulting in the pneumonic form with the
potential for secondary spread of cases through respiratory droplets ofthose infected. J
Symptoms
Within one to six days after exposure, the first signs of illness are fever, headache and weakness,
which can lead to shock and death within two to four days. .
Treatment
Antibiotics within 24 hours of first symptoms.
Botulism
Botulism toxin can be inhaled, viz. contaminated food or water.
Symptoms
Double vision, slurred speech, dries mouth and muscle weakness, which also starts at the top of
the body and works its way down. Symptoms begin from six hours up to two weeks after exposure.
Death can be caused by paralysis ofthe breathing muscles within 24 hours.
I
Treatment
Botulism anti-toxin, supplied by the CDC
Prevention
Vaccine
Smallpox
,"
The smallpox virus is relatively stable and the dose required for infection is small, making it a
candidate for aerosol release. It could then be further spread by the saliva droplets of infected
people.
Symptoms
The incubation period is about 12 days following exposure. Symptoms include fever, fatigue and
.
, aches, followed by a rash with lesions and can lead to death within the first two weeks of the
illness.
Treatment
No proven treatment at this time.
Prevention
Vaccine
Tularemia
Humans can become infected with tularemia through bites by infected anthropods, contact with
contiminated water or food, and inhalation of infective aerosols.
Symptoms
Earlier symptoms of infection by aerosol could be similar to those of influenza or a typical pneumonia.
The symptoms can occur within a few days or as long as two weeks after exposure. If treated, the
patient experiences progressive weakness and weight loss, and can die within two weeks.
Treatment
Antibiotics
Prevention
A vaccine is currently under review by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (American Medical
Association)
Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers (VHF)

Many VHF viruses are known to naturally reside in an animal or insect host, however, the hosts of
some VHF viruses remain unknown, including that ofEbola and Marburg viruses. Some VHF
viruses can be transmitted by the body fluids of infected people.
Symptoms
Reactions vary depending on the type of VHF, but symptoms often include fever, fatigue, dizziness,
muscle aches and exhaustion. Severe cases cause bleeding under the skin and in internal organs.
Some types of VHF cause kidney failure.
1
Treatment
Generally there are no treatments other than supportive therapy for VHFs:
Prevention
Vaccines are available for only two VHFs: yellow fever and Argentine hemorrhagic fever.
.,
4.7 CONCLUSION
The biological disaster, that is, caused by organisms like bacteria, virus, fungus, and protozoon
leads to epidemics, which occur in large scale. The causative agent could occur naturally or be
created in laboratory and spread as part of warfare and terrorist activity. It has been observed
that the disaster related epidemic arises from the sub-standard living conditions. In this Unit, we
have described the causes, impacts, and management of biological disaster.The Unit has described
the adverse effects of biological disasters, which enhance vulnerability due to economic
consequences and levels of poverty; results in PTSD; loss oflivelihood; and crisis of availability of
labourers, who migrate in search of employment in normal conditions and work in other areas. In
view ofthese problems, we have suggested certain measures for preparedness and mitigation of .
biological disasters.
4.8 KEY CONCEPTS

Botulism Botulism toxin is the most potent lethal substance, which is
. made by the bacterium clostridium botulinum.
Epiderriic Occurrence of a disease ina particular group or population .
such that a high proportion of persons are affected by the
disease.
Pandemic Large epidemic; an epidemic that spreads worldwide or atleast
across a large region.
Plague The causative agent of plague, Yersinia pestis, is found in
rodents and their fleas.
Parasite An animal or plant living in or on another.
Pathogem Disease producing organism.
Smallpox The variola virus, commonly known as smallpox, was
eradicated from the world in 1977, except for stocks of it
kept in the World Health Organization reference labs.
Smallpox comes in two forms: variola minor or the more deadly
variola major.
Smog When smoke andlor pollution combine with fog, the result is
smog (smoke plus fog). Smog takes longer to dissipate and is
very harmful.
Tularemia The causative agent oftularemia is francisella tularensis, which
is considered as one ofthe most infectious pathogenic bacteria.
Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHF) refer to a group of illness
caused by several distinct families of viruses. While some of
these viruses cause relatively mild illness, others cause severe
life-threatening ones, such as, ebola. Dengue is a VHF.
1
.~--------------------------------~-----------------------------
Biological and Chemical Weapons, at www.CNNcom
"Global perspective of communicable diseases, Biological Disaster Management Plan", HPC on
"
Disaster Management, Vol.-IV, NCDM, IIPA, New Delhi.
Lederberg, 1., "Future of infectious diseases in Drug resistance mechanisms and management",
R.L. Singhal and O.P~Sood (Eds.), 1998 ,communicore.
Nath, Meenakshi," Industrial Disaster: Working Towards oblivion", S. Parasuraman and P.v.
Unnikrishnan(Eds.), 2000, India Disaster Reports, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Perrin, Pierre (Ed.), "Communicable diseases ", Jan de Boer & Marcel Dubouloz, 2000,
Handbook of Disaster Medicine. Hentenaar boek BV, Nieuwegein, Netherlands.
Siromony P. Michael Vetha (Ed.), 2000, Source Book on District Disaster Management,
LBSNAA, Mussoorie .
4.10 ACTIVITIES
1) What arebiological disasters? List out importantmicroorganisms, which could cause biological
disasters.
2) How communicablediseases manifestthemselvesin associationwith naturaldisastersituations?
3) Identify and describe the specific factors, which are contributing to vulnerability of biological
disasters .
. 4) On the basis of your study analyse the Indian condition to mitigate the biological disasters,
and suggest remedial measures.
I
UNITS BUILDING FIRE
Structure
. 5.1 . Introduction
5.2 Understanding Fire
5.3 Types of Building Fires
5.4 Building Fire: Safety and Prevention
5.5 Government Policy
5.6 Conclusion
5.7 Key Concepts
·5.9 Activities
5.0 LEARNINGOUTCOME
• Understand the causes and impacts of building fire;
• Describe the types of building fires;
• Explain the safety and preventive measures to protect against fire; and
• Discuss the government policy regarding precaution against fire hazards.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Fire loss is national loss because what burns never returns. Fire is a good servant, but a bad
master. Amongst all hazards, fire and fire related accidents carry a high degree of fire risk and pose
a great problem. All fires invariably cause loss of property both of private and government origin
besides causing loss oflivesl injuries. Increased usage of electricity, LPG and hazardous chemicals
result in 'increase of the fire hazard potential. There is need to have proper blend of in-built fire
safety measures in building/premises asper the specifications, their proper servicing and maintenance
and also the existence of we 11equipped public fire service which reduces the fire risk to great
extent. Fires are largely man-made disasters caused mostly by negligence, poor maintenance or
sabotage. .
The increased numbers of fire accidents are mainly due to lack of fire safety norms including
various aspects like storage of inflammable material in godowns and enforcement measures.
Some Historical Fires

Great Bombay Dock Fire -14 April 1944: The fire broke out on "S.S. Fort Strikene" which
was carrying 1200 tonnes of explosives. 336 persons died and 1040 injured, of them Fire Service
men were 66 and 89 respectively. There were enormous fires in 100 acres and 14 other ships
were ablaze by explosions, which were recorded 1000 miles away in Shimla. Firemen along with
others from military and naval persons eventually extinguished the fires. Mr. Norman Coombs, the
I
Building Fire 47
Chief Fire Officer of the Bombay Fire Brigade, was badly burnt in the fire and was awarded the
"Bar to the King's Police and Fire Service Medal" for his gallantry', a distinctionnormally awarded
posthumously. The Fire Service Day is celebrated on every 14th April in commemoration of the
66 gallant officers and men of the Bombay Fire Brigade who laid down their lives in fighting the
greatfir~,
Fire Accident in theA.P. Legislative Council-14 January 1965: Fire in the air conditioning
system spread fast as it was not noticed in the initial stage. All the fire engines of the twin cities of
Hyderabad Secunderabad were deployed. Poor visibility obstructed fire-fighting operations. The
ponds in the public gardens were of great help where fire pumps were set up to give continuous
water supply for fire fighting operations.
Arson Fires of Vijayawada in 1964 and 1966: Most of the thatched residential areas of
Vijayawada were gutted when thousands of people became homeless. Large numbers of fire
engines were brought from neighbouring districts and from Hyderabad and many police personnel
were deployed to ensure law and order. Thousands of victims had to be accommodated in relief
camps wheremass cooking and feeding were undertaken.
Gopavarapuvarigudem Fire near Vijayawada -17 May 1968: The area had Palmyrah leaf
roofs and the atmospheric temperature was around 48° celcius. Thousands of people had gathered
for a marriage and had finished dinner before the auspicious rites when the pandal caught fire and
collapsed on the gathering. The seven feet tall compound wall with only a single exit prevented
escape. 200 persons, mostly women and children perished,
Fire in Hindustan Times Building, Delhi -13 February 1980: 17 floors high multi-storeyed
commercial building caught fire. The fire was noticed on 14th floor but actually fire started in 8th
floor. 22 fire tenders and 2 Hydraulic Platforms were employed to extinguish the fire. Extensive
damage occurred on and above 8th floor.
Cochin Oil Refinery Fire - 8 March 1984: At 0542 hours, an explosion occurred in Aviation
Turbine Fuel tank and was followed by a devastating fire. The fire spread to Raw Naptha tanks
nearby. Six fire engines extinguished the fire. Four persons were killed, property worth Rupees 12
crores was damaged including the cooling tower, and turbo-generator house and chemical
warehouse were gutted.
Arson Fires at Hyderabad - 8 September 1984: Hundreds of fire accidents occurred from
Tank Bund to Naya Pool when the people were pelting stones on police and fire service personnel
and curfew was imposed. Fires raged for three days and a large number of fire engines were
deployed. It was nightmare for all with crores of rupees worth of property damaged.
Hotel Siddhartha Intercontinental Fire in Delhi.,..24 January 1986: 38 people were killed,
of them two from bum injuries and other 36 due to suffocation. On West, it was a dead wall with
no openings. On North, it was accessible but the fire was not on that side. On East, there was no
access due to a swimming pool. On South, the approach was not even. Leakage of gas from LPG
Cylinder was the cause of fire.
Uphaar Theatre Fire in Delhi - 13 June 1997: During the screening of a film in the cinema hall a
fire started at 5 P;M. in the evening. The source of fire was a transformer in basement where a
three phase terminal box of the transformer became loose due to overheating. The casualties were
57 dead (24 men, 20 women, 13 children) and 105 injured (62 men, 31 women, 12 children).
There were 19 cars, eight scooters and 11 bicycles damaged. The chronology of events was as
under:
7 I
. 12 June 1997 Technical snag and fire in transformer, fire extinguished but transformer not
repaired and the shows continued.
13 June 1997 Short-circuit.
4.45 PM Transformer bursts, boiling oil spills out, power cut twice during the
"
show, management thought it is another power cut, generator is put on.
Oil catches fire and petrol tanks in vehicles parked underground blow
, up, fire spreads rapidly through the parking lot.
Airconditioners ducts circulate smoke even faster throughout the halls
and smoke gets thicker and denser.
Rear stalls vacated hastily, doors finally broken under pressure.
Heat so strong basement roof melted smashing parked cars .
.. 5.20 PM Fire brigades arrive.
6.40 PM Fire is brought under control.
The main disadvantage of this cinema theatre observed were:
• Situated at a very densely populated place.
• No clear passage for movement.
• Underground parking.
• Exits not clear.
• Complete blackout.
• Busy traffic.
• Limited space for parking and deployment of fire brigade and police vans.
• Unsafe electrical equipment.
• No fire fighting eguipment and no trained personnel.
• Inflammable material.
• Illegal conn:itions.
• . No fire extinguishers in working condition.
) .
Fire in Muddunur village, Karimnagar District -18 May 1989: The hot ashes from an over
ignited thatched material roof caused the fire. It spread to neighbouring villages ofSirikonda,
Lutnoor, Kapparaopet and Pattipaka due to high winds. Five fire engines were deployed, 22
persons were killed, 50 persons injured and 2500 persons affected.
School Fire in Kumbakonam, Thanjavur District, Tamilnadu - July 16, 2004: At 1 LOO
a.m. a fire broke out in the kitchen on the ground floor ofthe Lord Krishna Middle School when
the mid-day meal for children was being cooked. It spread to a row of classes with thatched roof,
where students from Class- I to V were present and about 300 children were in the nursery section
on the third floor of the school. More than 100 small students, mostly girls, and some teachers
.were charred to death and 100 others injured. The children had severe burn injuries and many had
died of asphyxiation or suffocation as the. passage from the classrooms was narrow preventing
their escape. Some teachers, who made a valiant attempt to rescue the children, were also among
the deceased. The school complex lacked fire-fighting system.
I
Building Fire 49
'5.2 UNDERSTANDING FIRE
i) Combustion
For dealing with fire accidents, we must be able to understand, the phenomena ofbuming or
combustion. Combustion is a hi ghly exothermic process releasing a lot of heat. In this regard,
combustible substance; supporter of combustion (oxygen), and ignition temperature are necessary
for combustion to take place and fire to start. All fire extinguishers work on two principles: cooling
the burning substance to below its ignition temperature, and cutting off the air supply to the burning
substance.
ii) Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

Carbon monoxide (CO) is produced by improper combustion. It can come from several sources:
gas-fired appliances, charcoal grills, wood-burning furnaces or fireplaces and motor vehicles. CO
is an odourless, colourless and toxic gas. As it is impossible to see, taste or smell the toxic fumes;
CO can kill before one is aware of its presence. The symptoms of ca poisoning include headaches,
dizziness, disorientation, nausea and fatigue. At lower levels of exposure, CO causes mild effects
that are often mistaken for the flu. The effects of CO exposure can vary greatly from person to
person depending on age, overall health and the concentration and length of exposure. If CO
poisoning is suspected it is advised to evacuate all occupants immediately, turn off all appliances
and sources of combustion, and ventilate the house with fresh air by opening doors and windows.
iii) Characteristics of Fire

Frequently we come across the horror of fire, but by understanding fire we can know its true
nature and prepare our families and ourselves. Each yea~ many people die or are injured in fires,
many of which could be prevented. Fire is:
• Fast: There is little time. In less than 30 seconds a small flame can get completely outof
control and turn into a major fire. It only takes minutes for thick black smoke to fill a house.
In minutes, a house can be engulfed in flames. Most fires occur in the home when people are
asleep. If you wake up to afire, you won't have time to grab valuables because fire spreads
too quickly and the smoke is too thick. There is only time to escape.
• Hot: Heat is more threatening than flames. The heat from a fire alone can kill, Room
temperatures in a fire can be 100 degrees celsius at floor levei and rise to 600 degrees at eye
leveL Inhaling this super hot air will scorch the lungs. This heat can melt clothes to your skin.
. In five minutes a room can get so hot that everything in it ignites at once causing a flashover.
• Dark: Fire is not bright but is pitch black. Fire starts bright, but quickly produces black
smoke and complete darkness. If you wake up to a fire you may be blinded, disoriented and
unable to find your way around even in a familiar place like your own home.
• Deadly: Smoke and toxic gases kill more people than flames do. Fire uses up the oxygen
you need and produces smoke and poisonous gases that kilL Breathing even small amounts
of smoke and toxic gases can make you drowsy, disoriented and short of breath. The odourless,
colourless fumes can lull you into a deep sleep before the flames reach your door and you
may not wake up in time to escape. "
The fires in buildings could develop into major disasters. Tounderstand these we may look into
their specific aspects by grouping them under urban and village fires. One ofthe major causes of
I
these fires is electrical and this requires special attention. Fires could also result from other disasters
like earthquakes and accidents.
I
. 5.3 TYPES OF BUILDING FIRES
i) Urban Fire
Urban fire can occur in public places like cinema halls or high-rise buildings; oil depot, petrol
pump, gasgodown, chemical godown; religious places; industrial establishments like factories;
,"
and bus depots, railway stations, airports. Scientific analyses of all causes offire reveal that human .
negligence is either. directly or indirectly responsible for almost all the fire accidents. Indicative
factors contributing to the outbreak offires in urban areas are:
Electric Origin: About 34 per cent are caused due to defective wiring, use of sub-standard
equipment, over loading, fluctuations in electricity supply and illegal tapping of electricity.
Careless Smoking: About 29 per cent are caused due to careless disposal of burning cigarette
.
, or beedi ends, matchsticks etc. .
Oven/Kitchen fires: About 9 per cent are caused·in kitchen and ovens due to careless and
negligent handling ofLPG as fuel and kerosene stoves.
Naked light: About 8 per cent are caused due to careless and inattentive use of naked flames,
candles, oil lamps etc.
Arson: About 3 per cent are caused due to extremist activities, group or faction rivalry, revenge,
malicious ignition etc.
Other Causes: About 17 per cent are caused due to gas leakage, sparks from machinery, '
spontaneous combustion, sparks from welding, chemical reaction, explosives and fire works, lightning .
etc.
The distinguishing attributes of urban areas including industrial premises add to the disadvantage of
being at high risk to fire accidents. Some of the areas of concern are:
a) Unplanned and haphazard growth of slums.

b) Unmonitored construction.
c) Commercial and transport godowns.
d) High-rise buildings.
e) Industries.
±) Increase of fire load on all occupancies due to usage of combustible and flammable materials.
g) Lack of organised water sources for fire fighting.
h) Riots, arson etc. leading to fires.
i) Multifarious, unauthorised and unusual usage of electricity.
j) Narrow and con~ested roads and inaccessibility to the fire engines.
Measures to be taken in response to a major fire include:
a) Crowd control at the scene of incident.
b) Divert traffic.
c) Make arrangements locally to control fire.
d) Organize local people to put out fire.
e) Call Fire Brigade and Police.
f) Rescue trapped and injured persons.
1
. Building Fire 51
. g) Organise First Aid.

h) In the case deaths, arrangement for Panchanama.
i) Salvage property.
j) Organise security of property.
k) Investigate the case of arson.
l) Collect evidence.
m) If it is a case of mischief, apprehend the criminal.
n) . If the fire is at a religious place, look after the communal peace in that area.
0) If it is due to old enmity, take preventive action against the rival parties for maintaining peace.
ii) Village Fire

Building fires in the villages are much less than in the urban setting but this is negated due to the
difficulties like inaccessibility of the fire fighting vehicles, lack of organised water sources and lack
of proper communication. The rural inhabitants are living in huts in the villages and hamlets where
every year thousands of fIres occur. After reaping a good harvest it is heart breaking to see it
going up in flames. An analysis of the causes of such disaster finds that many of these fires can
be easily avoided or at least the damage could be minimised to a considerable extent. These
causes are:
Careless Smoking: About 33 per cent are caused due to careless disposal of burning cigarette or
beedi ends, matchsticks etc.
Oven/Kitchen flres: About 18per cent are caused in kitchen and ovens where the roof ofthe
kitchen is low and covered with thatch at low level ignited by the burning embers.
Electric Origin: About 14 per cent are caused due to defective wiring, use of sub-standard
equipment, illegal tapping etc. results in electric short circuit. Human lives and cattle are also lost
due to electrocution of wells and water bodies.
Naked light: About 13 per cent are caused due to careless and inattentive use of naked flames,
candles, oil lamps etc.
Arson: About 5 per cent are caused due to extremist activities, group or faction rivalry, revenge,
malicious ignition etc.
Other Causes: About 17per cent are caused due to spontaneous combustion, gas leakage, open
fires, lightning, sparks, fire works, hot ashes, etc.
r
There is relatively more combustible material in the villages and fire prevention measures are to be
implemented mainly by the people themselves. Fire retardant solutions are advised for thatch, hay,
bamboo and wooden battens. Since it takes more time to react irrtlte case of village fires, it has
been suggested that village level fire parties could be organised with elementary equipment.
Fire Risk in rural areas is low and less concentrated, but this is more than offset by the difficulties
that arise in rural areas. These~ areas usually suffer from
. .
the following characteristic disadvantages .
.
• Combustible nature of houses buildings and stocks.

• Lack of systematic water sources with no proper approach to them for fire engines.
• High wind velocity due to vast open areas further spreads the fires.
• Inaccessible approach to fire spots, houses and fields for fire vehicles.
• Ignorance on the part of villagers to call the fire services.
.
• Lack of communication facilities to call for timely assistance .
"
• Most of the fires are well developed before arrival of fire vehicles at fire spots.
iii) Electrical Fire

Electricity is a necessity of human beings but has the risk of causing disasters if proper safety
.
"
measures are not followed. It is used for industrial production, transport, domestic use or any
other applications, carries the-risk of resulting in major accidents and disaster right from its generation,
distribution, transmission to its uti~isation. It is said that majority of electrical fires do not happen
but are caused.
Source of electricity fire, whether in industrial area or in the domestic area, is often caused due to
use of sub-standard equipment, bad wiring, illegal tapping, fluctuations of voltage, poor insulation,
overheating failure of circuit breakers or improper earthing. Attention must be given to periodical
checking of all installations, prevention of illegal tapping, avoiding overload and creation of awareness
'on safety measures to be adopted by everyone using power. Areas prone to electrical disasters
are:
• Power Generation Stations - thermal, hydel and gas based.
• Power grids located at various places. .
• Substations and transformers.
,• Industries which consume a major portion of electricity located in the industrial belts.
• Agricultural sectors where pump sets consume huge amount of electricity.
• Cold storages and refrigeration plants.
Reasons for accident of electrical origin in vulnerable areas are as indicated below:
a) Thermal Power Stations
• Bad housekeeping of coals stocks.
• Frictional sparks and electrical faults at coal crushers.
• Presence ofhuge quantity of oil in the boiler houses.
• Explosion or leakage of steam pipes.
• Faulty maintenance of turbo generators.
• Insulation failure of cable tunnels.
• Lack of fire- fighting system at various hazardous areas.
• Presence of huge quantity of oils in switch rooms.
• Faulty maintenance of control r~om.
• Lack of proper ventilation and £\re resistant construction,
b) Transformers
• Breakdown of insulation caused by switching or lighting surges.
• Overloading.
• Gradual deterioration .•
;.~
• Low oil level.

• Moisture in the coil.
• Loose internal connections .
./
7
Building Fire 53
• Mechanical failures in the tap changing mechanism.

• Internal failure, such as, turn-to-turn faults.
• Lightning.
c) Industries
• Short-circuits caused by insulation failure or during work on an installation.
• Overheating of cable and equipment due to overloading, lack of adequate ventilation or
high resistance joints.
• The ignition of flammable gases, vapours or dusts by sparks or heat generated by
electrical equipment.
• Faulty maintenance of conveyor belts.
• Ignition of combustible substances by electro-static discharges.
• Failure of circuit breakers.
• Use of inappropriate fuses.
• Not using intrinsically safe electrical equipment at hazardous areas or due to their failure.
• Bad housekeeping.
• Improper earthing.
d) Domestic Usage
• Use of inappropriate fuses.
.• Overloading of electrical circuits.
• Use of sub-standard wiring and electrical equipment.
• 'Failure of circuit breakers.
• Worn-out insulation.
• Illegal tapping of electricity.
• Fluctuations in the voltage of electricity, i.e., either at a very high voltage or very low
voltage.
• Short-circuits caused by insulation failure and over-heating.
• Lack of awareness.
• Bad housekeeping.
• Improper earthing.
e) Agriculture Sector
• Use of sub-standard pump sets.
• Lack of proper maintenance.
• Fluctuations in electrical supply.
• Lack of awareness.
iv) Industrial Fire
Owing to the rapid growth of industries, complexities of fire risk have increased enormously.
Incidents of such fires not only result in huge loss oflife and property but also cause dislocation of
work, loss of production, unemployment and so many other kinds of sufferings. All industrial
. establishments must have adequate fire prevention and protection measures and the Factory Fire
Prevention Officer is responsible for taking all necessary actions to include:.
• Training in operating fire extinguishers, handling of fire alarm and calling oflocal fire brigade.
• Fire notices are prominently displayed in vernacular at conspicuous places. These should be
shortand contain instructions for action to be taken in the event of outbreak of fire or an
"
emergency.
• Coriduct regular fire drills in all sections.
Many godowns store chemicals and inflammable materials posing serious fire hazards and often
located in congested areas. Some ofthese items are in transit with transporters who are usually
unaware of chemicals. These may be illegally located and their adherence to mandatory safety
norms is not ensured.
v) High Rise Buildings
High-rises are a flashy reflection of a growing city but wherever they do not comply with fire safety
norms, they are tinderboxes waiting to ignite. Fire fighting from outside is extremely difficult in
High-Rise buildings. In-built fire safety measures are essential that incorporate elaborate in-built
rescue and fire-fighting systems. These require:
a) Open spaces on all side with fire access roads.

b) 'Provision of more than one staircase.
c) Externally constructed fire escape connected to all floors.
d) Automatic detection and alarm system.
e) Wet-riser with hydrant 'Outlets and hose reels.
t) Provision of refuge area.
g) Provision of smoke detection and sprinkler system.
h) Formulation of fire safety plan.
o Conducting of fire drills periodically.

j) Training the occupants in the use of available fire-fighting equipment.
vi) Temporary Structures and Places of Public Assembly
For religious congregations, ceremonies, meetings, school functions, exhibitions and such occasions
where a large number of people gather, temporary structures are erected. There have been instances
of fire at such public assemblies with large number of deaths. The causes are:
a) The materials used for construction: it must be non-combustible or fire resistance type. Materials
of combustible nature if used, be treated with fire retardant solution as mentioned below:
• Ammonium Sulphate 4 parts by weight
• Ammonium Carbonate 2 Parts by weight
• Borax 1 part by weight
• Boric Acid 1 part by weight
• Alum 2 parts by weight
• Water 35 parts by weight
b) The height of the ceiling of the structure from the ground: it must not be less than three metres.
c) Nylon or synthetic ropes: its use be avoided.
1
Building Fire 55
d)' The height of corridor/passage: be more than three metres.

e) Clear space on all sides between the structure and the adjacent buildings or other structures:
at least 4.5 metres.
t) Safety distance from any hazardous structures like electrical sub-stations, railway lines, high
. tension electrical wires, chimney, furnace etc.: at least 15 metres must be maintained .
g) Easily approachable gate: have a clear opening of 5metres, with height clearance of 5 metres.
h) Exits: minimum of two exits of not less than 2.5 metres width away from each other.
i) Distance to the exits: line of travel from any seat to the nearest exit be less than 15 metres.
j) Escape route: illuminated with alternate power supply with "EXIT" signs.
k) Longitudinal gangways: must be formed at the sides of 1.2 meters width and central portion
of 1.5 metres width.
I) Cross gangways: 1.5 metres width for every 10 row of seats.
m) Electrical installations of standard and fire resistant type and shall be done by approved
electricians.
n) Naked lights/open fires: not permitted inside the premises.
0) Portable fire fighting equipment: specified type provided in the premises.
5.4 BUILDING FIRE: SAFETY AND PREVENTION

The threat of fire in all places is always present and if adequate precautionary measures are not
taken, the consequences can be grave. The following basic precautions must be observed.
, i) Fire Precautions in High Rise Buildings
Do's
a) Good house-keeping must be ensured.
b) Always use ashtrays while smoking and deposit the smoked burts in them after extinguishing.
c) All receptacles for waste should be emptied at regular intervals.
d) Faulty electrical appliances should be repaired/replaced immediately.
e) Switches and fuses should conform to correct rating of circuit.
t) Weldingicuttingjobs should be carried out under strict supervision.
g) Keep smoke/fire check doors closed,
h) Keep means of escape clear of obstructions.
i) Fire Rescue drills should be carried out at regular intervals.
j) Impart elementary fire fighting training to occupants.
k) Emergency Organisation must be set-up.
Don'ts
a) Don't dispose off lighted cigarette ends carelessly.
b) Don't plug too many electrical appliances in one socket.
c) Don't paint fire detector/sprinkler heads.
d) In case of a fire alarm, do not use lifts, elevators or escalators; use stairs.
7
. ii) Fire Precautions in Residential Areas
Do's
a) Keep the house neat and clean.
b) Keep matches, lighters and crackers away from children; handle crackers with care.
,"
c) Use metal ashtrays while smoking to dispose offmatches, used cigarettes and bidis.
d) Papers, clothes .and flammable liquids should be kept away from heaters/stoves/open
choolahs.
e) Keep the escape routes and staircases free of any obstructions.
f) Use only one electrical appliance in one socket.
.. g)
h)
Keep LPG stoves on raised platform and never on the floor .
Turn off the cylinder valve and burner knob of the gas stove after cooking.
i) In case of bum injuries due to fire, pour water over bum till pain subsides.
j) Keep bucket of water handy while using fireworks.
Don'ts
a) Don't meddle with electrical fixtures like plugs, wires, switches and sockets.
b) Do~ 't leave spray cans near heaters or in direct sunlight - they could explode.
c)' Don't throw matches, cigarette ends or pipe ash into waste paper baskets.
, d) Don't allow the children to play in t~e kitchen;
e) Never place oil lamps, incense sticks or candles on the floor or near combustible material.
. f) Don't wear loose, flowing clothes while cooking; specifically avoid synthetic clothing.
g) Don't keep crackers in your pocket or use fireworks inside the house.
h) Never light fire works in confinement of a metal container.
,
i) Never light flowerpot (anar) while holding it.
j) Never reach for any article over a fire.
k) Don't refill a burning stove.
Q Never leave an open fire unattended:
iii) Industrial Fire
Do's
a) Instal appropriate fire fighting equipment, maintain itproperly and train the staff to use it.
b) Store flammable liquids, gases, solvents and chemicals in stable racks, correctly labelled.
c) Keep chemicals in cool and dry place away from heat.
d) Where hazardous chemicals are used/stored, ensure adequate ventilation and prohibit smoking.
e) Maintain good house-keeping. Ensure cigarettes are extinguished before disposal.
f) Use fuses and circuit breakers of correct capacity.
g) Before welding operation, all traces of flammable material must be removed to a safe distance.
h) Weldinglhot work should be carried out under proper fire watch.
Building Fire 57
O' Keep all machinery clean and lubricate it to avoid friction and overheating.
j) Regular fire drills should be carried out.
Don'ts
a) Don't smoke in prohibited areas.
b) Don't place obstructions in means of escape.
c) Don't use damaged cords and avoid temporary connections.
d) Don't plug too many electrical appliances in one socket.
iv) Fire Safety in Respect of Temporary Structures/Pandals
Do's
a) The height of the ceiling ofthe pandal should be more than 3 metres.
b) No synthetic materials or synthetic ropes should be used in such structures.
c) Margins of at least 3 metres should be kept on all sides-away from any pre-existing walls or
buildings.
d) No structure should be erected underneath any live electrical line.
e) Structures should be erected reasonably away from railway lines, electric sub-stations, furnaces
or other hazardous places and a minimum distance of 15 metres should be maintained .
. f) Exits on all sides ofthe pandal shall be kept sufficiently wide (minimum 1.5 metres).
g) First-aid, fire extinguishers or water buckets must be installed at strategic points inside and
outside of the pandal.
Don'ts
a) There should be provision for standby emergency light.
b) No combustible material like wood shavings, straw, flammable and explosive chemicals and
similar materials should be permitted to be stored in the vicinity or inside the pandal.
c) No fireworks display with open flames of any kind should be permitted close to the temporary
structure/pandal.
d) Kitchen must be segregated by providing separation walls of non-combustible materials
(G.I.Sheets) from the remaining area ofthe temporary structure.
Fire Precautions for Children

.
Children are our most valued possessions. They are also among the most vulnerable to accidents
a)
.
and fire. The following safety hints are aimed at fire safety for children.
.
Never leave children alone near an open fire, heater or in kitchen. Older children may use fire
or play with matches, the results can be disastrous. Keep matches and cigarette lighters out
of reach of children.
b) If young children are playing in a room fitted with a combustion heater or other heating
appliance, ensure that the appliance is screened so that children cannot crawl or put their
hands on hot elements or hot materials.
c) Ensure electrical plugs and sockets are covered so that children cannot put wires, metal
instruments or their fingers into sockets.
1
v) Basic Fire Preca-utions in Rural Areas

The observance ofthe following Fire Prevention Me~ures can minimise the rural fires considerably.
a) The dwellings and huts should possibly be constructed with non-combustible materials such
as thick mud walls, bricks, or stones with roofs of metal or asbestos sheets or tiles, particularly
;. the portions around the kitchen fires and roof above it. If split bamboo were used in
construction, the same would be covered with mud plaster on both sides and lime washed.
b) Naked oil lamps and kitchen fires should never be allowed to burn while retiring to bed. It is
much safer to keep a matchbox handy during night in order to light the lamp whenever necessary.
c) Fully extinguish before disposal of cigarettes or beedi ends, burning matchsticks or cooking
fire.
d) Stacks of straw and hay should be built up at a distance away from village roads or railway
lines to avoid burning sparks falling on them. If fields are situated next to roadway or railway
necessitating the building of stacks in them, plough a belt ofland at least 15 feet wide along
side the road or railway line and utilise it to grow green crops. Hay stacks, not more than 20
tonnes in capacity and about 25 feet in height, should be built up at least 60 feet apart from
each other or from other farm or combustible structure. The open spaces between them
should be kept clear of any combustible material.
e) .Waste material, grassland, rubbish, stubble etc., whenever burnt, should be done on a calm
day and away from living areas or haystacks. Leave 15 feet area around the burning, creating
.firebreak and carefully supervise the burning operations.
f) To avoid spontaneous combustion in newly cut hay, make the stack from sides keeping a
vertical opening through the centre and then fill in with loose straw to the top of the opening.
This will allow the internal heat to escape out through the loose straw and dissipate it thus
reducing the chances of spontaneous combustion. .
g) The line of haystacks should be across the line of prevailing wind direction to avoid sparks
being carried from one stack to the other.
h) All combustible material like fuel wood, oils, paints, spirits etc., should be stored in separate
rooms detached from the dwellings.
o Shopping areas and bazaars should be built-up with sufficient wide-open spaces between
groups of shops and not clustered together.
j) Houses constructed with combustible materials can be given chemical treatment to make
them fire resistant. The construction material such as thatch, hay, bamboo, wooden battens
etc., should be made fire retardant by dipping them in a solution as given below:
Aluminium Sulphate 9 Kgs ..
Ammonium Carbonate 6 Kgs.
Borax 3 Kgs.
Boric Acid 6 Kgs.
Alum 6 Kgs.
Water 180 Litres.
Do's
Extinguish cigarette/ beedi ends and match sticks before disposal.
a) Keep combustible materials such as fuel wood, oils, paints, spirits etc., in a separate room.
b) The dwellings and huts should be constructed as far as possible with non-combustible materials.
I \
Building Fire >','- 59
c) A qualified electrician should carry out electric installations.

d) Burning of waste material, grassland, rubbish, stubble etc., should always be done away from
the residence under proper supervision.
e) Provide spark arrestors on Tractor Exhaust-pipe.
±) While building up hay stacks, ensure that a minimum distance of20 metres from stack to
stack or stack to residence is maintained. '
g) Height of stack should not be more than 8 metres.
h) Limit one stack to a maximum of20 tonnes.
i) Keep water drums and few buckets near hay stocks.
j) If possible, build-up the stacks near tube wells, ponds, rivers or other water sources.
Don'ts
a) Don't be careless about disposal of cigarettelbeedi endslbutts.
b) Naked lamps or kitchen fires should never be allowed to bum while retiring to bed.
c) Electric wiring should not pass over haystacks.
d) Haystacks should not be build-up near the railway lines or roadways.
5.5 ,.GOVERNMENT POLICY

All states have fire safety norms legislated under relevant acts like the Delhi Fire Services Rules
1987 in Delhi. All districts and municipal corporations have fire brigades. The responsibility of
disaster management, in case of building fire, falls under the Department of Home, Urban
Development, Municipal Corporation, Water Board, Divisional Commissioner, Home Guards
and Civil Defence:
Building Codes
Most disaster events, in addition to causing direct damage are also responsible to cause damage to
gas, water and sewage pipe, and water lines. They also cause electrical short-circuits endangering
life due to consequent fire and electrocution. Hence compliance to guidelines, standard codes,
standard guidelines etc. covering these aspects will have to be addressed as 'good practice' by
Building Codes, Byelaws, and related Acts etc. A building code may be taken to mean a collection
oflaws, regulations, ordinances or other statutory requirements adopted by a government legislative
authority involved with physical structure, health and safety conditions of the occupants ofthe
buildings and its neighbourhood, other requirements ofthe society and environmental protection.
These play a major part in proper engineering, design, construction and quality control and also
offer the base for techno-legal measures for enforcement.
For a large coun~ like India with varied climatic, geological conditions and cultural aspects, it
would be necessary to have a hierarchy of codes at national, state and local government level. The
national level building code may be treated as model building code. Such a code provides an
accessible source of comprehensive, contemporary and accepted and respected technical
requirements without the difficulties and expense of investigation, research, drafting and promulgation
of individual local building codes. Each subordinate level should use by reference the maximum.
content of the higher level code and only add specific provisions to meet its distinctive requirements.
Generally these codes consist of:
• Building Code
• Plumbing code
7 I
·60 Understanding Man-Made Disasters
• Electrical Code
• Fire Code
• Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Code
Building Codes regulate the design, construction and maintenance of buildings. They are adopted
" as laws and regulations, and they apply to new construction and generally to existing buildings that
undergo re-construction, rehabilitation or alteration or when there is a change in occupancy. Building
Codes establish minimum safety to the public - health safety, fire safety, structural safety. The
benefits in implementing the Building Codes in letter and spirit are:
• By fulfilling the purpose of building codes, namely to build buildings safe in all aspects, deaths,
injuries and property damage due to hazardous events are reduced.
• Preservation of the residential, commercial and institutional built environment.
.
,
• Reduction in public and private disaster aid, including insurance claim payments.
• Promotion oflevel and predictable playing field for designers, suppliers and builders.
• Promotion of a degree of confidence in owners ofbuildings who can take comfort that minimum
construction standard for the safety, soundness, performance would be ensured.
• Allowing for economies of scale in the production ofbuilding materials, construction machinery,
construction etc.
• Contribution to the durability of buildings.
• Provide value for money spent by the owner and maintaining quality oflife.
Since almost a century, local "Byelaws" and "Building Regulations" of municipalities are regulating
building activity. Some states have state level regulations that local bodies can adopt. These
bye laws provide the techno legal basis for enforcing building requirements. In addition several
states have brought out Development Control Acts, Town Planning Acts, Fire Safety Acts etc. to
control and regulate development. As the local byelaws and building regulations had not kept pace
I
with developments in the science and technology of building, in order to be of assistance in updating ,
them, the Bureau ofIndian Standards (BIS) brought out the 'National Building Code ofIndia'
(NBC) in 1970 and revised in 1983. It has also brought out the 'National Electrical Code' (NEC).
NBC includes in itself requirements for plumbing, fire safety, heating, lighting, ventilation and air
conditioning in separate sections besides covering other building requirements. The whole NBC is
applicable to all types of occupancies. It covers explicit provisions for design for earthquake
forces and high winds. The standards formulated by BIS are of direct relevance to development
and design of buildings to minimise the effects of hazards due to earthquake, high winds and
landslides. In addition BIS has brought out several standard codes, criteria and guidelines for
design and construction of all aspects of a building starting from site investigation, foundations to
completion of building including plumbing, electrical wiring etc. These together with NBC and
NEC cover all aspects of Building Code and can be adopted for regulatory purposes.
In addition to BIS, several organisations in the country publish related data and guidelines. Some
ofthese are:
• Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council
• Housing and Urban Development Corporation
• Geological Survey of India
It is well established that Building Codes and related standards are a must for disaster mitigation.
Engineering for disaster management encompasses quality system for buildings assuring overall
I
Building Fire 61
quality of a structure by following all related Building Codes, other standard codes, materials
standards etc. that will also result in structures that will withstand the effects of disasters. Legislation
for enforcing fire safety in buildings would go a \ong way in saving precious lives and property.
5.6 CONCLUSION
It is evident that the first five minutes are more important than the next five hours in disaster
management. In case of fire management, speed of reaction is very essential to control the spread
of fire, Thus, it helps in reducing the loss oflives and damage to property. However, there are
constraints like old equipment, inadequate number of fue stations, and lack of quick communication
system. Even inadequacy of water sources is also another contributory and critical factor.
In any cluster, the requirement to ensure fire safety.is provision of six metre wide access road,·
underground and overhead water tank with capacity of 50,000 and 10,000 litres respectively.
Periodical fue fighting practices are held very few times. Thus, it is difficult to assess the weaknesses
in the system. Fire prevention should be treated as everybody's responsibility and awareness level
of this disaster must be raised. Mutual aid schemes should be updated and reviewed during the
mock exercises.
5.7 KEY CONCEPTS

Combustible substance It can burn, and isjust like the food for fire. When a fue starts,
all the combustible substances like paper, cloth, oil, LPG, wood
etc. are removed at once so that the fire may not spread.
Ignition temperature . It is the minimum temperature to which a substance must be
heated before it can catch fire and start burning. Some
substances like alcohol, paper, cloth and LPG have low ignition
point or kindling point and hence catch fue easily. Friction also
causes heat, often raising temperature of the substance to ignition
point.
Spontaneous Combustion It is not always necessary to have a flame or spark to start a
fire. If the substance is easily flammable or explosive, and if
the temperature is high enough to reach the ignition temperature
level, spontaneous combustion can take place and fue can start.
That is why one has to be careful during the periods of heat
waves.
Supporter of combustion Oxygen is necessary for burning. It remains present in air, and
its supply is to be cut off to stop a fire, for example the burning
clothes of a person are covered with a blanket.

7'
DLF Disaster Management Plan, DLF Universal Ltd., DLF City, Gurgaon.
Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Directorate General Civil Defence, 2004,
Compendium of Recommendations of the Standing Fire Advisory Committee/Council, New
Delhi.
r I
Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, High

Powered Committee on Disaster Management Report, 2002, New Delhi.
5.9 ACTIVfI'IES
,., 1) : List out the important measures for an escape plan, which will greatly reduce fire deaths and
protect people.
2)· On the basis of your experience, discuss the role of government agencies in prevention and
preparedness in fire management.
3) Select an area, and specify the extent of people following building codes in that area. Suggest
the method to influence people especially to strictly follow the building codes .
..
I
UNIT 6 COAL FIRE
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Coal Fires: Causes and Impacts
6.3 Coal Mine Fire: Disaster Management
6.4 Coal Fire: Past Disasters
6.5 Conclusion
6.6 Key Concepts
6.8 l\ctivities

• Understand coal fire disaster;
• Describe the causes and impacts of coal fIre in India; and
• Explain the coal fire disaster management practices in India.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In India, coal is the most abundant available fossil fuel and provides a substantial part of energy .
needs. It is used for power generation, to supply energy to the industry as well as for domestic
needs. India is highly dependent on coal for meeting its commercial energy requirements. The
principal deposits of hard coal are in the eastern half ofthe country, that is, ranging fromAndhra
Pradesh, bordering the Indian Ocean, to Arunachal Pradesh in the extreme north - east: the States
ofBihar, Orissa.Madaya Pradesh and West Bengal together account for about 85 per cent of
reserves. In India, within the Ministry of Mines & Minerals, the Department of coal has the overall
responsibility for determining policies and strategies regarding exploration and development of
coal and lignite reserves. (World Energy Council). .
6.2 COAL FIRE: CAUSES AND IMPACTS
Causes of Coal Fire

Coalmine fires are caused due to spontaneous combustion of coal and carbonaceous matter-in the
rocks. All coals when exposed to air undergo natural oxidation of carbon forming CO and/or CO2
and producing heat. Occasionally, due to bacterial action some heat is generated which when
reaches 35° C or 95°F, coal is automatically set tofrre. This phenomenon is generally considered
as spontaneous combustion of coal.
.. "<
1
64 Understanding Man-Made Disas,ters
Thermal capacity of coal is inversely proportional to its ash content, that is, greater the ash content,
lesser is its thermal efficiency and vice-versa. In this reaction, so long as the heat produced is
dissipated, the temperature of coal does not increase. Concentration of heat, when dissipation
does not occur, causes coal to catch fire. Most of the fires in coalfields have taken place due to
spontaneous heating (endogenous fires) of coal, which depends on mining, geological, and coal
"
factors. Certain exogenous factors that have contributed to mine fires are frictional sparks, electrical
short-circuiting, dumping of hot ash etc. (Gurdeep Sing~, Minenvis Newsletter -29/30).
-,
Mine fires have existed in coal mining areas and have also been observed in non-coal mines having
carbonaceous shales or any other form of carbonaceous matter in the strata.
Areas where coal mine disasters could occur, due to fire, are as follows:
,
• Fire prone underground mines.
• Mines where sealed off areas exist due to fire.
• Mines where sealed off areas exist in which fire may occur due to breathing in of air.
• Mines which have extensive old workings and not sectionalised.
• Mines which have thick seam workings and not sectionalised.
Coal fires have also been found in the following situations:
• Underground fires, which have remained underground.
• Underground fires, which have become surface fires.
• Fires in over-burden dumps.
• Fires in coal benches in open coalmines.
• Fires in overlying rock mass, specially having thin coal bands and carbonaceous shales.
• Fires in coal stacks.
Precautions
Storage of coal for domestic purpose does not pose much problems, since the quantity and amount
involved is minimal. But in coal-based industries, where a large amount of coal is consumed every
day and huge quantities of coal are stored in factory premises. From the safety angle, in coal-
based industries, coal is stocked in separate heaps not exceeding 200 tonnes each and 8 feet
height, following the contour of the ground along a 20 feet wide track. In this context, between the
two stocks, 8 to 10 feet gap is to be provided to allow a truck or a lorry to pass through. Apart
from the convenience ofloading and unloading, these gaps compartmentalise coal-stocks so that
spontaneous fire in one stock may not create a secondary fire in the adjoining stocks due to
spreading of flame or conduction of heat.
Impacts of Coal Fire

,Mine fires give rise to environmental problems, safety hazards and economic losses like gas
poisoning, difficult geo-rnining conditions, sterilisation of coal,hindrance to production, explosions,
anddamage to structure and properties.
Un-burnt hydrocarbons (from coal fire) in presence of nitrogen oxides and other pliotosensitive
oxidants can cause eye irritation due to the formation of smog like conditions.
Burning of coal during coal fire produces carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO) in
large quantities. CO is produced due to incomplete combustion of coal, which is common in Jharia
coalfield. A considerable depletion of oxygen in air has been observed in fire areas compared to
7
- -----
Coal Fire 65
non-fire areas. Sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide are generally emitted from fire areas. Sulphur
dioxide (S02) is partly converted to sulphur trioxide or to sulphuric acid by reactions with
atmospheric constituents. The oxides of sulphur in combination with particulates and moisture
produce damaging effects. Amount ofS02 released from coal fire depends on the sulphur content
of coal. S02 has low residence time and may contribute to classical smog and acid rain formation.
Sulphur dioxide has been associated with respiratory diseases and increased mortality rates.
Inhalation of su lphur dioxide can cause increased airway resistance by constricting lung passages
which is depicted in table 6.1 (Puget Sound Clean Air Agency, 2005). The amount ofS02 emissions
is higher in fire areas than in non-fire areas in view of increased pyrite oxidation. Oxides of nitrogen
are formed as a result of oxidation (burning) of coal at high temperatures. Coal contains about 2
per cent nitrogenous compounds and produces oxides of nitrogen during. coal fire, burning. Out of
, total nitrogen oxides, 90-95 per cent is nitrogen monoxide (NO ).It is a fairly stable gas but reacts
photo-chemically with hydrocarbons and radicals in air to form PAN and smog. It reacts with
moisture present in the air to form nitric acid.
Large amount of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons are emitted from coal combustion due
to coal fire. At higher temperature a variety of hydrocarbons are generated from the fires due to
distillation of coal. The compounds released are mentioned below:
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VAC), which includes aliphatic oxygenated and low molecular
weight aromatic compounds that exists in vapour phase like alkanes, alkenes, aldehydes,
benzene, toluene etc.; .
• Semi Volatile Organic Compounds; and
• Condensable Organic Compounds that include polycyclic organic matter (pOM), polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PARs), PAN etc.
The pollutants released from mine fires comprise gases, such as, carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
dioxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (S02)' saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulphides (H2S) and other photosensitive oxidants and suspended
particulate matter (SPM). Suspended particulate matter contains harmful trace elements beyond
threshold limit values (TLV) that adversely affect the health of the people. Fire areas have high
sulphation and dust fall rates. Smoke and particulates affect visibility and form smog resulting in
eye irritations and nasal discharges.
Table 6.1 and 6.2 highlight the harmful effects of gases and trace elements in the atmosphere
respectively (Trivedy, 1995).
Table 6.1 Effects of Coal Fire Gases on Human Health
S.No. Air Pollutants Effects on Human Health

1. CO CO poisoning, coma, death, reduces oxygen carrying capacity oflungs,
exacerbates heat disorders.
2. CO2 r Laboured breathing, headache, eventual loss of consciousness.
3. S02 Irritation of respiratory tract, eye irritation, increased morbidity and
mortality rates.
4. NOx Bronchial disease, emphysema, tissue damage in animals, pneumonia,
lung diseases.
5. H2S Neurotoxin, eye and throat irritation, headache, sleeplessness.
6. Hydrocarbon Cancer, anaemia, skin problem, eye irritation,odour problem, nerve damage.
7. Ozone Eye irritation, respiratory and throat infection, chest pain, headache,
coughing.
Adapted from Trivedy and Rao, Minenvis Newsletter No. 29 and 30.
1
Table 6.2: Effects Associated with Trace Elements from Coal Fires
S.No. Element Hazard to Man Hazard to Animals

1. Lead Cancer, anaemIa,· kidney Lameness of cattle and horses,
malfunction, brain tissue damage, muscle problems, delirium, stupor,
. '. affects enzyme activity, death in paralysis, diarrhoea etc .
extreme cases.
2.. Cadmium . Teratogen, renal disfunction, Decline milk in cow, affects
hypertension, metabolic disorder respiratory tracts.
high, B.P., bronchitis and
, emphysema pleural mesothelioma,
tumors.
3. Arsenic Cancer, kidney damage, inhibit Inflammation of respiratory and·
enzyme, skin, nasal irritation, mild gastric tract, destroy RBC,
bronchitis. kidney damage, ulcer paralysis,
loss of appetite, nervous disorder.
4. Mercury Highly toxic, enzyme poison, Protoplasmic poison damage to
affects nervous system, brain, muscular tremors.
.•
pulmonary problems, gastro-
intenstinal disorder.
5. Chromium Cancer, dermatitis, skin ulcer, Toxic to aquatic animal.

performation of nasal, septum,
toxic tissues, kidney, gastro-
intestinal damage, respiratory
problems.
6. Copper Gastro-intestinal problem, liver . Toxic to fish

damage, reduces growth, and hair
disease.
7. Zinc Corrosive, damage skin, irritate Swelling of joints, lameness.

and damage mucous membrane,
renel damage, vomitting, cramps,
dwarfism.
,
8. Ni Cancer of lung,· dermatitis, \
respiratory problems.
Source: Adapted from An Introduction to Air Pollution: R.K. Trivedy, 1995.
Impact on the Environment

In case the fire is restricted to underground, the impact is limited but when it extends to the surface
the surroundings are adversely affected. The adverse impacts of mine fires are observed on all the
basic components ofthe environment, that is, air, wafer, and population.
Mine fires give rise to continuous and uncontrolled emissions of greenhouse gases, such as, CO2,
(carbondioxide) NOx, (nitrogen oxides) and CH4 etc. These gases may contribute to global
warming. Release ofS02"NOx, CO2 into the atmosphere mostly cause acidic precipitation in the
J,
mining areas in the form of sulphuric acid (H2S0 nitric acid, (RNO 3) and carbonic acid, (H2C03).
In fire areas, as already stated, CO, CO2 concentrations are high and oxygen is low. Smoky
conditions are serious in winter months, which can affect visibility and cause eye irritation leading
to accidents. The affected area has high evapo-transpiration rates, which affects the region's climate.
I
Coal Fire 67
Fire areas have characteristic rise in temperature, humidity conditions with distinct odour, which is
caused due to 'gob stink', 'fire stink' and distillation of coal.
Mine fires affect the society and its surrounding in the following manners. It causes discomfort to
the people living in nearby areas mainly due to increase in temperature and air.pollution and
consequent adverse environmental impacts make people vulnerable to lung diseases
(pneumoconiosis). The effect of air pollution becomes severe in residential areas, which are close
to mine fires. It may result in loss of productivity in agricultural land and destruction of ecosystem.
The people from coal fire-affected areas are to be displaced to the safer areas. When all of a
sudden fire occurs, there is insufficient time for safe evacuation of men and equipment, which is
evident from the case of New Kenda mine fire disaster at Raniganj coalfield where 55 miners lost
, their lives. In ceratin cases, the people had to be rescued. The circumstances of people force them
to live under various hazards and risks, and thus their lives are in constant danger.
There is reduction in availability of quality of surface and ground water, which is significant in fire-
affected areas. People living in and around such areas are hard hit because of qualitative and
quantitative change of surface and ground water. The degrading effects on vegetation and disruption
in cropping pattem have also led to inconvenience among the inhabitants ofthe area. The vulnerability
of state in which the people live near the fire areas can be realised only by visiting the settlements.
Thus, coal fires affect life and cause damages to residential areas/ towns, mineshafts, riverbeds, rail
sidings, roads etc.
6.3 COAL MINE FIRE: DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The most crucial factor while managing coal fire disaster in coal mine would be using the right life
saving equipment immediately, and deploying rescue personnel within the least possible time. The
safety ofthe personnel in coal mine envisages that the miners working, underground, should
immediately wear escape apparatus (Filter Self Rescuer - FSR) and escape from the deadly
Carbon Monoxide. The oxygen available in the atmosphere is to be utilised to survive. For survival
a man needs at least 17 per cent oxygen in the air inhaled. The filter of self-rescuers has limitations,
that is, the atmosphere should not contain less than 17 per cent of oxygen and not more than
1per cent of Carbon Monoxide.
In new Kenda disaster, 55 miners died due to fire. As per the enquiry, held after the disaster, it has
been observed that self-rescuers were not provided adequately or were not carried by the miners.
A major constraint in provision of self-rescuers is the prohibitive cost of equipment. In this context,
if the customs duty is exempted the ~ost will be reduced that will encourage the mine management
to make adequate.provision, Local industry should be encouraged to develop an indigenous product
so as to reduce the cost and also design the same with a fibre body to increase the life period.
After fire occurs, the mine is filled up with deadly Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide increases
and Oxygen declines significantly. However, the self-rescuers provide protection only from Carbon
Monoxide but offer no protection from lack of oxygen. Therefore, to provide complete protection
to miners self-contained self-rescuers should be provided at strategic locations. These strategic
points are known as Rescue Chambers.
Rescue Chambers are:
• mobile chambers having charged oxygen self-rescuers;
• established at strategic points underground;
• provide for replacement of depleted self-rescuers, healthy atmosphere, safe drinking water,
telephonic communication and first-aid facilities; and
• a place of safety for trapped miners.
!
The self-contained self-rescuer (SCSR) is of two types:

a) Compressed Oxygen Cylinder Type - oxygen is provided from a cylinder and the exhaled
air is recirculated after cleaning the CO2 in the' exhaled air by CO2 absorbent placed within
the self- rescuer.
," b) Chemical Type - super potassium oxide is used, which continuously provides oxygen for
about half an hour.
After adopting self-rescuers, the miners should know where to proceed to safety and as such
escape routes should be clearly marked to be used in case of emergency from each and every
working district. Without this, the workers may not proceed to safety but in turn might proceed
, further towards danger. In the case of new Kenda disaster, the victims proceeded towards the
Intake air (air on the intake side) assuming i~to be the safest but instead proceeded towards the
poisonous carbon monoxide filled air as the fire itself was on the Intake side. In the new Kenda
disaster a simple decision of reversal of fan by the senior most officer available at the mine, at the
time of disaster, would have saved the life of persons as the fire was in the intake side and the
carbon monoxide was filling the complete mine along with the intake air. Had this fan been reversed.
the poisonous gas would not have filled the mine but would have been cleared out of the mine and
the workers would have been saved and evacuated from the return side, which would have had
clean air in case the fan was reversed. In such cases, the provision of a third Air Lock Door is
necessary. According to the location ofthe fire, standing orders are-to be formulated as to when
the fan is to be reversed. (Baidya, HPC Report)
The Emergency Action Plan should be immediately activated in case of a coal fire disaster. Mock
rehearsal should be conducted by simulating fire in working district; and use of alarm signal, self
rescuers and escape routes. In this process, access to rescue chambers; and activation of the
emergency action plan should be rehearsed and tested.
Immediately after fire occurs, the Rescue Station should be informed. For this, telephone
communication to the Rescue Service Point is essential. But it is often found that telephone is busy,
engaged or faulty. As such, alternative communication, such as, wireless and fax should also be
. provided between all mines and Rescue Service Points as per Rule 17 of the Mines Rescue Rules,
1985.
On the receipt oftelephone, rescue personnel should immediately set off and reach the affected
mine well within 30 minutes, as the miners using self-rescuers will survive for 30 minutes. Use of
SCSR at strategic points will further give a survival time of another 30 to 45 minutes. For this a
team of rescue personnel and driver should be available in each shift. Well-conditioned emergency
vehicles should be available so as to transport the rescue personnel and equipment to reach the
mine in time.
As per the Rule 11, Schedule -land II of Mines Rescue Rules (MRR), 1985 provision of equipment
is made after the rescue personnel reach the mine and the Superintendent in-charge of the rescue
service point contacts the Control Room established at the surface and discusses with the advisory
committee (to be formed as the emergency action plan) to take the rescue plan, that is, to be
maintained at the mine as per Rule 18 ofMRR, 1985 and proceed to the underground as per the
condition of the case and establish a Fresh Air Base. As per rule 27 ofMRR 1985, a Fresh Air
Base (FAB) is a base established in good air as near to the fire as safety permits, equipped and
provided with a Doctor, Rescue Trained Officer, Breathing Apparatus and Accessories, and a
standby team.
From the FAB, after consultation with the Principal Official (Colliery Manager), the Rescue Team
conducts Search and Rescue Mission with six members in each team, as per the rules ofthe MRR
/
Coal Fire 69
1.985. Trapped persons are rescued with the application of Resuscitators and carried on a stretcher
to the Fresh Air Base for further transport to the surface and Hospital. Meanwhile, Rescue Trained
Personnel are summoned as per the requirement assessed according to the magnitude of the
disaster. It has been reported that 620 rescue-trained personnel are present in the mines ofSingareni
who are trained in the use of breathing apparatus to rescue life and also in fire fighting for recovery
of national property. These personnel are selected from the mines at the rate of one from each 100
.
"
miners, employed in the mines .
After rescuing the trapped persons the' area is sealed offby constructing sand bag stopping, and
then strengthened by masonry stopping so as to cut off the supply of air (oxygen) and extinguish
the fire.
, After the fire is extinguished and temperature is reduced, the area is recovered by the rescue teams
by breaking open the stoppings and circulating the air to remove all the foul and noxious gases.
During these Rescue and Recovery operations the atmosphere is monitored by Gas Detectors to
determine the percentage of Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon dioxide and Methane for the
safety ofthe Rescue Personnel and also workers of the mine.
6.4 COAL FIRE: PAST DISASTERS
i) New Kenda Disaster( 25-01-1994)

The disaster was caused by fire due to spontaneous heating of roof coal of about 28 cm thick layer
in the underground workings in the Debrona seam. Fire was in the main intake airway close to the
down cast shafts (Number 2 Pit). The products of combustion spread into the working places.
• On the day of the incident, 180 persons were deployed on the west side of both the shafts,
including Number 12 and 23 dip districts. Both have independent intakes of the mainstream.
In the first shift ending on25.01.1994; sudderily dense smoke was encountered in the west
side shafts level of Number 2 pit. In all, eleven persons came out safely walking through the
smoke clouds to Number 3 pit. 55 persons on the west side ofthe mine died due to carbon
monoxide (CO) poisoning. (Baidya, HPC Report)
ii) Fire at Kothagudem Thermal Power Station (Ktps)(10-12-1998)

• Major fire broke out in the '0' level ofthe plant in underground cable gallery completely
engulfing the plant with dense smoke that prevented fire fighters to enter and deal with fire.
• Rescue trained persons wearing breathing apparatus entered the smoke filled plant and
prevented fire from reaching fuel tankers and hydrogen cylinders.
• It could have caused an explosion and led to a major disaster.
• Extinguished fire by directing water jets at strategic points and saved the IV & V plant from
damage and saved the VI and VII plants completely.
• Total property saved, nearly 250 crores. (ibid)
Disaster Management: Basic Needs.

Coal- mine fire causes damage to coal mines and structures on the surface and directly affect the
safety of inhabitants through subsidence ofland and pollution. The information needs, during the
different phases, are as follows:
• Preparedness: Zonation of existing coal mine fire affected regions, preparedness drills through
modelling/simulation of potential land subsidence and related impact, and assessment ofloss
7
of property / energy.
• Warning/ Prediction: real time monitoring of coal fires, prediction of spread and depth, and
pollution extent.
• Relief Delineation of affected areas, ways to arrest spread of fire, and provide support to
affected population.
"
• Rehabilitation: long-term measures to control spread offires, awareness creation among
local people, and relocation of affected people.
Agencies involved in Coal Fire management in India are as follows:
• Coal India Ltd.
, • Indian School of Mines
• Geological Survey of India
, . • Indian Space Research Organization
As authentic sources of information on occurrences of disasters, extent, and damage is not available,
therefore, potential use of satellite data may be used to:
• study fire-prone areas from thermal infrared data. Albedo image from IRS visible data for
comparison with ground truth;
...• generate the surface temperature from satellite data after appropriate atmospheric correction;
and
• 'detection and mapping of aerial extent, and estimated depth.
Thus, to bridge the gaps in the disaster management system operational use of high technology
(Satellite / aerial data) for monitoring and estimation of extent and depth; and development of new
, tools such as Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imaging and thermal anomaly mapping for accurate
information on oil spills are suggested. An urgent need to improve the management system has
been felt. In this regard, development of techniques for quick detection and monitoring; and
development of a surveillance system with ground, ship based, and satellite observations should be
developed.
6.5 CONCLUSION
The Unit has revealed that coalmine fire is one ofthe serious problems ofIndian Coal Mining
industry and needs serious attention both for resource conservation, worker safety and minimising
the harm to the environment resulting from unattended disasters. This Unit has emphasised on'
causes, impacts, and management of coal fires in India. It suggested the need to put in concerted
efforts to minimise the economic losses and loss oflife resulting from coal fires.
6.6 KEY CONCEPTS

Aliphatic Compounds Organic compounds with Carbon atoms which are
arranged in open chains and not rings, e.g., paraffms,
fatty acids, also Methane.
Environment Impact Assessment It is a policy tool to tailor environmental concerns in
policy decisions concerning siting of projects in
particular,and otherdecisions;which potentiallyinvolve
impacts on the environment. Clearance Certificate has
to be taken from the concerned ministry for project
siting, after a detailed study concerning potential
harmful impact on the environment.
1
Coal Fire 71
Particulate Matter "PM 10 consists of small, discrete solid or aerosol

(PMIO and PM2.5) particles in the air. Particulate matter with a diameter
of less tha!l or equal to 10 micrometres is referred to
as PMl O. A PMl 0 particle is roughly 118 the diameter
of a human hair, so it is invisible to the naked eye.
" Motor vehicles, wood burning and industrial activity
are major sources of particulate matter. Particulate
matter in the respiratory tract may produce injury by
itself, or it may act with gases to increase the effect on
the body. The elderly, those suffering fromrespiratory
illness, and young children are especially prone to the
harmful effects of particulates. Particulate matter also
makes our long-distance views appear hazy. PM 2.5
particles are about one-fourth the size of PM 10 and
therefore much more harmful.

Chowdhary, S.K" "Coal In India," World Energy Council at http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-
geis.
Focus on Fire, vol.3 Hot Spur Publishing Co. Ltd, Manchester, U.K.
Government ofIndia, Ministry of Agriculture, Baidya, D., "Accident Related Disasters: Mine
Fires and Flooding, Chapter-4", High Powered Committee Report, 2002, New Delhi.
Minenvis Newsletter, 29/30 at http://www.geocities.com/envis_ism/newsletter12.html- 8k-
Prakash, Anupma, 2005, "Frequently asked questions on coal fires" at http://www.gi.alaska.edu/
-prakash/coalfires/frq. html.
Puget Sound Clean Air Agency, 2001, "Working Together for 'Clean Air," at http://
www.pscleanair.org
Rao, C.S., 1991, Environmental Pollution Control Engineering, Wily Earton Ltd., New Delhi.
"Safety" at http://www. coal. nic.in
Singh, Gurdeep, "Environmental Impacts of Mine fires: An Overview", Minenvis Newsletter, 29/
30.
Trivedy, R.K., 1995, An introduction to Air Pollution, Techno-Science Publishers.
World Energy Council, 1999-2005, at http//:www.worldenergy.org/wec-geislpublications.
6.S ACTIVITIES
1) Select a coal fire affected area in India, which is susceptible to coal fire disasters and critically
evaluate the disaster management practices prevalent in that area.
2) On the basis of your study, bring out effective policies and strategies to mitigate the problem
of coal fire in India.
1
to .. -.
UNIT 7 .FOREST FIRE

Structure
7.1 Introduction
.,
7.2 Forest Fire: Causes and Impacts
7.2.1 . Causes of Forest Fire
7.2.2 Impacts of Forest Fire
7.3 Forest Fires in India
" 7.4 Preparedness and Response
7.4.1 Prevention
7.4.2 Detection
7.4.3 Suppression
7.5 Past Disasters: Forest Fires
7.6 Lessons Learnt
7.7 Conclusion
7.8 . Key Concepts

7.10 Activities
7.0 LEARNINGOUTCOME
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• Understand about forest fire and its characteristics;
• Discuss causes and impacts of forest fire on forest, environment and society;
• Describe the prevention, detection and suppression methods used in controlling forest fire;
and
• Highlight the role of'Central and State Governments in preventing and controlling this hazard.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Forest fire poses a threat to the forest wealth; and disturbs the bio-diversity, ecology and environment
of the region. The Hirnalayan forests, to be more specific Garhwal Himalayas, have been burning
regularly during the last few summers. In case of no rain for months during summer, the forests
become littered with dry old leaves and trees. These could bust into flames ignited by the slightest
spark. Thus, the origin of forest fire can be either natural or man-made. In certain countries, in the
higher latitudes, lightning is the major cause offorest fires. However, in India, most ofthe forest
fires have man-made origin, such as, cigarette or bidi stubs or left over embers.
As per an estimate of the Forest Survey ofIndia the total forest cover is 76.50 million hectares.
Though the forest area of the country as per official record is around 23.27 per cent; in reality the
forest exists on much less geographical area, as a major part ofthe forest land is devoid of or have
I
Forest Fire 73
very scattered tree cover. Estimation on the basis of satellite imagery reveals that the real forest
cover of the country is only 63.34 million hectares, i.e., 19.27 percent of the total area. This forest
cover is very rich in fauna and flora. As per available records, the country's forests have 45000
species of plants (12% of the global plant wealth) and 65,000 species of animals. This valuable
wealth is threatened, and forest fire is a major source of worry.
.
" Despite its richness in variety of fauna and flora, the forest cover ofIndia is very less, when
compared to its total population. This forest cover (1 per cent ofthe total world forest cover) has
to meet the demand of more than 1000 million people (16 per cent of the world population) and
470 million cattle ( 18 per cent of the total world cattle population) ofthe country. Illicit felling,
collection of minor forest produce, encroachment on forest land, shifting cultivation, forest fire etc.
, are the consequences ofthis intense population pressure and as a result of such activities the
forests are depleting at an alarming rate.
.
, In this Unit, we will discuss about the causes and impacts offorest fire in India. The Five Year
Plans have provided funds for forest fire fighting. In the context of disaster management, we will
explain the preparedness and mitigation measures. On the basis of past experiences we will
highlight the lessons learnt with special reference to the Policy of Forest Fire.
7.2 FOREST FIRE: CAUSES AND IMPACTS

The forest fire is a major cause of injury and loss to the forests. The frequency of fire episodes and
subsequent damage ofthe forest are rising as the pressure on the forest resources mount due to
increase in the human and livestock population. The impact of the fire is diverse on the forest
ecosystem. Besides directly damaging the trees, the fire also affects forest regeneration, microclimate,
soil erosion, and wildlife etc. adversely. In most ofthe cases, the forest fire causes retrogression of.
forest vegetation. It is one ofthe major degenerating factors, which extensively damage the growing
stock and its generations, making area vulnerable to erosion. It has wide-ranging adverse ecological,
economic and social implications. While statistical data on fire loss are weak, it is estimated that
the proportion of the forest areas prone to forest fire annually ranges from 33 per cent in some
states to over 90 per cent in other states. As per an estimate ofthe UNDP and FAO project in the
Maharashtra State, the economic loss due to forest fire is around Rs. 9000/- per hectare per
annum. Ifthis is multiplied to the total forest cover ofthe country, this comes to a very substantial
amount. Beside this the other losses dueto forest fire, i.e., to the environment, the wild life, etc. are
beyond repair.
7.2.1 Causes of Forest Fire

Fire has three components to start, i.e., oxygen, fuel and heat, which play an important role in
forest fire management. At least 16 per cent oxygen must be in the air for a fire to start. Some
fuels, such as, dead plants, dry leaves, pine needles and grass are more likely to bum than moist
green plants because the dead material contains less moisture or water than living plants. Heat can
be supplied by lightning striking a tree or grass. People also can provide heat by using a match
carelessly starting a fire or leaving afire unattended.
In most of the cases forest fires are caused b,,-human induced activities. Fires occur naturally very
rarely due to lightning, sun heat accumulation, and volcanic eruption or rarely by rock frictions.
Humans start most ofthe fires, i.e., approximately 90 per cent. Some human-started fires are set
on due to some purpose (arson), but most are accidental. In developing countries like India forest
fires have close link with the poverty. The people in India residing within the forests or nearby
areas are dependent on forests for their livelihood. They ignite forests mainly for collection of
7 \ I
. forest produce or clearing the land for agricultural purposes. Various natural processes, such as,
lightning start the remaining 10per cent of forest fires.
The main human induced causes offorest fire may be enlisted as follows:
• Burning by contractors and local villagers for better growth of tendu leaves and other minor
..
'
forest produce.
• Burning by villagers to make collection of mahua and sal seeds etc. more convenient.
.' Camp fire by picnickers, trackers, shepherd etc. are also man induced causes offorest fire.
• Sparks from railway engines (using coal as fuel), may also initiate a forest fire.
• Careless throwing of burning cigarettes, bidis, or matchsticks near forest is another major
cause.
.
, • Careless burning of fields after crop harvesting.
• Careless handling of resin during resin tapping season may also start forest fire.
• Use offire forroad construction may also initiate fire.
• Farmers sometimes bum fire near fields to scare away the wild animals. This fire may spread
in the nearby forest.
• Sometimes forest firemay be started intentionallyalso. Obtaining good grass growth, concealing
.:the illicit felling, personal rivalry etc. may be such causes offorest fire.
The forest fires cause immense loss to the environment and the property. Ecological, economic
and social impacts of the forest fire are affecting day-to-day life of people.
As per rough estimate, average direct economical annual loss due to forest fire in country is Rs.
440 crores. What is more damaging is the fact that regeneration offorest takes long time or does
not take place at all because the land is used up for other purposes.
7.2.2 Impacts of Forest Fire

Fires in fotest are not always harmful. Small and controlled forest fires are essential for effective
forest growth and development. The foresters use fire as management tool to renew the natural
environment of the forest. Forest managers start forest fire, called "prescribed fire", which is daily
observed and controlled by them.
Although such controlled forest fires benefit an ecosystem, the uncontrolled forest fires cause
wide-ranging adverse ecological, economic and social impacts as listed below:
• Loss of human and cattle livestock. Though it is very rare but in some cases if the fire spreads
rapidly and the wind blows with high velocity, the people living or working in the forest may
be trapped in the fire and killed. .
• Loss of valuable timber resources and other minor forest produce.
• Soil erosion resulting in loss of soil productivity and flooding in the downstream side.
• Loss oflivelihood for the tribal and other population residing near the forest.
• Degradation of water catchment areas resulting in loss of water.
• Degradation of the micro-climate ofthe area making it an unhealthy living condition.
• Loss ofbio-diversity and extinction of plants and animals.
• Loss of wild life habitat and depletion of wild life.
• Loss of natural regeneration and reduction in forest cover and production.
!?-- "",..'
,,;~
/
Forest Fire 75
.' Increase of Carbon - Di- Oxide in the atmosphere thereby assisting global warming.
• Loss of carbon sink resource.
• Change in microclimate of the area as a result, making unhealthy living conditions.
• Soil erosion affecting productivity of soils and production.
;. • Ozone layer depletion.
• Health problems leading to diseases.
• Indirect effect on agricultural production: loss oflivelihood for the tribals as approximately 65
million people are classified as tribals who directly depend upon collection of non-timber
forest products from the forest areas for their livelihood.
,
7.3· FOREST FIRES IN INDIA
..
As per Forest Survey ofIndia Report, about 50 per cent of forest areas in the country are fire
prone(ranging from 33 per cent in some states to 90 per cent in the others). Very heavy, heavy and
frequent forest fire damages are noticed over 0.87 per cent, 0.14 per cent and 5.16 per cent
forest areas respectively. Thus, in total 6.17 per cent of forests are prone to severe fire damage in
the country.
There has been a prolonged dry spell during the summer of 1999 that has resulted in a large
number of forest fires in Himachal Pradesh. However, in 1995 more than 450 cases offorest fires
were reported. A research study, which was conducted by Indian Space Research Organization
(lSRO), highlighted that the forest fires affected 21.5 per cent of the total forest area in the hill
districts ofUttarakhand, i.e., Almora, Chamoli, Tehri and Pauri. The most vulnerable stretches are
the youngest mountain ranges of Himalayas. In India, the forests of Western Himalayas are more
frequently vulnerable to forest fires than in Eastern Himalayas. The frequency and intensity of
forest fires has increased due to large-scale expansion of Chir (Pine) forests in the Himalayas.
Table .7.1 depicts the patterns of total land area, forest area, and cropped area in vulnerable
Himalayan States.
Table 7.1 Himalayan States of India: Vulnerable to Forest Fire
Sr. No. State Total Land Forest Area (%)

Area (ha)
1. Manipur 2211000 27.33
2. Arunachal Pradesh 8374300 61.55
3. Himachal Pradesh 3367600 31.09
4. Assam (Hill Districts) 1522200 19.49
5. Sikkim 710000 20.80
6. Meghalaya 2243000 -
7. Mizoram 2102000 61.99

8. Tripura 1049169 57.78
9. Nagaland 1513774 56.98
10. Uttarakhand 5358595 63.91
11. Jammu & Kashmir 4505000 60.98
I
, "
It is evident from the above table that the affected area happens to be in the Ganga - Yamuna
watershed. The percentage of forest area is highest in the Uttarakhand and lowest in Assam. In
1995, forest fires in the Uttarakhand had destroyed about 3,75,000 hectares of forest wealth.
7.4. PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE

.
"
Keeping in view the impact offorest fires on human beings, cattle, wild life, forest, environment
etc., it becomes of utmost importance that they are managed in a planned and scientific way. The
ideal forest fire management has basically three steps, i.e., prevention, detection and suppression
offorest fire as depicted in the schematic diagram (Fig. 7.1).
.
, SUPPRESSION
TRAINING OF
PEOPLE &
I WATCHTOWER I DIRECT INDIRECT
STAFF METHODS METHODS
I FIRE WATCHER I
FIRE LINE
OTHER MODERN
OTHER
TECHNIQUES i.e.
PRACTICES infra red cameras,
smoke detectors etc
Figure 7.1 Forest Fire Management
7.4.1 Prevention
As prevention is better than cure, therefore, it is of utmost significance that necessary preventive
measures are taken to manage the forest fire in an affected area. In this context, Cutting of forest
fire line is avery old and traditional method, which is very successful in preventing the forest fire. In
this method, fire lines are made by clearing a strip of vegetation in the forest. This helps in preventing
the fire spread beyond a limit and thus controls its spreading. The training ofthe forest official and
making people aware about disaster management are such preventive measures that may prove
quite successful in forest fire prevention. Educating the local people about the do's and don'ts to
prevent forest fire is very important. They must be made aware ofthe damage, which fire causes to
the environment and their health etc. Awareness programmes should be conducted for the villagers
at Panchayat and Block levels. Placards may be put at appropriate places and pamphlets distributed
showing the causes and damages offorest fire. Various audio-visual means, such as, film shows,
radio and TV etc are to be used for telecasting programmes about the fire. At school level and
even college level the syllabi must contain lessons on forest fire.
7.4.2 Detection
Despite all these preventive measures, ifthere is forest fire, the first and the immediate step in its
management is detection of fire. There are various traditional methods, effectively used in developing
countries for detection of fire in the forest. Appointing fire-watcher during fire season is one such
traditional method. This method is quite effective as the watcher is usually a local man, and is well
acquainted with the area and has good relations with the villagers. In case of fire, he gets immediate
information and further informs the forest officials about the incidence. Erection of watchtower is
!
Forest Fire 77
. .
another method used for forest fire detection. These towers are made on sufficient height, so that
the fire or the smoke coming out of it may be noticed from a distance. Beside these tradition a I
methods, recently many new techniques have been evolved for forest fire detection. The use of
modem infrared imaging equipment can help fire fighters to locate fire through smoke. Planes
equipped with small infrared cameras can detect heat from wildfires at night and in heavy smoke.
"
They can penetrate even the thickest cloud or smoke and show fire fighters, where the hotspots
exists. A fire's location and direction are mapped and then used to send fire fighters to control the fire.
7.4.3 Suppression
, After detection, attempts are made to suppress forest fire. There are two general ways to attack a
forest fire, i.e., direct and indirect.
Direct Method
For small, low-intensity fires, fire fighters cool fire's edges with water, bushes, dirt and chemicals,
then scrape a fire line to expose soil and eliminate fuel around the fIre. In India, traditionally fire is
extinguished by use of twigs and bushes. If available, soil or dust! sand is also used for the
purpose. Various tools, i.e., rack, pulaski, flask key, shovel, macklied, garden racks etc. are also
used for fighting fire. But in hilly terrain it is observed that the traditional methods are more frequently
applied for the purpose. The tools provided by the forest department are heavy and not feasible to
carry them at the fire spot due to their weight and the lack of training of the forest officials, To
suppress fire, the role oflocal population is very important. Though attempts have been made
through Joint Forest Management Committees to involve people, but still there is much more to be
done. The local population is to be assured that the survival of the forest is must for their own
survival.
Indirect Method
For larger fires, fire fighters construct a fire line at a distance from the fire and burnout the area
between it and the fire, depriving the main fire of fuel. Initiating an anti forest fire is another indirect
method offorest fire suppression. In this method, a controlled fire is initiated in the forest that
spread in opposite direction ofthe main forest fIre. When the two fires meet, they automatically
suppress.
In developed countries airplanes and helicopters are used for detection and suppression of forest
fire. This method though bit costly, is very effective to fight fire in difficult terrain.
As per Constitution of India, the Central and State Governments in the country are competent to
legislate on the issue of forestry. The implementation part of the forest policy/ programmes lies with
the State Government. Thus, the fIre prevention, detection, supressions activities about forest fire
are also responsibility of the State Governments' Forest Departments. The policy, planning and
financing is the primary responsibility of the Central Government. For carrying out forest fire
management in the states, there is generally no separate wing or department. Various activities of
forest fire management are carried- out, by the regular staff of the Forest Departments in the
states. During forest fire seasons, in some of the divisions, fire- watchers are recruited by the State
Government as special provision. At the Central level, the Ministry of Environment and Forests is
the nodal agency for forest conservation and protection. FOTestfire- management is looked after
by the "Forest Protection Division" ofthe Ministry, which is headed by a Deputy Inspector General
of Forests. The Ministry is implementing plan scheme "Modem forest fire Control Method' in
'India under which state governments are provided financial assistance for fire prevention and
control. This assistance is being used for procuring the hand tools, fire resistant clothes, and fire
I
fighting instruments, wireless sets, construction of fire watch towers, fire finders, creation of fire
lines, and for research" training and publicity on fire fighting.
Community involvement
In India, Joint Forest Management (JFM) Committees have been set up at village level for the
"
purpose of involvement ofthe community in forest protection and conservation. There are about
35000 JFM committees covering an area of more than 7 million hectares. These JFM committees
have also been given responsibilities to protect the forest from fires.
7.5 PAST DISASTERS: FOREST FIRES

,
In India there is no comprehensive study to indicate the loss of forests in terms of area burned and
value, volume and regeneration etc. damaged by fire. The available forest fire statistics are not
reliable as it is underestimated in most ofthe cases. The reason behind this is probably, the fear of
accountability. However Forest Survey ofIndia in a countrywide study in 1995 estimated that
about 1.45 million hectares of forest area is affected by fire annually in the country. According to
assessment of the Forest Protection Division of the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government
ofIndia, 3.73 hectares of forests are affected by fires, annually in India.
During 1990s several forest fires occurred in the hills ofUttar Pradesh (now Uttarakhand) and
Himachal Pradesh. From 1995 to 1999, fire hazards in these two states assumed dangerous
dimensions. An area of 6, 77,700 hectares was affected by these fires. The estimated timber loss
from these hazards was US $ 43 million. Besides, the other losses due to these fires were -loss of
soil fertility, soil erosion, loss of employment, drying up of water resources and loss ofbiodiversity.
This fire brought a major change in the micro-climate ofthe region in the form of soil moisture
balance and increased evaporation. The thick smoke due to fire spread and affected visibility.
Besides these major forest fires, the loss from the other fires reported from 13 states of the country
for the period 1994-1996 comes to US $ 20 million. One other major fire reported from the state
ofTamil Nadu for the year 1996-97 in sandalwood forest caused immense loss.
Though no quantitative figures are available about other losses due to forest fires in the country, yet
the losses in productivity ofthe land, regeneration of species, deleterious impacts on water shed
etc. are also reported due to forest fire in the country.
The susceptibility or vulnerability of the forests fire varies from place to place depending upon the
type of vegetation and the climate. As far as the fire season is concerned, various regions ofthe
country have different normal and peak fire seasons, which vary from February to June. In the hills
ofUttranchal and Himachal fire season starts late and most of the fire occurrences are reported
between April and June. However, in certain circumstances the fire may start bit early also, as seen
in the case of year 2000-2001, when the fire was reported in the month of February also. One
such fire in the Gwar Forest area ofRudraprayag district, Uttranchal claimed four lives and injured
many more. The fire broke out in the grass field, when women were busy in cutting the grass. The
probable reason ofthe fire seems to be the negligence of the people, may be due to some lighted
bidi. Due to heavy wind in the valley the fire did spread very rapidly such that it engulfed the grass
cutters within no time and caused the tragedy.
7.6 LESSONS LEARNT

The incidence of forest fire in the country is on the increase and more and more area is burnt year
after year. The major cause of this failure is the piecemeal and desultory approach to the problem.
, Both the national focus and the technical resources required for sustaining a systematic forest fire
1
Forest Fire 79
management programme are lacking. Important forest fire management elements, i.e., strategic fire
plans, coordination among departments, funding, human resource development, fire research, fire
management and extension programmes are not effective.
Taking into consideration the grim situation of the problem, the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
. Government of India has prepared a National Master Plan for Forest fire Control. Under this plan,
it is proposed to introduce a well- coordinated and integrated fire -management including the
following components.
o Prevention of man-caused fires through education and environmental, modification: It will
include silvicultural activities,engineering works, people's participation, education and
enforcement. It is proposed that more emphasis is given on the people's participation through
Joint Forest Fire Management for fire prevention.
iI) Prompt detection of fires through a well coordinated network of observation points, efficient
ground patrolling, cornmunication network etc. Use of modem techniques, i.e.,Remote sensing
etc. are also to be given due importance in the fire detection. For successful fire management
and administration, National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) is also to be developed in
the country. .
iii) Fast initial counter measures should be developed.
iv) Vigorous follow-up action is necessary.
v) Introducing forest fuel modification system at strategic points should be enconraged.
Each ofthe above components plays an important role in the success ofthe entire system of fire '
management. Special emphasis is to be given on the research, training arid implementation of
plans. In India for better management of forest fire, there is an urgent need to make research in the
field of fire detection and suppression of forest fire. It is required that original research fit for Indian
condition is carried out for fire management. The Government is considering, setting up a National
Institute of Forest Fire Management with satellite centres in different parts ofthe country to bring
the latest forest fire fighting technologies to India through proper research, training of personnel
and technology transfer on a long-term basis.
Do's and Don'ts

Creating awareness among citizens can play very significant role in prevention and control of forest
fires. Advertisement through local media like radio, television, pamphlets, signboards, news papers,
panchayats etc. may be very effective in this regard. Teaching people about the do's and don'ts to
prevent and control forest fire may be effective tool of forest fire management techniques.
What to do before.and during forest fire?
Do's
• Take appropriate preventive measures before fire season.i. e."cutting
- .' fire line, removal of
dry litters from the forest, etc. ;:
• Make people aware about the causes and adverse impacts offorest fire.
• Do apply seasonal mitigation measures before fire season, i.e., reduction of fuel, removal of
dry timber from forest etc.
• Ifthere is a fire, try to put the fire out by digging or circle around it by water or by bushes,
if not possible inform fire brigade or forest officials.
• In case of fire, move farm animals and movable property to safer places.
• . Follow the effective monitoring and warning system.
-( .
I
.• Encourage people to leave the tradition of shifting 'cultivation and collection of Minor Forest
Produces by burning fire in the forest area,
Don'ts
• One should not throw smoldering cigarette butt or bidi in ,or near the forest.
.
"
• The burning wood should not be left by picnicker or other people working in the forest.
• Don't enter the forest during the fire .
•' Don't lift the dry litter during summer season
• Don't be scared, be calm and encourage others to suppress the fire,
, 7.7 CONCLUSION
Forest cover in India, despite its richness in fauna and flora, is very less, when compared to its total
population. This natural resource is under tremendous pressure due to various factors, Fire is one
of the major causes of injury and loss to forest wealth. As in most of the cases the reasons behind
forest fire are human induced and the frequency and subsequent damage due to forest fire are on
increase. Due to population growth and various other factors, the forest fire situation in India has
become very grim and serious. Country's forests are under continuous threat from forest fires,
which cause much loss to forest property and environment. Though small scale controlled forest
fire, is necessary for good forest growth, yet the uncontrolled large forest fire are very damaging
and have long lasting and disastrous impact on forest. In India more than 90 per cent forest fires
are induced by human being,
The main responsibility of forest fire management lies with the state forest department. The Ministry
of Environment and Forests, Government ofIndia is the nodal ministry for forest fire management
in the country. Ministry under a central scheme is providing financial as well as technical assistance
to state governments in managing the forest fires. Peoples' participation in forest fire management
and making people aware of Do's and Don'ts can play major role in forest fire prevention and
control. The Ministry has prepared a National Master Plan for Forest Fire Control, having major
component of people's participation and new researches in the field offorest fire management.
7.8 KEY CONCEPTS

Carbon sink Trees absorb Carbon-di-oxide and build up the same in the form of wood.
Thus they act as carbon sinks.
Crown Fires The most unpredictable fires, they bum the tops of trees and are spread
rapidly by wind. These fires, invariably ignited by the surface fires, spread
from top to top of trees. Due to its nature, it is very difficult to control this.
type of fire, until it drops to the ground.
Fire line To prevent forest fire spread, vegetation is removed along a strip at some
interval.
Firestorms A fire storm is an intense fire over a large area. As the fire bums, heat
creates convection and air rushes in, causing the fire to grow. More air
makes the fire spin violently like a storm. Flames fly out from the base and
burning embers spew out the top of the fiery twister, starting smaller fires
around it. Temperatures inside these storms can reach 2,000 degrees
Fahrenheit. These fires spread very speedily and can destroy major forest
within no time. The control of such fire is very difficult and need special
efforts.
!
Forest Fire 81
Ground Fires These fires bum roots and other material on or beneath the surface. They
spread by slowly smoldering edge with no flame and little. smoke and are
more damaging than surface fires because they can destroy vegetation
completely. In mosrof the cases it is very difficult to detect this type of fire,
and thus they can continue to burn for months and destroy major valuable
forest cover.
,"
. .
JFM Joint Forest Management is a prgramme with sole objective of involving
common people in forest conservation and development.
' <, ~~, Ozone layer A gas layer, surrounding the earth, which prevents harmful ultraviolet rays
""--~------,--=""""'~~----~.--------- to reach the earth's surface.
Surface Fires These are the most common wildfires. They bum undergrowth and dead
material along the floor,ofthe forest and help more than harm, as long as
they don't growl~er. If grown in size these fires not only destroy the
undergrowth but}llso engulfthe forest vegetation., .
>,
Watchtower A high raised structure built in forest to detect forest fire.
7.9 REFERENCESANDFURTHERREADING , '-.
. Bahuguna, V. K. and Satendra,2002, "Fire Situation in India, International Forest Fire News", at
; http://www2.rufuni-freiburg.deljireglobeliffn 26content -,
; ~ -
: Manual on Natural Disaster Management in India, 2001, N.C.OM., LLP.A., New Delhi
Satendra, "Forest Fire", Employment News 20-26 April 2002, Publication Division, Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi.
Satendra, "Forest-Fire- Problem and Solution", Kurukshetra, 1988, Government of India

publication, New Delhi.
satenra: "Forest Fire Prevention and Control in Himalaya", 2002, Proc. of Silver Jubilee National "<,
Seminar on Geodynamics and Environment Management in Himalaya, H.N. B. University,

Garh~al.
Viegar, Domingos Xavier (Ed.), 2002,Forest Fire Research & Wildland Fire Safety, Millpress,
'Netherlands.
7.10 ACTIVITIES
1) What are the causes and impacts of forest fires in India?
2) Explain the reasons for ineffective disaster management in forests and suggest the methods to
improve the system.
3) On the basis of past forest fires, describe the importance of preparedness and mitigation.
1
UNITS OIL FIRE
Structure
8.1 Introduction
"
8.2 Oil Fire: Causes and Impacts
•
8.3 Disaster Management: Preparedness
8.4 Disaster Management: Response
8.5 Oil Fire: Past Disasters
8.6 Lessons Learnt
.. 8.7 Conclusion
8.8 Key Concepts
8.10 Activities

• Understand the problem of oil fire in India;
• Explain the causes and impacts of oil fire;
• Analyse the disaster management practices in India; and
• Suggest the necessary improvements on the basis oflessons learnt.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Loss of life and property due to fire is a national concern. In the year 2000-01, about 18000
deaths occurred due to fire. Property loss due to industrial fires in the year 2000-01 was Rs.368
crore which considers only those incidents that resulted in loss of Rs. 1 crore and above. Total
national loss due to fire is estimated to be Rs.20, 000 crore. These figures show the gravity ofthe
situation and underline the need for fire prevention and preparedness for handling fire emergencies
to save the human lives and protect property.
'Oil fire', is basically the fire involving petroleum products. Handling large quantities of crude oil
and petroleum products is a highly hazardous operation because of inherent nature of the materials
handled. They are highly flammable, many of them are highly volatile and some of them are stored
under pressure. It may be noted that liquid oil do not catch fire. It is the vapour/gas, which ignites.
Oil generating sufficient vapour because of its property (low boiling point) or condition (high
.. temperature) can result into fire when comes in contact with an ignition source. Loss of containment
may, therefore, result in fire or explosion causing damage to the plant/machinery and nearby property
and affect population.
Per capita energy consumption in India is about 0.3 Metric Tonnes of Oil Equivalent (MTOE)
while that of US is 6,3 and world average is 1.5. Keeping pace with technological development,
1
Oil Fire 83
. energy consumption in India is bound to increase. Shareofpetroleum oil in total energy is about
32 per cent and in a year about 100 Million Metric Tonne of Oil is consumed. Environmental
concern will shift consumption pattern of energy from solid to liquid to gaseous fuels and enCoun.ge
use ofLPG and Natural Gas as clean fuel. As per <Hydrocarbon Vision - 2025' of'Govt, ofIndia,
Oil will contribute around 32 per cent of energy in medium term and in the long run, it will stabilize
at a level of25 per cent and gas demand will increase to 20 per cent from present level of IS percent
To understand the hazards of the oil handling and processing system and preparedness required
for handling emergencies, the subject "Oil Fire" is discussed in detail in this Unit
8.2 OIL FIRE: CAUSES AND IMPACTS

Causes of Oil Fire
Fire is a rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat and light of
varying intensity. Fire results from the combination offuel, heat and oxygen. When fuel is heated up
to a certain critical temperature called the <Ignition Temperature', it will ignite and continue to bum
as 'long as there is fuel, proper temperature and supply of oxygen (air). Fire Triangle typically
represents this. Combustion processes are exothermic and rate of heat release is rapid enough to
sustain continuous reaction. Uninhibited combustion chain reaction is essential forthe fire to continue.
Fighting a fire is actually the process of breaking up the chain reaction. This could be achieved by
taking out heat - cooling, taking out fuel- starvation or by taking out oxygen - smothering.
Breaking up the chain reaction by chemical flame repression will,extinguish the fire. Fire triangle
and methods of extinguishing the fire are shown in Figure 8. 1.
FIRE TRIANGLE
Fig 8.1. Fire Triangle and methods of extinguishing fire
1
Explosion generally occurs in situations where the fuel and oxygen have been allowed to mix
.intimately before ignition. As a result, the combustion reaction proceeds very rapidly without being
delayed by the need for bringing the fuel and oxidant together. Fires, in contrast, generally occur in
situations where. the mixing of fuel and oxidant is controlled by the combustion process itself. The
" burning rate per unit volume is much lower in fires and the rapid increase of pressure, which is the
characteristic of explosions, is not encountered.
i) Petroleum Products
Crude oil is a mixture oflarge number of hydrocarbons, and useful products are derived from it
through various refining processes. Crude oil is split into various cuts (parts) based on boiling
range of group 9fhydrocarbons in a distillation tower. These cuts are further processed to impart
specific properties, remove impurities or further split/crack into useful products. Such processes
are catalytic reforming, Hydro treating, Thermal Cracking (Visbreaking & Delayed Coking), Catalytic
Cracking, Hydro cracking etc. In Hydro treating and Hydro cracking, Hydrogen is used in the
process at high temp~rattfre and pressure. Petroleurriproducts are LPG, Naphtha, Motor Spirit,
Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF), Superior Kerosene, High Speed Diesel (HSD), Lubricating Oils,
Fuel Oils, Wax, Bitumen, and Coke etc.
ii) Loss Of Containment

While processing and handling petroleum oils, loss of containment may take place due to variety of
reasons and may lead to fire or explosion depending on the conditions prevailing and nature ofthe
oil involved. Some of the reasons for loss of containment are as under: .
• Process upset leading to increase in pressure in the system and release of hydrocarbon in the
atmosphere.
• Process upset leading to instantaneous failure of vessels.
• Failure of pipes at high pressure.
• Failure of the relief system.
• Accidental leak of hot hydrocarbon vapour and liquid from piping/equipment.
• Leakage ofLPG from piping flange/pump. \ \'
\
• Overflow of storage tanks due to operational lapses.
iii) Fire related Properties of Petroleum Products

Combustion takes place when oil vapour/gas and air mixture is in the flammable range. Lower
Flammable Limit (LFL) and Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) indicate fl~~able range. Below
LFL, mixture is too lean to burn and above UFL the mixture is too rich to bum. For petroleum
products, typically, flammable range is within 1.5 - 10 per cent.
Fire can take place only when the temperature ofthe flammable mixture is above its flash point.
Petroleum products are classified according to their closed cup flash points as under:
Class' A' Petroleum: Liquids that have flash point below 23°C.
Class 'B' Petroleum: Liquids that have flash point of23 °C and above but below 65°C.
Class 'C' Petroleum: Liquids that have flash point of65 o~ and above but below 93°C.
Excluded Petroleum: Liquids that have flash point of 93°C and above.
Lower the flash point, higher the probability of occurrence offire. Hence, Class A petroleum
(Motor Spirit, Naphtha), is more fire prone than Class, C petroleum (Fuel Oil).
/
Oil Fire 85
. Petroleum products, when heated up or come in contact with a hot surface can ignite automatically.
Auto-ignition temper<l;ture (AIT) of the hydrocarbons varies with the type of compounds. Lighter
the compound, higher the Auto-ignition temperature. This property makes hot products more
vulnerable and any leakage of hot products (temp. higher that AIT) to atmosphere will result into
fire. Fire related critical properties of some of the petroleum products are given below.
Table 8.1: Fire related Critical Properties of Petroleum Products
Material Boiling Point Flammability Limit Flash Ignition

Point % Volume Point Temp.
°C -. °C °C
Lower Upper
Crude Oil - 1 7 20 Depends on
nature of crude
Methane -161 5 15 - 538
Propane -42 2.1 9.5 -156 470
,
Butane -10 1.9 8.5 -60 405
Naphtha 35 to 205 1.1 5.9 -18 288
Gasoline 32 to 215 1.3 7.6 -43 257
ATForSK 145 to 300 1.3 8.0 38 210
HSD 150 to 400 0.6 7.5 32 256
Fuel Oil 185 to 500 1 5 66 263
Crude
"\0
oil and various petroleum products contaia sulphur, which forms pyrophoric Iron in the
piping/equipment during processing. Pyrophoric Iron present in the system may act as a source of
ignition when it comes into contact with air particularly during maintenance of equipment.
iv) Source oflgnition

In a petroleum handling facility like refinery, sources of ignition are many. Some of the major
sources are:
Chemical: Heat of combustion
Pyrophoric Iron Sulphide
Electrical: Arcs and sparks
Static electricity
Lightning
Mechanical: Friction
Hot Surfaces
All efforts should be made to prevent ignition sources in hazardous areas where petroleum products
are stored or handled.
v) Effects of Release
On release of hydrocarbon to atmosphere the subsequent scenario depend on many factors like
nature and quantity of material released, location of ignition source, prevailing environmental
1 I
86 'Understanding Man-Made Disasters
conditions etc. The possible outcomes are:

• Poolfires
• Ruoningliquid fires
• Jetftameslflares
• FirebalIsIBLEVE
• Flash Fires
• ExplosicmsIlJVCE
While~of1iquid bydrocarbons may result in pool fires or running liquid fires, vapour release
may lead to BLEVE, UVCE or flash fires. Leakages ofliquidlvapour from pressurised system
may lead to jet flanooslflares. This is depicted in figure 8.2 taking the example of release ofLPG.
lILEYE IIIIIIlWCE
In 1hecontextofharlldlingbigb vapourpressureproducts, pressurised liquids like LPG and cryogenic
storageofLNG" d~ pbeDomeDa ofBLEVE and UVeE assume importance .
.
Release
ofLPG
BLEVE
Yes
Immediate
Jpion Flare Damage
No
~J , Pool Fire
~J
~J
•••••
Yes
l Pressure
Wave
Yes
-
No '.
J
~lashFire Explosion
\
EIi~
I
Damage
• 'Z?S'SofreleaseofLPG
I
. Oil Fire 87
LPG storage vessel, on external heating by fife may result in most hazardous situation - BLEVE
(Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion). AnAmerican, Wilbur Walls~first used the tenn. A
BLEVE can be defined as a major container failure at a moment when the contained liquid is at a
temperature well above its boiling point. Excessive internal pressure may develop when the vessel
is full with liquid or temperature of the liquid increases and there is inadequate or no pressure relief
device on the vessel or such devices malfunction. This phenomenon normally takes place when
(internally) unwetted portion of the shell gets overheated due to flame impingement from a fire
underneath and fails even at the operating pressure. In the wetted portion, the liquid takes away
the heat and temperature of the metal surface does not increase significantly. A rupture of the
vessel may also occur when missiles originating from a BLEVE of a nearby vessel penetrate it. In
case of failure of the vessel, a fireball results. The container breaks into number offtagments and
the fragments may fly a considerable distance by the energy, that is, released by the ~panding gas.
Due to BLEVE, high pressure wave is generated in the atmosphere which can destroy propertyup
to a considerable distance.
UVCE stands for Unconfined VapourOoudExplosion. When some flammable material isreleased
in the atmosphere, ~tgets mixed up with air and forms a mixture, that is, either totally within the
flammability limits or the outer portion ofitfalls within thefJammability limits. If this mixture finds
some source of ignition, it eitherresults in a flash fire or in an explosiondepeQdingupoo the quantity
of material released and mixing of air in a certain proportion. This type of explosion is tenned as
UVCE. Vapour cloud explosion is a rapid combustion of a gas-airmixtUre and results into pressure
,wave .
. vi) Heat Wave Characteristies

When heavy fuel oils or Crude oil bum, the high gravity low boiling point hydrocarbons get burnt
at the surface and high boiling point hydrocarbons sink towards the bottom fonning a layerofhot
oil below the burning surface. This layerofhotoil extends towards the bottom ofthetankatanue
depending on the type of oil involved. In mostCmde oils, thenue is from 30 cm to SO cm per hour.
This is called a heat wave and is very important pbenomenon whiledeaJiogwitb oil tank fires. The
temperature of heat wave is of the order of 150 OC to 300 "C. Generally, heavier the oil slower
the movement of heat wave.
Heat wave does not form 00 refined oils e.g, Motor sprit, Kerosene, Diesel; Lubricating Oils etc.
due to narrower boiling range of the refined oil below the burning surface. '
Boil Over
The heat wave, which develops in crude oils or heavy oils, when comes in contact with water
under the oil surface at the bottom of the tank causes the upper Jayerofwatertooonvert inunediateIy
into steam. As water gets converted into steam, volmne increases by 1700 times. Unless the steam
breaks out of the surface in large bubbles, it becomes entJained in the oil musing ftodL This steam
oil froth greatly increases in volume and pistoosouta wave ofbuming oil out of the tank. Burning
oil erupts and then falls, spreading even beyond the dyke walls of the tank..
. Slop Over
The Slop Over is not as violent an eruptioo as Boil Over. It is an overflow oftbe contents of the
tank. This can result when a water stream is applied to the hotsurfaceof a burning oil provided die
oil is viscous and its temperature exceeds the boiling point of water. The water first sinks into the
heat wave and is expanded into steam. On its way out, the steam fODDSa ftodJ,.which expands the .
hot oil in the heat wave to a greater capacity than the ullage of the tank and thus causes die fiudJ to
spill over the top of the tank.
I
I I
Impacts of Oil Fire
As stated above, release of hydrocarbon to atmosphere may result in fire or explosion on fmding
a source of ignition or may get diluted by mixing with the air and eventually reaches below the
l?wer flammability limit. Damage effect will be different for different scenarios. Damage occurs
., mainly on two accounts - thermal radiation and over-pressure .
i) Thermal Radiation
Thermal radiation on account of pool fire, jet flame or fireball will cause various degrees of burns
to human beings. It will affect the surrounding equipment, piping and vegetation as well. Thermal
radiation from fIres depends on following factors:
• Fire Characteristics - Length, shape and orientation ofthe flame.
• Flame surface flux - analogous to fraction of heat radiated.
• Geometry ofFlame/Target - proportion of emitted radiation incident on a target.
• Atmospheric transmittance - attenuation of thermal radiation due to absorption and scattering
by water .vapour, carbon dioxide, dust, etc.
,
• Flame spill over - movement of the base of the flame over the burning pool in the direction of
the wind.
Maximum incident radiation (I) on a distant target is estimated as under:
I=(QxFx.)/(4x x d')
where
Q = total heat release (kW)
F = fraction of heat radiated
= atmospheric transmittance
d = distance from point source of target (m)
Detailed calculation procedure is given in API RP 521 and Part 9 of Institute of Petroleum Model
Code of Safe Practice in the Petroleum Industry. Damage effect based on thermal radiation intensity
is given below. l'
Table 8.2: Damage Effect based on Thermal Radiation Intensity
Incident Radiation Type of Damage

Intensity (kW 1M2)
62.0 Spontaneous ignition of wood.
32.0 Maximum flux level for thermally protected tanks.
12.5 Minimum energy required for piloted ignition of wood, melts
plastic.
8.0 Maximum heat flux for uninsulated tanks.
4.5 Sufficient to cause pain to personnel if unable to reach cover
within 20 seconds. First degree bums likely.
In case of release from a high-pressure source, a turbulent jet is formed. On ignition, it will form a
torch orjet flame. Heat intensity of such flames is very high (in the range onoo KW 1M2) and can
virtually cut through piping, structures and equipment. This will result in extensive damage.
~./ - --~
I
Oil Fire 89
ii) Over Pressure

In the event of explosion taking place within the facilities, the resultant blast wave will have damaging
effect on equipment, structures, buildings, piping ami on the human beings. Storage tanks, buildings
and structures can tolerate low level of over pressure only. Human beings are more affected by the
collapse of buildings and structures.
There ate many gaps in the state of knowledge on vapour cloud explosions and there is no completely
satisfactory theoretical model. The practical approaches tend to combine theoretical and empirical
inputs. TNT equivalent model is used to model vapour cloud explosions though the characteristics
of vapour cloud explosion and TNT explosion are different. The energy of the vapour cloud
explosion is normally computed as the product ofthe heat of combustion and a yield factor. The
table below illustrates the damaging effect of blast overpressure.
Table 8.3: Damaging Effects of Blast Overpressure
..
Blast Overpressure Damage Level
(psi)
5.0 Major structural damage (assumed fatal to people inside building
or within other structures)
3.0 on Storage Tank Failure
-2.5 Eardrum damage
2.0 Repairable damage, pressure vessels remain intact, light
structures collapse.
1.0 Window breakage possible causing some injuries.
Damage due to BLEVE

BLEVE is associated with the following:
Formation of fire ball with intense heat radiation;
Generation of pressure wave due to expansion of vapour above the liquid; and
Scattering of vessel fragments over considerable distances by the energy, i.e., released by the
vapour expanston,
Any person inside the fireball will be charred to death, and property will be damaged. The fireball
could cover an area of several hundred square metres. Heat radiation and pressure wave effect
will be as stated above. Iflarge quantity of flammable material is involved, the radiated heat will be
sufficient to ignite most ofthe combustible materials and can engulf a populated area/buildings in a
mass of flames. Vessel fragments can fly up to 3.5 KM in ideal condition. In Mexico LPG fire,
vessel/cylinder fragments travelled actually up to 1200 m. Initial velocity of such fragments are
very high - in the range to 150 - 200 m1sec. This velocity is enough to penetrate steel and hence
can lead to secondary BLEVE of the nearby vessel.
Damage due to Explosion

Normally, persons are not killed due to direct blast effect ofUVCE. Fatal injuries are the result of
secondary or tertiary effect. High pressure generated during UVCE lasts only a fraction of a
second. The resultant pressure wave damages property well outside the vapour cloud.
Person inside the vapour cloud will be charred to death, and properties will be destroyed. But
thermal load outside the vapour cloud will be of too short a duration to cause any significant
damage.
7
8.3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: PREPAREDNESS

Due to high hazard potential, utmost care is taken for designing petroleum processing and handling
facilities and only proven technology is adopted, constructed with sound engineering practices and
operated by competent and adequately trained personnel. Despite all these measures, catastrophic
failures leading to large loss of life and damage to property have occurred in the petroleum industry
across the world.
Protection facility is provided based on the risk involved. Quantitative risk analysis is carried out to
ascertain the risk level and finding out the effect distances so that an effective preparedness plan
can be made. The following are some of the general protection facilities adopted across the oil
indusby:
.. • Pressurised fife water system with adequate numbers of hydrants and monitors all over the
facility. Firewater storage and pumping capacity should be sufficient to fight the major fire for
4 hours. .
• For storage tanks, firewater ring for shell cooling and semi-fixed foam pourer system for
fighting the fire are provided. In the case offloating roof tanks, foam system is connected to
rim seal area and for fixed room tank the same is connected in the vapour space. Water spray
system/sprinklers are also provided in vulnerable areas like columns, loading gantries and hot
pumps.
• Elevated water-cum-foam monitors are provided for tall structures handling oil.
• AutomaticaIly acmatedwaterspray system for facilities storing and handling light hydrocarbons
I
like Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) because of its high haiard potential.
Passive fire protection systems like fire proofing of the structures/equipment and adequate safety
distances among the facilities/equipment are provided as per national/international norms. This
helps in preventing escalation offire and allows time for arranging fire fighting. Oil industry is now
adopting High Volume Long Range Water-cum-Foam Monitors (2000 GPM) for fighting
catastrophic fires. Remotely operated hydraulic platform (Snorkel) is also being adopted for effective
protection of talI structures. For large diameter storage tanks (more than 40 M dia.), which has the
potential to cause catastrophe, automatic actuated foam flooding system for fighting rim seal fires
in its incipient stage is being adopted gradually.
Hydrogen and hydrocaIbon gas detectors are placed all over the facility handling light hydrocarbons
for early detection. Similarly, heat and smoke detectors are widely used. Fire alarm, walkie-talkie
system, etc. are provided for prompt communication.
BbEVFJvapour cloud explosion can cause damage to other equipment or its structure, which may
further release hydrocarbon. 'There are cases where the pressure wave of explosions has damaged
the control room. Once this happens, catastrophe is imminent. To prevent this, construction of
process control rooms should be ofblast resistant type. Damage from explosion can be limited by
increasing interdistances but many a time this is not possible because of space constraints. Further,
vapour may travel considerable distances before finding a source ofignition.lmpoundingldiking is l
used to contain spillageofboiling liquid around storage facility.Depending on the situation, physical i
j
barrier like blast resistant wall is used between the hazard and the critical facility to be protected. 1
Water spray is also used in many cases to dilute the vapour cloud below its LFL.
1
Since it is almost impossible to contain disastrous impact of a BLEVE, prevention is the only ~
available option. Some of these provisions for LPG storage are:
• Remote Operated Valve for quick isolation in case of emergency.
1
Oil Fire 91
•. Automatic water spray of 10.2 LPM per sq. metres.

• Fire proofing of the supports.
• Elaborate gas detection system.
In the processing facilities, Fire Services with sufficient number of mobile fire fighting equipment
like foam fire tenders, foam nursers, DCP tenders, mobile monitors etc. are provided. Adequate
quantity of fire fighting chemicals is sto~d for immediate mobilisati~n.
All the fire fighting and safety equipment are inspected and maintained regularly to keep them
always in operational readiness. Monthly mock fire drills are conducted to check the efficacy.
It is essential to have mutual aid arrangement with other processing plants, as it is useful in case of
major fire/explosion. Mutual aid arrangements are to be worked out to facilitate additional help as
major incident might be beyond the capacity of an individual plant.
Precaution Against Boil over & Slop over

Downward progress of the heat wave can be determined by the colour of the point of the tank
shell & by testing the tank shell with water stream. If extinguishment has failed by the time heat
wave has reached a point 1.5 metres above the usual water level in the tank, personnel in the area
should immediately be evacuated. Warning of a Boil Over is given by both increase in height &
brightness of the flame immediately prior to actual Boil Over. Steps should also be taken to cut
ditches orbuild embankments to guide the Oil that is thrown out into suitable channels.
Warning of slop over is given by the lighter colour of the smoke at top of the tank on the windward
to
side due formation of steam; a sizzling sound indicates wetness in the oil. In the event of slop
over, steps should be taken to extinguish burning oil that may come out of the tank.
8.4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: RESPONSE

In Petroleum facilities, spills and fires are to be handled promptly otherwise it may escalate very
fast and may become unmanageable. The centralised control rooms at Fire Stations are manned
round the clock by dedicated and professionally trained Fire Fighting crew and are provided with
modem communication facilities like walkie-taIkie, pagers etc. for prompt action in case of any
emergency. Fire alarms are provided in all the locations of the facility and sirens are used to alert
personnel within and outside the premises. Plant and security personnel are also trained and .
supplement fire fighting/rescue operation during emergencies.
In case, a pressure vessel containing LPG or such material is involved in fire, the vessel surface
particularly the potpon above the liquid level is kept cooled by water spray. However, BLEVE can
take place anytime. In actual incidents, time of ~urrence ofBLEVE after the fire varied from 5
minutes to 20 hours. Hence, evacuation should be started immediately and all action should be
well co-ordinated.
To take care of operational exigencies and other related aspects, well-rehearsed emergency
management plans for immediate deployment of key personnel is a must.
8.5 OIL FIRE: PAST DISASTERS

Two major disasters that took place in LPG facilities, one in Mexico and the other one in India are
narrated below to understand the enormity ofloss caused by such incidents and demands placed
on the social infrastructure without any early warning.
I
i) One of the worst disasters caused by industrial activity took place at a LPG storage and
despatch facility at San Juan, Mexico City on 19th November, 1984 at about 5.42 am, A
series of explosions and fires took place and more than 500 people got killed, and more than
7200 were injured of whom 144 died in the hospital. 39,000 people were rendered homeless
or were evacuated:
.
"
The disaster occurred in the LP,G Bulk Storage and distribution depot of an organisation
called PEMEX. The facility consisted of 6 Horton Spheres and 48 Bullets. At the time of the
disaster, total LPG inventory was 11,000 M3• Two nearby installations, which were engaged
in the distribution ofbottled LPG, were also damaged badly.
The initiating event appears to be a leak near the storage in one ofthe pipelines (8") bringing
LPG from a refinery. A vapour cloud was formed which moved to a ground flare about 100
metres away from the point ofleakage. An explosion took place which was recorded on the
.. seismograph of Mexico City University some 30 KM away. Flame impingement caused
rupture of spheres/bullets and resultant BLEVE. There were series of explosions and fireballs.
Only 4 out of 48 bullets remained on their supports. Four spheres exploded and the remaining
two spheres did not explode but collapsed through buckling oftheir legs. A large number of
fragments propelled up to considerable distances, One cylinder travelled up to 1200 metres
and some fragments ofthe spheres reached a distance of 400 metres. Houses were completely
destroyed up to a distance of300 metres.
Firewater capacity was inadequate and fire pump house was within 50 metres of storage
vessels. Spheres were not provided with water spray facility and supports were not fire
proofed. Spheres and bullets were spaced very closely.
ii) A majorfire/explosion took place at the LPG storage facility in India at about at 6.40 AM on
14.09.97. As a result of the fire, 60 lives were lost, 27 storage tanks were damaged and 15
buildings including fire station, administration building, control rooms and a large amount of
piping, pump bay in LPG storage area and the Terminals were damaged.
The LPG storage facility was a part ofthe refinery. LPG was being unloaded from a tanker
berthed at the Port and line- fill water was pushed to one of the Horton Spheres. The water
was drained from the sphere and some difficulty was experienced during draining. Subsequently,
unloading ofLPG was going on. It was observed that a vapour cloud had been formed near
the sphere that received line-fill water. The vapour cloud was fairly large and at the same time
there was a small fire in one of the processing units. Open flame at canteen or the small fire in
the unit might have acted as source of ignition. This caused an initial small ignition followed by'
a massive explosion.
LPG spheres and connected piping were badly affected. Nearby product tanks caught fire,
buildings including fire station collapsed. Prior to explosion, entire fire station was engulfed in
vapour cloud and hence fire tenders could not be started. All the fire fighting and protection
~
measures discussed above were available but were rendered useless as the explosion being
1
located in the vulnerable zone affected the same. Since the incident took place early in the
morning, personnel present at the site were minimum otherwise loss of life would have been large.
8.6 LESSONS LEARNT

• Shutdown valve/Remote Operated-Valve sli~~ld be provided for automatic/ remote isolation
of storage facility in case of emergency. In case of Mexico fire, such isolation would have
resulted in less damage. In the case of the incident in India (cited above), though such facility
was available, the same did not work on the affected vessel. Hence, it is a must to install a
dependable system to ensure reliability ofthe isolation facility all the time.
1
Oil Fire 93
• Automatic water spray/deluge system on the storage vessel to be provided for cooling so that
BLEVE due to failure of overheated metal can be avoided. Normally, overheating of metal
surface ofthe vessel takes place when flame impinges above the wetted surface. Water-
cooling prevents such overheating. In Mexico, such facility was not there and spheres and
bullets were damaged due to BLEVE. In the Indian incident, BLEVE did not take place.
;' • Adequate fire fighting facility, both fixed and mobile, should be provided at the site. Fire
control room, firewater storage an? pumping facility andalso fire fighting equipment must be
located in a safe place. PEMEX facility was capable for fighting small fires only. Fire fighting
facility at both the cases (Mexico as well as India) were located in the hazardous zone and
. were affected due to explosion.
• Interdistances among equipment should be as per established norms (API, NFPA, lP, OISD).
Damage in the congested facility becomes too high as was observed in PEMEX facility. LPG
Storage Bullets were constructed one above another. This is totally unacceptable as per the
current codes.
• Dished ends of the storage bullets travelled considerable distances in the PEMEX facility and
its impact caused great damages. Vessels should be placed in such a way that dished ends are
not directed towards any vital facility.
\
• Supports of the storage vessels shall be fire proofed. In PEMEX facility, supports ofthe
vessels were not fire proofed and were buckled due to intense heat ofthe fires. However, at
the Indian site, the supports were fire proofed and hence integrity ofthe system was maintained.
• Growth of population at the proximity of the site should not be allowed so as to reduce death
toll. Surroundings of the PEMEX facility were densely populated and hence death toll and
injury were very high and large number of people had to be evacuated. When PEMEX
facility was constructed, nearest dwellings were about 300 metres away from the plant boundary.
However, at the time of emergency, nearest house was within 100 metres. So, constant vigil
is to be maintained to prevent encroachment.
• Process control room should be of blast resistant type so that crucial control can be maintained
during emergency situation. Entire control room was damaged due to blast overpressure at
the Indian site.
• Gas detectors should be provided for early warning. In case of gas leakage, preventive
measures like isolation of storage, running of water spray system and evacuation of people
can be effective. It is needless to mention that such system should be periodically tested.
.• Competent and trained personnel should always carry out operations in hazardous facilities ..
Such personnel must have sufficient understanding about the hazard potential.
• In both the incidents, problems were faced for evacuation of people. Hence, Quantitative
Risk Analysis should assess vulnerable zone and people living within this zone should be
made aware ofthe emergency situation that can arise from the facility. Community awareness
about do's and don'ts and evacuation procedure will help in reducing injury and loss oflives.
Evacuation oflarge number of people at short notice might need considerable resource and I
manpower.
The lessons learnt as stated above have now become statutory requirement. Strict adoption by the
industry will definitely reduce the impact of disaster.
J
"
f .
94 . Understanding Man-Made Disasters
8.7 CONCLUSION
Use of oil is much lower in India at present compared to developed nations and will continually
increase with development of the economy. Trarisport sector is bound to consume large quantities
ofLPG and CNG for air quality compulsions. Since, LPG/CNG is increasingly coming in the
public domain, special safety measures must be adopted. Once loss of containment takes place in
"
storage, it becomes difficult to handle it. To prevent loss of containment, sound engineering practices,
operation by trained and skilled manpower, condition monitoring of the equipment to ensure reliability
and periodic safety auditing are essential. A good safety management system must be in position
so that operation and maintenance procedures are not diluted and loss of containment becomes a
rare event.
In the oil industry worldwide, major fires, explosions and BLEVE cause large-scale devastation.
Possibility of such incidents in future cannot be ruled out. Under the circumstances, preparedness
and appropriate response at the time of emergency can only reduce the impact. Fire fighting
strategy must be commensllf!lte with the likely spill and condition of fire. Adequate storage and
application facility of fire fighting agents and experienced fire fighters are expected to succeed at
the time of emergency. Awareness of neighbouring population will help handling emergency situation
in an orderly and effective manner. With the coordinated approach among industry, local authority
and neighbouring population, the chance of success during emergency, should it happen, will be
very high.
8.8 I<EY CONCEPTS

Horton Sphere A special spherical pressure vessel to store LPG at bulk storage terminals.
.Oil fire It is basically the fire involving petroleum products. Handling large
quantities of crude oil and petroleum products is a highly hazardous
operation because of inherent nature ofthe materials handled. They are
highly flammable, many of them are highly volatile and some of them are
stored under pressure
Ullage Unfilled space in a container of volatilelflammable liquid.

Charles H. Verbalin, Fire Protection Manualfor Hydrocarbon Processing Plants.
Firefighter s Handbook: Essentials of Firefighting and Emergency Response, 2000, Delmar
Thomas Learning, Africa.
Govt. of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Manual on On-site Emergency Preparedness
for Chemical Hazards.
National Fire Protection Association, Fire Protection Handbook, USA. .
8.10 ACTMTIES
1) Analyse the causes and impacts of oil fires in India.
2) On the basis of past oil fires in India, evaluate the strategies adopted for preparedness and
response.
7
UNIT 9 AIR POLLUTION
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Classification of Pollutants
"
9.3 Sources of Air Pollution

9.3.1 . Natural Sources
9.3.2 Anthropogenic Sources
9.4 Effects of Air Pollution
9.4.1 Health Effects
.. 9.4.2 Ecological Effects
9.5 Air Quality Management
9.6 Conclusion
9.7 Key Concepts
. 9.8 References and Further Reading
9.9 Activities
9.0 LEARN"INGOUTCOME
• Understand the causes and impacts of air pollution;
• Explain the status of air pollution in India;
• Describe the air quality management strategies; and
• Discuss the air quality standards.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Air pollution is an increasingly important environmental issue in urban areas. The rapid growth of
motor vehicles along with the industrial development contributes to a defmite air pollution pattern
with clear trends of deteriorated air quality. Air pollution is basically the presence of foreign
substances in the Air. Few specific definitions of air pollution are given below:
"Air pollution means the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants, such
as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour, in quantities, with characteristics, and of durations
such as to be injurious to human, plant or animal life or to property or which unreasonably interfere
with the comfortable enjoyment oflife and property".
Engineers Joint Council (USA)
Air pollution is the presence in the ambient atmosphere of substances, generally resulting from
activity of man, in sufficient concentration, present for sufficient time and under circumstances
which interfere significantly with the comfort, health or welfare of persons or with the full use of
enjoyment of property.
Bureau of Indian Standards ,IS4167 (1996)
! I
. "Air pollution is the excessive concentration of foreign matter in the air which adversely affects the
well being ofthe individual or causes damage to the property" ..
American, MedicalAssociation
Air pollution is not a recent phenomenon: King Edward I of England tried to clear the smoky sky
over London in 1272 by banning the use of coal. The British Parliament ordered the torturing and
" hanging of man who sold and burned the outward coal. Under Richard II (1377-1399) and later
under Henry V (1413~1422), England took steps to regulate and restrict the use of coal. .
Such natural processes as forest fires, decaying vegetation, dust storms and volcanic eruptions
have always contaminated the air. Although the total global production of many gases and particulate
matter recognised as pollutants is much greater from natural resources than from man-made sources,
but global distribution and dispersion ofthose natural pollutants result in low average concentrations.
By precipitation, oxidation and absorption into the ocean and the soil, atmosphere can clean itself
.
, of all known pollutants if given sufficient time. On the other hand, man generated pollutants are
continuously emitted and concentrated in small geographic region; hence air pollution problem is
generally anthropogenic phenomena. Presently the rate of pollutants discharged into the atmosphere
in highly populated regions exceeds the natural cleaning rate of atmosphere.
Status of Air Pollution in India
In most ofthe 23 Indian cities with million-plus population, air pollution level exceed the World
Heaith Organization (WHO) recommended health standards. Further in almost every city, the
levels are getting worse because ofthe growing vehicles, high energy consumption, uncontrolled
industrialisation and burning of waste.
', Six out ofIndia's 10 largest cities-Mumbai, Calcutta, Delhi, Ahemdabad, Kanpur and Nagpur-
facesevere air pollution problems, The annual average levels of Total Suspended Particles (TSP)
at least three times more than WHO standard. It has been associated with both premature death"
from respiratory illness and cardiovascular diseases and increased morbidity (high incidence of '\ ;
chronic obstructive lung diseases, especially bronchitis and of upper and lower respiratory tract
infections). \
. \
However, concentration of Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen oxides are generally low compared to'
ambient standard. Carbon monoxide.ozone and hydrocarbon pollutants that can have serious
health impacts are not routinely monitored in India. CO reading at traffic intersections often has
been found to be in,ex~ess. ;
Table 9.1 will provide an idea of S02 and NO x in most of the Indian cities.
9.2 CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS

All air pollutants may be classified according to origin, chemical composition and state of matter.
For clarity, this classification will be used to structure the discussion of air pollution parameters .
Origin
According to their origin, pollutants are considered as either primary or secondary contaminants.
Primary pollutants like Sulphur Oxides (SO), Nitrogen Oxides (NO), and Hydrocarbons (HC)
are emitted directly to the atmosphere and these are found in the form in which they were emitted.
Secondary pollutants, such as, Ozone (0) and Perroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN) are formed in the
atmosphere by photochemical reaction.
~
1
1 I
Air Pollution 97
Table 9.1 Annual average S02 and NO, concentration 'in the-ambient air in residential
& industrial areas of cities with more than one million human population
City Residential Area Industrial Area

1995 2000 1.995 2000
S02 NO J S02 NO x S02 NO x S02 NO ,
Agra - - 8.2 7.5 - - - -
Ahmedabad 38.3 18.0 8.2 25.3 22.4 16.9 9.0 35.2
-.
Bangalore - 31.0 24.2 47.0 - - 18.9 - 32.4
Bhopal 11.5 18.2 19.7 20.2 13.1 21.3 22.0 26.0
Chennai 7.8 14.5 7.2 14.8 30.9 19.4 16:0 14.3
Delhi 16.2 33.0 16.0 29.4 20.4 34.6 ' 17.4 33.7
Faridabad 37.0 13.3 36.5 11.1 39.1 14.7 37.3 11.5
Haora 84.0 212.2 13.4 ' ·50.2 39.8 180.6 12.4 51.4
Hyderabad 15.3 28.3 -13.7 ' 21.0 19~0 47.2 12.0 29.2
Indore 5.3 9.5 22.9. 16.6 7.3 11.7 - 28.5 22.0
Jaipur 8.56 25.7 18.1 41.3 14.7 35.1 23.2 47.7
Kalyan-Dombivili- 29.3 32.8 38.3 58.1 32.6 39.4 37.6 65.4
Ambamath "
Kanpur 13.9 15.6 18.7 20.0 14.3 16.6 17.8 28.4

Kolkata 29.9 - 27.~ "13.5 30.0 47.4 35.2 - 25.3 44.2 -
Lucknow 29.5 28.7 27.4* -29.0 30.4 29.1 - - -
Ludhiana • - - 11.7 30.8 - - 11.6 30.2 .1
Mumbai 25.9 34.3 10.5 29.0· 41.8 36.1 15.4 25.0
Nagpur 8.6 15.4 6.9 24.4 7.9 11.8 8.0 17.7
Nashik - 31.0 33.8 23.2 - - 28.8 17.3
Patna 26.2 29.0 ]4.0 17.0 - - - -
Puile 7.8 8.5 43.3 63.1 37.3 38.4 43.6 57.6
Surat 84.5 30.8 - - 88.6 29.8 - -
Vadodara 66.2 18.5 - - 76.6 20.4 - -
Varanasi 23.6 19.6 18.9 17.5 - - - -
Source: National Air Quality Status Report - 2000: Central Pollution Control Board.
Chemical Composition
Pollutants whether primary or secondary, may be further classified according to chemical composition
as either organic or inorganic. Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrocarbon and may also _
contain elements, such as, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulphur, Hydrocarbons or organic
compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen. Inorganic compounds found in contaminated _
atmosphere that include carbon monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide (C02), Carb.onates, Sulphur
Oxides, Nitrogen Oxides, Ozone, Hydrogen Fluoride and Hydrogen, Chloride. .
State of Matter
Pollutants can also be further classified as particulate or gaseous. The following table shows the
classification of pollutants.
I
-
Table 9.2 Classification of Pollutants '
Major Pollutants Sub-Pollutants Typical Members of Sub-Classes

Particulates Solid Dust,smoke,fumes,flyash,mist, sprayetc.
Gases Hydrocarbons Hexane, benzene, ethylene, methane..
," butane, . butadiene etc.
Organic Aldehydes and ketones, Formaldehyde, acetone
Other organics Chlorinated hydrocarbons, A1cohols
Inorganic Oxides of Carbon Carbon monoxide, Carbon dioxide
Oxides of Sulphur Sulphur dioxide, Sulphur trioxide
,. Oxides of Nitrogen Nitrogen dioxide, Nitric oxide
Other inorganic Hydrogen sulfide, Hydrogen fluoride,
.
, ammonia
Particulates
Air quality parameters fall into two broad categories, particulate matter which may be liquid or
solid, and gases matter. Particulates are any dispersed matter, solid or liquid, in which the individual
aggregates are larger than a single small molecule (about 0.002 urn) but smaller than about 500
m. Particulates may be classified and discussed according to their physical, chemical, or biological
. characteristics. Physical characteristics include size, mode of formation, settling properties and
. optical qualities. Chemical characteristics include organic or inorganic composition and biological
characteristics related to their classification as bacteria, viruses, spores etc.
Oxides of Sulphur
~ The oxides of Sulphur (SOx) are probably the most widespread and the most intensively studied
.of all anthropogenic air pollutants. They include six different gaseous compounds namely Sulphur
monoxide (SO), Sulphur dioxide (S02)' Sulphur trioxide (SO 3)' Sulphur tetroxide (SO 4)' Sulphur
sesquioxide (S203) and Sulphure heptoxide (S207),Sulphur dioxideand Sulphur trioxide are two
. oxides of Sulphur of mostimportant irithe study of air pollution. Sulphur dioxide is colourless, non-
flammable, and non-explosing gas with a suffocating odour. It has taste threshold of784 g/m'
(0.3 ppm) and an odour threshold of 1306 g/m' (0.5 ppm).
It is estimated that S02 remains airborne for average of2 to 4 days. During this duration it may be
.transported as far as 1000 km. Thus the problem ofS02 pollution is not local but regional one
and sometimes international.
Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxides ofNitrogen are the second most abundant atmospheric contaminants in many cities ranking
next to Sulphur dioxide. Generally highest contributor of the nitrogen oxides is industries which are
producing it or using it in manufacturing processes. The next highest contributor is transport sector,
and then comes large power plants. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) includes six gases compounds
namely Nitric Oxide (NO), Nitrogen dioxide (N02)' Nitrogen oxide (N20), Nitrogen sesquioxide
(N20), Nitrogen tetroxide (N20 J and Nitrogenpentoxide (N20S)' ~itric oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (N02) are the two oxides of nitrogen of primary concern in air pollution.
At high temperatures, nitrogen and oxygen in the air react to form nitric oxide. NO is further
oxidised in the atmosphere to nitrogen dioxide. NO dissolves in water to give HN03. Atmospheric
HN03is also formed by reaction of water vapour with N20s produced by the oxidation ofN02
1
Air Pollution 99
.
by ozone. Out of all the oxides of nitrogen, nitrous oxide, (N20) is the most stable in troposphere
(estimated lifetime 4000 days at 10 km); however, it may be photo dissociated at higher levels
(estimated lifetime 20 days at 40 km). The average residence time ofN02 in the atmosphere is
also about 2 months because it is readily washed down as nitrate by rain. Nitric oxide is also
synthesized in the atmosphere during thunderstorms.
,"
Ozone (Photochemical Oxidants) ,
High emission of hydrocarbons and NO x during bright sunshine causes chemical reactions in the
atmosphere producing photochemical oxidants. The photochemical processes are complex, it
takes place over several hours and result in the formation of ozone (03)' Nitrogen dioxide (NO),
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), a variety ofthe gaseous compounds that are poorly defined, and very
fine particulate matter. Ozone is the strongest ofthe photo chemically formed oxidants that are
.
, stable enough to be identified andmeasured.
Ozone exists in great abundance under natural conditions In the stratosphere (upper atmosphere).
Photochemical air pollution occurs predominantly in highly motorized areas and where inversion
conditions prevail. Photochemical smog is formed due to oxidation of hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides. It has been found that at the time of photochemical smog formation, there is considerable
increase in amount of Ozone and oxidant materials at troposphere (lower atmosphere)
In troposphere, ozone is not found in appreciable amounts at night, but only during the day it
begins to form. These facts clearly indicate that photochemical formation of ozone or oxidant from
. impurities takes place due to the action of sunlight.
The most important ozone reaction in the troposphere that involves N02 is described below.
N02 ~ NO+O
°2+0 ~ 03
03 + NO ~ N02+02
Thus, any activity that increases atmospheric nitrogen dioxide concentration would generate more
ozone. This is particularly so in a polluted atmosphere containing nitrogen oxides. The residence
time of ozone in the troposphere is one to two months.
Oxides of Carbon
Carbon dioxide and Carbon Monoxide are the principal air pollutants. Main anthropogenic source
of these pollutants are fossil fuels. Forest fire and volcanoes are natural sources ofthese pollutants.
During complete combustion of fossil fuels, carbon atoms in the fuel combine with oxygen molecules
.~..
to form CO2, High level of CO2 in air may cause difficulty in breathing and respiration.
The process of combustion is rarely complete, the ~ncomplete combustion may occur when the
oxygen supply is insufficient, combustion temperature is too low or when residence time in
combustion chamber is too short. Carbon monoxide (CO) is product of incomplete combustion.
It is completely invisible, it is colorless odourless and tasteless gas .
., -
Almost 70 per cent of Carbon monoxide emission comes from automobiles sector. It is also a
principal component of "photochemical smog".
9.3 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

Sources of Air Pollution can be broadly classified as:
• Natural Sources; and
• .Anthropogenic (man-made) Sources.
! I
. 9.3.1 Natural Sources

The natural sources of air pollution occur naturally. As man cannot control nature, therefore air
pollution by natural sources cannot be controlled. A few natural sources are pesented below:
i) Volcanic Eruptions
"
. .
Eject pollutants like particulate matter, dust, fly ash along with various gases, such as, sulphur
dioxide (S02)'
ii) Process of Pollination

This process is carried out by plants with the help of wind. In this case the pollen grains are carried
away by wind aspollutants.
.
,
iii) Desert Storms or Dust Storms
In the deserts or arid or semi-arid areas, the sand or dust particles are carried by wind as pollutants.
This is due to absence of moisture in the soil.
.iv) Forest Fires

; .These fires are caused due to friction of trees or grass against each other or by lightning striking on
; .them. the pollutants obtained from forest fires are Carbon monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide (C02),
:, particulates, Hydrocarbons (HC), Oxides of Nitrogen (NO), etc. .
9.3.2 Anthropogenic .Sources

Air Pollution caused by human activities are termed as antropogenic pollution, it is further classified
i as stationary sources, and mobile-sources.
i) Stationary Sources-
Various stationary sources include industrial and commercial process, generation of heat or power
(electricity), stationary engines, home heating, cooking, refuse burning, incineration, and use of
solvents/ aerosols. ~
, I
ii) Mobile Sources are:

Line Source: highway vehicles, trains, and channel vessels.
Area Source: railway yards,port vessels.junctions, and aerodrome.
9.4 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

The major air pollutants may cause direct and indirect effect on humans and environment.
• Health Effects: Irritation of respiratory, eye or other systems; acute toxic systematic effects; ,
mutagenic or carcinogenic actions; and adverse effects on defense mechanisms against
infections.
• ECOlogicalEffects: material soiling, corrosion, loss of agricultural productivity, acidification
of soil and water, forest die-back, greenhouse effects; smog formation etc.
Certain of these effects may be immediately apparent and relatively easy to trace its source. For
example the odour of the diesel smoke and other effects may occur in the short terms but the '
precise contribution of vehicle emissions to these is not'always clear. Certain effects may take long ,
J
Air Pollution 101
period to become apparent and drawing a casual-link to the source of emissions become more
difficult and complicated as is the case with many carcinogens; Some
, of these pollutants have also
been implicated in more complex environmental problems, such as, p~otochemical smog, acid
precipitation and Green house effects.
Until recently, attention to air pollution problems has been focused on the effects of individual
," pollutants. However, growing evidence is emerging that the problem may be much greater with the
combination of the individual pollutants. For example, a careful review of the'dying German forests
indicates that it may be due to synergistic effects of both acid rain and photochemical reaction
products, as well as direct effects ofS02 and N02.Other studies have found that adverse health
effects from S02 and N02 in combination is much Ill:oreseriousthan from these pollutants individually.
It has been noted, "... high level ofS02 and co-existing particulaie pollutants have been associated
with increase in respiratory mortality rates". Therefore, considering the effects of these,pollutants
separately may lead to erroneous conclusions regarding the relative and absolute need for cost-
effectiveness of control measures.
9.4.i "Health'ltffects ' ,
Carbon Monoxide
The toxic properties of this gas are due to its ability to react with the haemoglobin in the blood to
produce carboxy-haemoglobinf COHb). Carbon monoxide has greater affinity for haemoglobin I
than oxygen and it is preferentially absorbed even when the concentration of carbon monoxide is
very low. The degree of absorption depends upon the concentration of carbon monoxide in the air,
mat is, the period of exposure and the activity ofth.e individual. The toxic effects of carbon monoxide
,as measured by the percentage of carboxy-haemoglobin in the blood are given below (Table 9.3).
Aftera person ceases to be exposed to non-lethal dose of carbon dioxide, the carboxy-haemoglobin I
content of the blood gradually declines by (50% in 3 to 4 hours) as carbon monoxide is breathed
out. Table 9.3 shows the signs and symptoms at various concentrations ofCarboxy haemoglobin I
(CoHb) per cent.

Table 9.3: Effect of CO on Human Health
COHb 0/0 Signs a d Sf! ptoms for an average person

Less-then 1 No signs or symptoms.
1-2 . Tightness across the forehead, possible slight headache, dilation of
the skin blood vessel.
2-3 Headache and throbbing in the temples.
3-4 Severeheadache.weakness, dizziness. dimness of vision,nausea, vomiting,
and collapse.
4-5 Syncope, increased pulse rate, coma, intermittent convulsions and
Cheyne-strokes respiration. Coma, intermittent convulsions, depressed,
heart action and respiratory rate and possible death.
, '5-6 Weak pulse, slow respirations, respiratory' failure and death within a few
hours.
'6 , Death within a few minutes. r
Source: Peavy, Environmental Engineering,

r-
CO can affect driving ability (JJ1dalso impaired oxygen transport in the human body. It can have
,serious implications for Persons withpre-existingheart and lung problem. It is also very harmful for
the fetus, carried by pregnant women. .
7 I
Oxides of Nitrogen
The toxicity ofN02 is very much higher than NO. Maximum allowable concentration for industrial
exposures for NO & N02 is 25 ppm & 5 ppmrespectively, Nonnallevels in city streets are under
1per cent of these values; therefore little inforination is available on their effects on human health.
Studies have indicated that ~xposureto N02 can be linked with increase susceptibility to respiratory
"
infection, increased airway resistance in asthmatic persons and decreased. pulmonary function.
Short-term exposures to N02 have- resulted in different types of respiratory problems in school
children, such as, coughs and sore throats at concentrations typically higher than normal air quality
standards. The possibility of effects from continuous exposure to very low levels remains a worry.
Photochemical Oxidants
The 03, NQ2 and PAN ll!e highly active oxidizing chemicals and are responsible for most ofthe
injury and damage produced by this type of air pollution. The fine particulate matter, which consists
mainly of nitrates and sulphates, interferes considerably with visibility and is one of the major
annoyance factors. Another is the eye irritation caused partly by PAN and partly by other chemicals
in the poorly defined group, such as formaldehyde and acrolein is another important impact.
The indoor ozone is known to be highly toxic and there are enough evidence, according to the
World Health Organization, for attributing many adverse effects solely to ozone. Studies have
shown that many people, suffer adverse effects from exposure to ozone at quite low levels including
eye irritation, coughs, chest discomfort, headaches, respiratory illness, increased asthma attacks,
and reduced pulmonary function. The indoor ozone is more significant in closed areas, such as,
buildings sealed for air conditioning.
Lead
Lead enters the body either through mouth, or breathed in through the nose. Ingested lead is less
absorbed than inhaled. Therate of absorption also depends on its chemical composition, the
volatile organic lead compounds added to petrol being more readily absorbed than the inorganic
particulate products of combustion. Poisoning by lead at high concentration has been recognised
for a very long time. The most common form oflead poisoning is the disturbance of the gastro-
intestinal system know as lead colic, excessive tiredness, continued headaches, loss of appetite,
nausea, and muscular pains. .
Toxicological studies have demonstrated that three systems in the body, most sensitive to lead are
the blood forming system, the nervous system and the renal system. Reproductive endocrine,
cardiovascular and gastrointestinal function may also be affected by lead. In children it can inhibit
enzymatic system.
Hydrocarbon
There is no doubt that they have a carcinogenic effect, and that they commonly occur in smoke
from the incomplete combustion ofhydrocarbon fuels of all kinds.
The studies have shown that, particular organic compound, such as, aldehydes, polycyclic aromatic
compound, and benzene have adverse effects on human health. But however molecular hydrocarbon
isrelatively nontoxic, although they may cause, unpleasant effects including eye irritation, coughing,
sneezing and symptom akin to drunkenness. Benzene is well known human carcinogen causing
leukemia
7
Air Pollution 103
Oxide of Sulphur
Sulphur dioxide tends to irritate the mucous membrane of respiratory track and foster the
development of chronic respiratory disease, particularly' bronchitis. Exposure at S02level of about
1 ppm (2600 g/m') leads to the constriction of air passages in respiratory tract, often SO2gets
absorbed on the surface of very fine particles and is carried deep into the lungs. In dusty atmosphere,
;. S02 is particularly harmful because particulates with Sulphur dioxide and Sulphuric acid molecule
paralyze the hair like cilia, which line the respiratory tract. These particulates usually carry with
them concentrated amount ofS02 thus bringing this irritant into direct and prolonged contact with
delicate lung tissues.
Particulate Matter
Particulate matter is emitted along with exhaust as well as flue gases. Fine particulate matter may
be toxic in itself or may carry toxic (including carcinogenic) trace substances absorbed on its
surface.
The size of particulate inhaled is very important for the success and failure of respiratory defense. ,
Approximately 40 per cent of particulate between 1 and 2 m in size are retained in bronchi and
alveoli as shown in figure 9.1. It has been found that particulate matter aggravate disease, such as,
bronchitis, asthma and influenza. Diesel particulates are of major concern because of its
carcinogenicity. The possibility of developing cancer may be 42 per cent greater in individual
exposed to 'diesel exhaust than others.
,~~r- Nasal cavity

I +-::r-- Pharynx
Oesophagus -+-'1E1r-.~.:---Trachea
~~rt;~~-- Left Bronchus
Lung
Figure 9.1: (a) Human Respiratory Tract (b) Bronchiole and Aiveolar Structure
I 9.4.2 Ecological Effects

Road Side Pollutant
Vegetation close to a heavy traffic road, in vicinity ofthermal power plantS3nd cement industries,
is subjected to high concentration of air born pollutants. According t~a study done by Central
Pollution Control Board, it is found that the plant bushes located near roadside have higher levels
oflead.
Tomatoes are very sensitive and have been found to suffer at roadside roncentrntion ofNO" and
as result of particulate fall out, the vegetation becomes darkened and looks dusty. The road surface
1
104. Understanding Man-Made Disasters
run off daring rain contains high quantity of suspended solid lead, oil and bitumen.
potential to affect severely the nearby water.
These have
I1
I
Ozone •
Ozone is unique among gaseous pollutant; its high concentration at lower troposphere (near earth
surface) is injurious to human health and ecosystem whereas low concentration at stratosphere is
"
detrimental for our existence. '
The high concentration of ozone at lower troposphere damages plants species. There has been I
I
suggestion that ozone is a major factor contributing to the decline of forest health. It has many t
i
implications for human health and it may well affect crop production. ~
.Stratospheric ~zone, tropospheric ozone, their implications to human health a'~d plant life anJ their
. f relationship with climate change iiave been discussed in detail in Unit 'W 0 Ithe Cour se MPA - 001
on Understanding Natural Disasters. .
.
,
Acid Rain
The. main precursors of acid rain or acid deposition in the form of snow ~ ! Sulphur dioxides (S02)
and Nitrogen oxides (NOx). The transport vehicle contribution is J"lf"'St ~y i" die forn ofNOx.
These chemicals react with rain water and other chemicals in the air .o ~'_m sulfuric ~~id, nitric acid
and other harmful pollutants like sulfates and nitrates. These acid poliata ts spread upward i ~to the
atmosphere, and are carried by air currents to finally return to th grouad in the f nm of acid rain,
fog or snow. The corrosive nature of acid rain causes man' -forms 0 'environmental damage especially
to plant life.
Damage from acid rain is widespread all over the world. Coal buming arrt p wer plants contribute
to about 70 per cent of sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere which in tu;: conL 'bvt, J to acid rain.
Major effects of acid rain are:
• Acid rain &.$01 vcs and washes away nutrients in the soil which are needed by plants. It can
also dissolve naturally toxic substances like aluminum and mercury, freeing them to pollute
water or poison plants
• It affects trees more directly by creating holes in the waxy coating ofleaves, causing brown
dead spots, which effects the plants photosynthesis. Spruce and fir forests at higher elevations
seem to be mostat risk.
Gas P
PoIut i
l'\ in
AfmospI' re
•
SOURCES Potu
.! COiId tet'
aoO
VOC NOx 0 P . :' !Ion Q
NatU!'81
RECEPTORS
Figure 9.2
1
Air Pollution 105
. • Acid rain that falls or flows as ground water to reach rivers; lakes and wetlands, causes the
water in them to become acidic. This affects plant and animal life in aquatic ecosystems.
• Acid rain and dry acid deposition damages buildings, automobiles, and other structures made
of stone or metal. The acid corrodes the material causing extensive damage and ruins historic
buildings. For instance the Parthenon in Greece and Taj Mahal in India have been affected by
acidrain ..
Green House Effect

Human activities during the fast few centuries have polluted the atmosphere to the extent that it has
begun to seriously affect the climate. The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by
31 per cent since preindustrial times, causing more heat to be trapped in the lower atmosphere.
There is evidence to show that carbon dioxide levels are increasing. Many countries have signed a
convention to reduce greenhouse gases (GHGs) under the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCC). However, the current international agreements are still not effective
enough to prevent the significant changes in climate and a rise in sea level.
Fossil fuel consumption agricultural, deforestation and present land-use practices contribute to the
CO2 buildup. Continued CO2 buildup will lead significantenoughrise in earth surface temperature
to melt the Arctic ice pack. If the warming trend can be confirmed and positively linked to CO2
buildup, then global action, such as, reforestation may eventually have to be pursued to remove
COz from the atmosphere. In fact, this seems to be the case.
The amount of tropospheric carbon dioxide (C02) is reported to be increasing at the rate of 1.8
J:1g1mper
3 year, a process that may not be reversible. Furthermore, this increase has been
accompanied by an equivalent decrease in atmospheric oxygen (02)' Currently, there is more then
700 billion tonnes of carbon in the form of CO2 in the atmosphere. Each year this figure gets
increased by 2.3 billion tonnes, i.e., a 3 per cent increase by every decade.
-1.~r-----------------"'"
t.1,~ _
:a: 1 ---------- ------·------·----iFH
I081-----------=-----rit-H
~Oij~-------------------------r~~
61 a ~
!O~~------------~F+~~~~~~--~
I c~~~--_r~~~~~~~~----~
~·02m-,r-R-~+_-fMCr+~----...z.------_;
€ ·OAHi.T4-f-..lrlHI-tf---=------------t
!·Otlt----.a.._ -'-----.----------;
~.08~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
1860 laoo woo li110 1020 Ill:):) '1<;141.)'9!O 1960 t97'O 1980 fit. 2.OIlt.
"'ur
00: U S 1'1&I·00 Cli!tlllil( Olillil C~flIUl, 2(1)1
Fig. 9.3:, ~Iobal Temperature Changes (1880-2000)
Fig~.9.4: The Greenhouse Effect
1 I
j
I
. About 75 per cent of the solar energy reaching the earth is absorbed by earths surface, which
increases its temperature. The rest of the heat radiates back to the atmosphere. Some of the heat
is trapped by green house gases (GHGs), mostly carbon dioxide. As carbon dioxide is released by
various human activities, it is rapidly increasing. This is causing global warming.
There is at present some uncertainty about the effect of global warming if it is allowed to continue.
"
What harmful changes will occur if present trends continue is not a doubt but only doubt is about
when and where they will occur and -their overall magnitude .
•
•
Loss of fel1ifecoasuJ
I.arids mused by nsing
~ ••1e..eIs
Figure 9.5: Effects of Global Warming
9.5 AIRQUALITYMANAGEMENT
Air unlike water, cannot be purified at central location and redistributed for use. Hence, extreme
care must be taken for its protection. Air pollution can be controlled by following fundamental
approaches:
• Proper planning of industrial area like zoning;
• Proper stack design for wide dispersion of air pollutants;
• Prevention of air pollution by changing raw material, type of fuel, manufacturing process, etc.;
• Reduction in emission by using control equipments,for example settling chamber, cyclones,
electrostatic precipitator, scrubbers etc.; and
• Making adequate legislation and air quality standards.
.
•.. Adopting zoning system at planning stage can effectively control air pollution. In this regard, zoning
can be done at macro (national level) as well as micro level (cities). The Center Pollution Control
Board (CPCB) of Ministry of Environment and Forest of Government ofIndia has developed a
Zoning Atlas at national level for locating different types of industries. The atlas is prepared by
considering many factors, such as, availability of natural resources, water, energy, and meteorological
parameters like wind velocity, direction, mixing height, inversion layer etc.
Iftheheight and top diameter of the stack are properly designed it can significantly help in reducing
air pollution in the surrounding area. Stack height above the inversion layer disperses the contaminants
in large volume of air. Dilution of pollutant in the air depends upon mixing height, wind direction and
I
Air Pollution 107
velocity, atmospheric temperature, and temperature ofthe flue gas emitted. The drawback ofthis
approach is that it is short-term measure good for neighbouring area of pollution generation. However,
"what goes up comes down"; Acid rain is notable example of air pollution problem that transcend
local boundaries. .
Energy substitution, such as, solar, hydraulic and geothermal energy will eliminate significantly the
;,
, pollution caused by conventional fossil fuel combustion. Lead free (unleaded) petrol can eliminate
lead emission from automobiles. Using low sulfur coal and oil would reduce S62 emissions. Coal
washing before pulverisation can reduce fly.ash emissions considerably. Change in manufacturing
process can also reduce air pollution, for example use of electric furnace instead of open-hearth
furnace in steel industry. Designing the storage tanks with floating roof covers in petroleum refineries
can reduce loss of hydrocarbon vapours from storage tanks during filling. Use of exhaust hoods
and ducts will not only reduce fugitive air pollution but also help in recovery of valuable solvents.
" . The most effective strategy for controlling air pollution is to prevent emission at source itself.
Several types of air cleaning devices can collect or trap pollutants before they are emitted in the
atmosphere. Pollution control equipment are generally classified as follows:
Pollution Control Equipment
. Particulate Contaminants Gaseous Contaminants

',.1"
Settling Chamber Wet Absorption
Cyclone Dry Absorption
Bag Filter Absorption
Electrostatic Precipitator Combustion
Wet Scrubber Condensation
Fig. 9.6
Until the mid 1990s air pollution was considered as state or local problem. However, today it is
recognised as international problem of global scale. Air quality laws and guidelines are under
constant review and are often modified. There are three basic types of guildlines, viz., threshold
limit values, emission standard.and ambient air quality standards.
Threshold limit alues (TLV s) focus on specific air contaminants that will recognise cause and
health effects relationship. It serves primarily as occupational guidelines. TLV s are typically established
on the basis of exposure for 8 hours/day, 5 days/week. Emission standards arefocused on major
air pollution generators ofboth stationary and mobile sources, such as, power plants, iricinerators,
oil refineries, stack emission from manufacturing plant, automobiles etc.
Ambient air quality standards set limit for outdoor atmospheric pollutants, their objective is to
minimise the overall adverse effect of air pollutants on health, comfort and property. Exposure time
is assumed to be 24 hours/day, 7 days/week. Ambient air quality standards are formed for
particular regions. These regions are identified on the basis of meteorological and social factors.
I
Ambient Air Quality Standards

Air pollution is an increasingly important environment issue in urban areas, The rapid vehicular
growth along with the industrial development contributes to a definite air pollution pattern with
clear trends of deteriorated air quality in major cities. Rural air quality is affected by discharge of
smoke from the use of crude fuels like wood, animal dung etc. in jnefficient store. India's national
"
ambient air quality standards are highlighted in the following table.
Table 9.4 National Ambient Air Quality Standards
Pollutants Tnne weighted Concentration in ambient air

average
Industrial Areas Residential, Sensitive Areas
Rural & Other
Areas
Sulphur Dioxide Annual 80uglm3 60uglm3 '-- '15 ug/m'
Average 120uglm3 '80 ug/m' 30,uglm3
24 Hours
Oxides of Annual 80 ug/m' 60uglm3 15 ug/m'
Nitrogen
24 Hours 120uglm3 80 ug/m' . '. 30uglm3
Suspended Annual 360uglm3 140uglm3 . ..
70 ug/m'
Particulate
Matter 24 Hours 500uglm~ 200uglm3 lOOuglm3
Respirable Annual 120 ug/m' 60uglm3 50 ug/m'
Particulate Matter
(size less than 1Omm)
24 Hours 150uglm3 l00uglm3 75 ug/m'
Lead Annual 1.0 ug/m' 0.75 ug/m' 0.50 ug/m'
24 Hours 1.5 ug/m' 1.00 ug/m' 0.75 ug/m'
Carbon Monoxide 8 Hours 5.0 ug/m' 2.00uglm3 2.0 ug/m'
: .... • 1 Hour 1000ug/m' . .4000uglm3 200uglm3
Note: ug=Ixltr" gm;

Source: Pollution Control Act, Rules and Notification, Cen.tral Pollution Control Board
Publication., 200 1.
9.6 ;'CONCLUSION
The Unit has discussed the causes, sources and classification of air pollution, It dealt with the
effects of air pollution on human as well as on plants. It also revealed the status of air pollution on
national and Intemationallevel The air quality standards have been described. Lastly, air quality
management aspects have been discussed.
,9.} KEY CONCEPTS

Acid Rain Washing down of pollutant, such as, NOx & S02 byrainin
.the form of acid , ~ikeH2S04,HN03
! I
Air Pollution 109
'.
Air PoUution Excessive concentration offoreign matter in the air, which

adversely affects the well being ofthe individual or causes
damage to the property.
Carhoxy-haeinoglohin Carbon monoxide reacts with the haemoglobin in the blood
(COHb). .to form toxic Carboxy-haemoglobin (COHb).
..
Green House EtTect Higher concentration of CO2 and other gases-in the atmosphere
strongly absorbs long-wave terrestrial radiation thus causing
the average increase of global temperature. This phenomena
is also known as Global Warming. .
Photochemical Smog It is a secondary pollutant formed mainly by presence of
Oxides ofNitrogen.
Primary PoUutants Pollutants emitted directly from the source, for examples CO2,
particulate matter, lead, etc.
Residence Time Average time spent by chemical (pollutant) in the atmosphere
before its destruction by chemical reaction or change in its
form.
SecondaryPoUutants Pollutants formed in the atmosphere by reaction, for example
Ozone (03) and Per-oxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN).

Davis and Cornwell, 1991, Introduction to Environmental Engineering, McGRAW-HILL
. International Edition, New York, USA.
Gilbert, M. Masters, 1991, Introduction to Environmental Engineering, Prentice Hall oflndia, .
New Delhi, India.
Government oflndia, Ministry of Environment, National Air Quality Status Report, 2000, A
Central Pollution Control Board Publication, New Delhi.
Peavy, Rowe and Tchobanoglous, 1998, Environmental Engineering, McGRAW-HILL,
International Edition, New York, USA.
Rao ,M. N. & Rao, 1993,Air Pollution,TataMcGRAW-HILL, New Delhi, India.
Richard and Seinfeld, 1988, Fundamental of Air Pollution Engineering, Prentice Hall, USA.
Simmons,I.G., 1990, Changing the face of the Earth,Basil BackWell Inc, USA.
9.9 ACTMTIES
1) Classify the pollutants 90 the basis of the origin, and discuss the major sources of air pollution.
2) Enlist the most polluted cities, in term of air pollution, of India and explain the Indian air
quality standard for RPM (Respirable Particulate Matter) for Industrial and residential area.
3) How the photochemical smog is formed? Describe briefly.
1
UNIT 10 WATER POLLUTION
Structure
1(}.1 Introduction
"
10.2 Water Resources

10.3 Water Pollution
10.4 Water Characteristics and Pollution
10.4.1 Physical Characteristics
10.4.2 Chemical Characterists
10.5 Factors Altering Water Quality
j
10.5.1 Water Quality 1
10.5.2 Water Quality Criteria

10.6 Quality Standards for Municipal and Domestic Supplies
10.7 Conclusion
10.8 Key Concepts
I0.1 0 Activities
10.0 LEARNINGOUTCOME
• Understand the significance of pure water;
• Discuss the water resources;
• Highlight the causes of water pollution;
• Explain the water quality characteristics; and
• Bring out the water quality standards for different Uses.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Water is one ofthe abundantly available substances in nature. It is an essential constituent of all-
biotic, that is, living organism, animals and plants, and a biotic part of earth. It is also an essential
ingredient forhumans, animals and plant life. Water is the most vital resource oflife on this planet,
which is being adversely affected both in terms of quality and quantity by human activities.
The defilement of water as a result of human activities is a phenomenon as old as hills, but the ever-
increasing industrialisation, urbanisation, and developmental activities have adversely affected the
water. The industries continue to be one of the most significant causes of pollution of aquatic
ecosystem due to a diverse kind of wastes produced by them.
Water is mostly used for irrigation, industrial and municipal purposes. In order to ensure the right
quality and quantity of water for these purposes, it is extremely important to monitor water supply ,
Water Pollution 111
. thoroughly, taking all aspects into consideration. The various factors to be considered for the
supply of water for any purpose are:
• The quantity of available water.
• Seasonal variation in quantity as well as quality.
" • Analysis of water taking into consideration, especially its chemical, physical, and biological
characteristics.
• Influence of industrial waste, sewage etc. on the quality of water.
• Cost involved in getting continuous supply of required quality and quantity of water.
10.2 WATER RESOURCES

Almost 85 per cent ofthe rainwater falls directly into the sea and never reaches the land. The small
remainder that precipitates on the land fills up the lakes and wells, and that also keeps the rivers
flowing. For every 50,000 grams of ocean water only one gram of fresh water is available to
mankind making water a rather scarce, and thus a precious commodity.
Water covers about three quarters of the earth's surface. The total volume of water has been
estimated to be more than 1400 million Km3 enough to cover the entire earth with a layer of water
of300 m depth. About 97.3 per cent of this water is in the oceans. The remainder 2.7 per cent are
.fresh, but 2.14 per cent lies frozen in the Polar Regions. Thus, all the water in the lakes and rivers,
all the moisture in the atmosphere, soil and vegetation and all the underground water amounts to
, about 0.5 per cent of the total. Ofthis 0.5 per cent (that is liquid fresh water), more than 98 per
. cent is in the form of ground water, half of which may lie more than 1000 m below the surface and
: thus only 0.1 per cent is in the rivers and lakes. Surprisingly it is the salt water ofthe oceans that
would be the ultimate source of fresh water on this earth.
, Water Resources of India

The annual average rainfall over India based on the daily data from more than 3000 rainfaIl-
recording stations for a period of 50 years is computed as 105 centimetres. It is the largest anywhere
in the world for a country of a comparable size. From precipitation alone, India receives 4000
Km3of water including snowfall. Of this, three-fourth occur only during monsoon. A good part of
it is lost through the process of evaporation and evapotranspiration leaving only half of it on the
land for mankind to use. After allowing for evapotranspiration 'losses, the country's surface flow is
estimated as 1880 Km3. Due to topographical, hydrological and other constraints, it is assessed
Table 10.1: Estimated Distribution of Water Resources of India
Compartment Quantity million-hectare-meter (Mha-m)

Total precipitation 400
• Immediate evaporation 70
• percolation in soil 215
• Soil moisture 165

• Groundwater 5Q
• Surface water 115
Source: Meenakshi, Elements of Environmental Science and Engineering.
1
112 Understanding Man-Made Disasters ,
, . .
.that only about 700I<mJ of surface water can be put to beneficial use bycenventioaal methods of
development. The annual replenishable ground water resources are assessed to' be about 600
Km3 of which the annual usable resources are estimated at 420 Km3, Since independence, the
country has been planning to utilise its water by prolonging its stay on land by using engineering
innovations such as dams and barrages.
"
River Basins
Almost the entire country is criss-crossed by rivers. There are fourteen major river basins in India
.(Fig. 10.1), which occupy eighty-three per cent of total drainage area and contribute eighty five
per cent oftotal surface flow and house eighty per cent of the country's population. The important
rivers are Brahmaputra, Ganga, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, Narmada, Cauvery, Brahmini,
Tapti, Mahi, Subemrekha, Pennar andSabarmati. Three major divisions based on drainage basins
for Indian rivers are shown in the following table.
Table 10.2: Classifications of River Basins of India
Category Basin Area Number Percentage Percentage Percentage

(Km2) of Basins .f.)fTotal of Flow of Population
Drainage contribution living in
Area the basin
Major More than 14 83 85 80
! .~
20,000
Medium Between 44 ,8 7
2000 and
'20,000 20
Minor and Less than 55 9 8
Desert 2000
'Source: ewe (1988), WaterResources of India, Publication No. 30/88.
There are few desert rivers that flow for some distance and getlost in deserts: In complete arid
areas, evaporation equals rainfall and hence there is no surface flow. The medium and minor river ,
basins ate coastal rivers. On the east coast andpart ofKerala the width ofland between mountain
and sea is about 100 km, and hence the river length is also about 100 km. Whereas, the rivers in
the rest of the west coast are much shorter as the width of the land between sea and mountains is '
less than 10 to 40 km.
A look at the river basins map ofIndia reveals some interesting features. The Brahmaputra,
Ganga, Indus and Godavari basins cover more than half of the country. There is tremendous
variation both in the quantity of discharge from a major basin to minor one and also in the quality of
discharge from region to region. With a few exceptions, all the medium and minor river basins
originate in the coastal mountains and thus exhibit common features of fast flowing and monsoon-
fed in the hilly regions and by the time they reach the plains they are tidal. Most of the cities and
industries are located in the plains. The treated or untreated discharges from suchsources would
always find a situation where pollutants once discharged into the rivers continue to oscillate like a
pendulum in dry weather. During monsoon, when rainwater flows down the river the discharged
pollutants get flushed out by upland flow.
All the major river basins ate not perennial. Only four of the fourteen major basins possess areas
of high rainfall, that is: Brahmaputra, Ganga, Mahanadi, and Brahmini having 'annual average
discharge of a minimum of 0.47 million cubic meter per Km2, and they are perennial. Six basins
v
---- __
--_ .. ..
1
Water Pollution 113
Map 10.1: Major River Basins ofIndia

(Krishna, Indus, Godavari, Narmada, Tapti and Subemrekha) occupy the area of medium rainfall
and have annual average discharge of a minimum of 0.26 million cubic meter per Km2 and the
remaining four (Cauvery, Mahi, Sabarmati and Pennar) occupy the area oflow rainfall and have
annual average discharge between 0.06 and 0.24million cubic meter per Km2. Thus, many ofthe
major river basins also go dry during summer leaving no available water for dilution of wastewater
discharged into them.
10.3 WATERPOLLUTION
The word pollution is derived from the Latin word 'POLLUTIONEM', meaning defilement. Today
water resources have been the most exploited natural system, since man strode the earth. Pollution
of water bodies is increasing steadily due to rapid population growth, industrial proliferation,
urbanisation, increasing living standards and wide spheres ofhuman activities. It is estimated that in' ~.
near future pure and clean water, particularly in densely populated, industrialised areas may be
inadequate for maintaining the normal living standards.
The vulnerability of contamination of ground water, rivers, seas, lakes, ponds and streams is
increasing with the passage of time. Many rivers in our country receive heavy flux of sewage,
industrial effluents, domestic, and agricultural wastes, which consist of substances varying from
simple nutrients to highly toxic hazardous chemicals.
In India, all the major 14 rivers are facing acute water pollution problems. Most ofthe large rivers
are nothing but open sewers fit only to carry sewage, effluents, poisonous pesticides, and several
other waste products. Lakes, like Dal and Nagin of Kashmir are turning into large waste ponds
with silt deposits and get choked due to excessive algal growth.
!
/
/
. -
A number of definitions of water pollution are available in literature, and a few are given below.
i) Foreign substances, either from natur~l or anthropogenic sources, contaminated with water
supplies, may be harmful to life because of their toxicity, reduction of normal oxygen level of
water, aesthetically unsuitable and spread epidemic diseases. (World Health Organization,)
"
ii) . Water is polluted if it has not been of sufficiently high quality to be useful for man in present or
future. (National Water Commission)
ill) Pollution means the presence of any toxic substance in water that degrades the quality t9
constitute a hazard or impair its usefulness. (United States Public Health Service) I
Thus, water pollution disturbs the normal uses of water for irrigation, agriculture, industries, public
water supply and aquatic life. It is now considered not only in terms of public health, but also i~
terms of conservation, aesthetics and preservation of natural beauty and resources. 11
.
, Water pollution is mainly caused due to natural and anthropogenic processes, which are specified
below.
o Natural process: decomposed vegetable, animal, and weathered products cause
contamination of water resources. All these processes are interdependent on each other and
lead to deterioration of natural environment. For instance, if organic waste is added to water;
it will not only influence the chemical characteristics, but will also affect colour, odour and
biological properties of water.
ii) Anthropogenic processes: include waste from industrial, agricultural, urban, domestic,
radioactive, mining sources, and use of pesticides and fertilizers. These pollutants are constantly
poured in water deteriorating it to such an extent that it becomes unfit for living communities.
10.4 WATER CHARACTERISTICS AND POLLUTION

Water, being one of the best solvents available on earth, is seldom found in pure state. Water in
nature is almost pure in its evaporation state, because the very act of condensation usually requires
a surface or nuclei, therefore water may acquire impurities at the very moment of condensation. In
hydrological cycle, water comes in contact with atmosphere, soils, and other materials lying on
land and underground minerals. During this contact, water acquires impurities; The characteristic
of water of a particular place thus depends on the duration, types and quantity of the materials it
has come in contact with. Human activities contribute further impurities in the form of industrial,
domestic wastes, agricultural and other chemical contaminants. Thus, the definition of water quality
is governed by the intended use of the water, and a gross determination of the quantity of suspended
and dissolved impurities. Many parameters have been evolved that qualitatively reflect the impact
that various impurities have on selected water uses. Analytical procedures have also been developed
that quantitatively measure these parameters. A brief description of these parameters is given below.
10.4.1 Physical Characteristics

Physical characteristics are those, which respond to the sense of sight, touch, taste or smell.
Suspended solids, turbidity, colour, taste, odour and temperature fall into this category.
Solids can be dispersed in water both in suspended and dissolved forms. The impurities accumulated
by water throughout the hydrological cycle may be in both suspended and dissolved form.
Suspended material consists of particles larger than molecular size that are supported by buoyant --
I
and viscous forces within the water (size between 10-1 and 10-3 mm). Dissolved material consists
of molecules or ions that are held by the molecular structure of water (size between 10-6 and 10-8
mm). Colloids are particles that fall between soluble and suspended particles. (size between 10-3
and 10-6 mm).
7
Water Pollution 115
, •.• I
Although some dissolved solids may be perceived by the physical senses, they fall more appropriately
under the category of chemical characteristics and will be discussed in detail in the subsequent
J
sections.
i) Suspended Solids
Solids suspended in water may consist of inorganic and/or organic particles or immiscible liquids.
1'1organic solids, such as, clay, silt and other soil constituents and organic material, such as, animal
wastes, agricultural residues, plant fibres and biological solids are common constituents in surface
waters. These materials are often natural contaminants resulting from erosive action of water flowing
over surface. Ground water is free from suspended material because ofthe filtering capacity ofthe
soil.
Other suspended material may result from human use of water. Domestic wastewater usually
contains large quantities of suspended solids that are mostly organic in nature. Industrial effluent
may result in a wide variety of suspended impurities of organic or inorganic nature. Immiscible
liquids, such as, oil and grease are often constituents of wastewater. Suspended material may be
objectionable in water for several reasons. It is aesthetically displeasing and provides adsorption
sites for chemical and biological pollutants. Suspended organic solids may be degraded biologically,
resulting in objectionable by-products. Biologically active suspended solids may include disease-
. .
causrng orgamsms.
ii) Dissolved Solids

In natural water, the dissolved solids mainly consist ofbicarbonates, carbonates, sulphates, chlorides,
nitrates and phosphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium with traces of iron, manganese
and other minerals. The amount of dissolved solids is an important consideration in determining its
suitability for irrigation, drinking, and industrial uses. In general, waters with a total dissolved
solids less than 500 mg/l are most suitable for drinking. Higher dissolved solids may leads to
impairment in physiological processes in the human body. For irrigation, dissolved solid is a very
important criteria due to their gradual accumulation causing salinisation of soil and thus renderin~
the agriculture land non-productive. i
Dissolved solids are undesirable in industrial water due to many reasons. They form scales, cause
foaming in boilers, accelerate corrosion, and interfere with the colour and tastes of many finished
products.
iii) Turbidity
Turbidity is a phenomenon related to the scattering of incident light by the particles. It is mainly
caused by the presence of insoluble materials in water. Insoluble materials include suspended and
colloidal materials. These materials consist of silt, clay, fine particles of organic and inorganic
matter, plankton and other microscopic organisms. Such particles' sizes vary from approximately
10mm to 0.1 mm in diameter, although it is usually accepted that suspended matter is the fraction
that will not pass th'fough a 0.45 mm pore diameter filter. It can vary, seasonally, according t9
biological activity in the water and surface run-off carrying soil particles. Heavy rainfall can also
result in hourly variations in turbidity. At a given river station turbidity can often be related to total
suspended solids.
Turbidity is an important parameter, which directly affects availability oflight in water, a main factor; ';,
for photosynthetic activities in water. <,
iv) Colour
The colour is another important parameter which determines the light penetration in water. It also
gives the visible evidence of contamination in water, 'and its acceptability for any use. The visible
I
colour of water is the result ofthe different wavelengths not absorbed by the water itself because
of dissolved and particulate substances present. It is possible to measure both true and apparent
colour in water. Natural minerals, such as, ferric hydroxide; and organic substances, like humic
acids give true colour to water. Apparent colour is caused by particulates, and the refraction and
reflection oflight on suspended particulates. Polluted water may therefore, have quite a strong
apparent colour.
Colour can be measured by the comparison of water samples with a series of dilution of potassium
.chloroplatinate and crystalline cobalt us chloride. The unit is called platinum-cobalt unit based on 1
mg/l Pt. The colour of natural water may vary from less than 5 in very clean water to 300 in dark
peaty waters.
v) Odour
.. Water odour is usually because of volatile organic compounds, phytoplankton, aquatic plants or
decaying organic matter. Industrial efiluent and sewage can also cause odours. Organic compounds,
inorganic chemicals, oil and gas can also impart odour to water.
Usually, the presence of an odour suggests higher than normal biological activity and is a simple
test for the suitability of drinking water, since the human sense of smell is far more sensitive to low
concentrations of substances than human taste. Tropical climate increase the rate and production
of odour causing metabolic and decay products. Different pH may also affect the rate of chemical
reactions leading to the production of odour.
Odour can be "measured" in terms of number oftimes a sample has to be diluted with odour-free
water that yields the least definitely perceptible odour. This method is known as the Threshold
Odour Number (TON). However, it suffers from the subjective variability of different persons
making the estimation.
vi) Taste
Taste is always associated with odour. Hence, the inference drawn during study of odour holds
,
good for taste also. However, in some cases tastes are not associated with odour. The dissolved
mineral matter produce taste but not odour. For example, a bitter taste may be due to presence of
iron, manganese, aluminium sulphate or excess lime. Waters containing unusual salt contents will
have a brackish taste. Dissolved gases and minerals usually make the water potable. It is reported
that the most palatable waters are those containing nitrates and carbonic acids.
vii) Temperature
The temperature of surface water governs to a large extent the biological activities in the water.
Temperature has a marked effect on most of the chemical reactions that occur in natural water
system. Temperature also has a pronounced effect on the solubility of gases in water. i
1
I
Waters have a wide diversity of biological species. At lower temperature the biological activities i
become slower. lithe temperature increases, the biological activity also increases. An increase in I
10 QCis usually sufficient to double the biological activities. Temperature changes directly affect
the reaction rates and solubility level of chemicals. Most chemical reactions involving dissolution of
solids are accelerated by increased temperature. The solubility of gases on the other hand, decreases j
at elevated temperatures. Because biological oxidation of organics in water-body is dependent on
1
an adequate supply of dissolved oxygen, decrease in oxygen solubility is undesirable.
-I
Temperature also affects other physical properties of water. As we know that viscosity of water I
increases with decrease in temperature. Thernaximum density of water occurs at 4 QC,and density
decreases on either side of that temperature, a unique phenomenon among liquids. The relationship
between temperature and density is responsible for stratification in lakes and reservoirs.
Water Pollution 117
10.4.2 Chemical Characteristics

Water has been called the universal solvent, and chemical parameters are related to the solvent
capability of water. Alkalinity, hardness, fluorides, metals, and organics nutrients are the main
chemical parameters of concern in water quality management.
i) Alkalinity
Alkalinity is defined as the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralise hydrogen ions.
Alkalinity is thus a measure of the ability of water to neutralise acids. Constituents of alkalinity in
- - - - - - ;
natural water systems are C03, HC03, OH HSi03, HP 04 , and HS. These compounds result
from the dissolution of mineral substances in the soil and atmosphere. Phosphates may also originate
from detergents in wastewater discharges and fertilizers and insecticides from agriculture. Hydrogen
sulphide and ammonia are the bi-products of microbial decomposition of organic material.
The most common constituents of alkalinity are bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxides. In addition
to their mineral origin, these substances can originate from carbon dioxide, a constituent of ~
and a product of microbial decomposition of organic matter. The reactions are as follows:
CO2 + H20 = H2C03 (dissolved CO2 and carbonic acid)
H2C03 = H++ He03
ii) Hardness
Hardness is the capacity of water for reducing and destroying the lather formed by soap. Hardness
in water is due to the presence of salts acquired through contact with soil and other geological
structures or due to pollution. Calcium and magnesium are causing hardness. Iron, aluminium,
. manganese, strontium and zinc also cause hardness in the water, but to a little extent or negligible
amount. The term total hardness indicates the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions and is
expressed in terms of calcium carbonate.
Hardness has traditionally been classified into "temporary hardness" and "permanent hardness".
The portion ofhardness that disappears after prolonged boiling is called temporary hardness, and
is mainly due to bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, which ultimately precipitate on loss of
carbon dioxide due to boiling. The hardness, which persists after boiling, is permanent hardness.
The hardness of water reflects the nature of geological formation with which water is in contact.
Generally, surface waters are softer than ground waters. According to the degree of hardness,
. waters are classified as follows:
0-75 Soft
75 - 150 Moderately hard
150 - 300 Hard
>300 Very hard
Although hard waters do not have any deleterious effects on human health, but they cause increase
in soap consumption and also increases time required in cooking. In industrial use, hard water is
restricted because of scaling, interference in dying colour and taste and so on ..
The hardness is determined by a method called the EDTA titrimetric method.
118 , Understanding Man-Made Disasters
iii) Fluorides
Fluoride occurs in almost all natural waters. Fluoride has little significance in industrial waters, but
in concentration of 1 to 1.Smg/l it is an effective preventive of dental decay. However, a higher
concentration is detrimental and may cause dental and skeletal floozies. Such water needs to be
defluoridated before drinking. There are several pockets in our country where fluoride is high in
"
groundwater. This water is being consumed by the local people, as there is no alternate source of
drinking water. In such areas prevalence of fluorosis disease is quite common. Colorimetric or
specific ion meter measures the fluoride.
iv) Metals
The ability of a water body to support aquatic life, as well as its suitability for other uses depends
on many trace elements. Some metals, for example Mn, Zn and Cu present in trace quantity are
.
, important for life as it helps andI regulates many physiological functions of the body. The same
metals, however, causes severe'toxicological effects on human health and the aquatic ecosystem.
Water pollution by heavy metals resulting from anthropogenic impact is causing serious ecological
.problems in many parts of the world. This situation is aggravated by the lack of natural elimination
processes for metals. Thus, meta~ shift from one compartment of environment to another, including
the biota, often with detrimental effects. Sufficient accumulation of the metals in biota occurs through
food chain transfer, causing incrdased toxicological risk for mankind. As a result of absorption and
accumulation, the concentration of metals in bottom sediments is much higher than in the water
above, which may cause second~ry pollution problem. The toxicity of metals in water depends on
the degree of oxidation of a givenrnetal
I
ion together with the forms in which
,
it occurs. As a rule, the
ionic form of a metal is the most toxic form. However, the toxicity is reduced if the ions are bound
into complexes with natural organic matter. But, under certain conditions, metalloid-organic, low-
molecular compounds formed in natural waters exhibit toxicities greater than the uncombined
forms. An example is the highly toxic alkyl-derivatives of mercury (methyl mercury) from inorganic
mercury by aquatic microorganisms. A famous episode of Mina Mata ~isease occurred in Japan,
in Nineteen fifties, due to consumption of fish contaminated by methyl mercury. It is to be noted
,
that metals in natural water can exist in truly dissolved, colloidal and suspended forms.
I
v) Organics . i ,t
Most fresh waters contain organic matter. It may be autochthonous (generated within water body)
or allochthonous (added from outside) in origin. The organic matter can be measured as Total
Organic Carbon (TOC). It can also be measured in terms of oxygenrequired for its oxidation,
either chemically or biologically. The methodJ which implies biological oxidation is called Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD), and where chemical oxidation is involved, it IS called Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD). BOD and COD are the conventional parameters used all over the world for
measurement of organic matter in natural water or in pollution discharge to evaluate its oxygen
consuming potential. Since, water can hold only limited amount of oxygen according to its solubility,
the most important effect of organic matter when difcharged, on water body is depletion of oxygen.
Therefore, BOD and COD are important parameters in regulation and control measures for water
. I
po 11unon. I
The organic matters could be categorised into two groups, that is, natural and synthetic. The
natural organic matters generally cause depletion of oxygen only, whereas the synthetic organic
I
matters may cause toxic effects, which may be very serious in nature:
, 1
.1
Many different thousands of organic compounds enter water bodies, as a result of human activities.
Monitoring every indiv~dual compound is not feasible. However, it/is possible to select priority
organic pollutants based ion their prevalence, toxicity and other properties. Mineral oils, petroleum
j
J
l
7
Water Pollution 119
'products, phenols, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (pCBs),and surfactants are examples of

such compounds. However, these compounds are not universally monitored because their
d~termination requires sophisticated instrumentation and highly trained personnel. Therefore, they
are evaluated in terms of toxicity as a summary parameter. Many ofthese compounds are highly
toxic and sometimes are carcinogenic and mutagenic in nature. Some selected compounds are
measured by gas chromatography method.
10.4.3 Microbial Pollution'

Examination for faecal indicator organisms in water is the most sensitive and specific way of assessing
the hygenic quality of water. Faecal indicator bacteria should fulfil certain criteria to give meaningful
results. They should be universally present in high numbers in the faeces of humans and warm-
blooded animals and readily detectable by simple methods, and they should not grow and multiply
in natural water. For an indicator species it is essential that their persistence in water and their
degree of removal in treatment of water are similar to those of waterbome pathogens. The maj or
indicators offaecal pollution are Escherichia coli, and faecal streptococci. The criteria described
above for an ideal faecal indicator are not all met by anyone organism, however many of them are
fulfilled by E. coli and, to a lesser extent by the thermo tolerant coliform group of bacteria. The
faecal streptococci satisfy some ofthe criteria, although not to the same extent as E. coli, and they
can be used as supplementary indicators. It is recommended that E. coli is the indicator of first
choice when resources for microbiological examination are limited.
Standard tests for estimation ofthe number of bacteria indicating faecal contamination in general
are carried out by either the multiple tube dilution technique, which gives an indication ofthe most
I
probable number (MPN) of bacteria, or by the membrane filtration (MF) method which gives a
direct count of the bacteria. I
o I
10.5 FACTORSALTERINGWATERQUALITY
With the advent of industrialisation and increasing population, the water requirements have increased
to manifold. This has resulted gradual depletion of water from its sources and degradation in its
quality. Each water use, including abstraction of water and discharge of wastewater leads to specific
andgenerally predictable impact on quality of aquatic environment. In addition to these intentional
uses, there are several human activities which ha~e ipdir~ct and undesirable effec~s on w~ter quality,
for example uncontrolled land uses, deforestation] accidental release of chenucals, discharge of
untreated or partially treated waste-water or leaching of noxious liquids from solid waste dumping
site. Similarly, the uncontrolled and excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides has long-term effects
I
on ground and surface water sources.
Structural interventions in the natural hydrological dYcle through canalisation or damming of rivers,
diversion of water within or among basins, and the over -pumping of aquifers are usually undertaken
with a beneficial objective in mind. Experiences h,Ve shown, however, that the resulting long-term
environmental effects often overweigh these benefits.
I
10.5.1 Water Quality
~ The term "water quality" is a widely used expression, which has an extremely broad spectrum
of meanings. Each individual has vested interests in water for his particular use. The term
quality therefore, mustbe considered relative to the proposed use of water. From the user's
point of view, the term water quality is explained as physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of water by which the user evaluates the acceptable quality of water. For
example, drinking water supply should be pure and potable. Similarly, for agriculture we
1 I
require that the sensitivity of different crops to dissolved minerals and other toxic materials is
known and either water quality or type of crops is selected accordingly. Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB) has developed.a concept of "designated best use". According to
this, under several uses of particular water body, the use that demands highest quality of
water is called its designated best use and accordingly the water body is designated. The
CPCB has identified five such "designated best uses" and water quality requirements, in
;' terms of few chemical characteristics, known as primary water quality criteria. The "designated
best uses" along with respective primary water quality criteria are given in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3: Use Based Classification of Surface Waters In India
Designated Quality PH D.O. BOD Total Free E.C. Na Boron

Best Use Class Coliform Amm-
onia
. Absorp-
tion
Ratio
Units - mgll mgll MPNI mgll MHO! - mg/l
100ml cm
Drinking water 50
source without A 6.5-8.5 6 or 2 or 5%-200 Nil Nil Nil Nil
conventional more less and
treatment, but 20%-50
with chlorination
500,
5%-
Outdoor bathing B 6.5-8.5 5 or 3 or 2000 Nil Nil Nil Nil
(organised) more less and
20%-
500
-
Drinking water 5000
source with 5%-
conventional C 6.5-8.5 4 or 3 or 20000 Nil Nil Nil Nil
treatment more less and
20%-
5000
Propagation of D 6.5-8.5 4 or Nil Nil 1.2 Nil Nil Nil
wildlife and more
fisheries
-
Irrigation,
industrialcooling,
and controlled
waste disposal E 6.0-8.5 Nil . Nil Nil Nil 2250 26 2
Source: Scheme of Zoning and Classification of Indian River Esturies and Coastal Water,
ADSORBS/3/1978-79: A C.P.C.B. Publication.
10.5.2 Water Quality Criteria

Water quality criteria are a scientific rationale on which decision orjudgement, on the suitability of
water quality to support a designated use, is based. Water quality criteria specify concentrations of
water constituents that, if not exceeded, are expected to be suitable for the designated use. Such
criteria are derived from scientific facts obtained from experimental or in-situ observations that
depict organism responses to a defined stimulus or material under regulated environmental conditions
for a specified time period.
jI
Water Pollution 121
'This should also be kept in mind that water quality criteria are-not intended to offer the same
degree of safety for survival and propagation at all time to all organisms within a given ecosystem.
They are intended not only to protect essential and significant water as well as the direct user of
water, but also to protect life, that is, dependent on life in water for its existence, or that may
consume any edible portion of such life, e.g. fish.
: The criteria for domestic water supply incorporate available data for human health protection.
Such values different from the criteria.levels are necessary for protection of aquatic life. As in the
human population, physiological variability exists among individuals of the same species in response
to a given stimulus. A much greater response variation occurs in aquatic life. Thus aquatic organisms
do not receive same degree of harm, individually or by species, from a given concentration of
pollution in the environment. In establishing a level or concentration of a quality constituent as a
criterion, it is necessary to ensure a reasonable degree of safety for those more sensitive species
that areimportant to the functioning of the aquatic ecosystem even though data on the response of
such. species to the quality constituent under consideration may not be available. The aquatic food
web is an intricate relationship of predator and prey organisms. A water constituent that may, in
some way, destroy or eliminate an important segment of the food web would, in all likelihood,
destroy or seriously impair other organisms associated with it.
The fact that an ecosystems can take up, accumulate, and bio-concentrate man-made and natural
toxicants is well documented. In aquatic systems biota are exposed directly to pollutants through
submersion in relatively efficient solvent and are exposed indirectly through food webs and other
.biological, chemical, and physical interactions. Initial toxicant levels, if not immediately toxic and
damaging, may accumulate in the biota or sediment and increase to levels that are lethal or sub-
lethally damaging to aquatic organisms or to consumers of these organisms. Water quality criteria
reflect knowledge of the capacity for environmental accumulation, persistence and effect of specific
toxicants in specific aquatic systems. Antagonistic and synergistic reactions among many quality
constituents in water also are recognised in setting quality criteria
Water quality criteria do not have regulatory impact, but they form the basis for judgement in
several cases that are derived from water quality considerations. Thus, water quality criteria are
the starting point in deriving toxic pollutants effluent standards ..
To provide the water resource protection for which they are designated, quality criteria should
apply to virtually all the country's water resources, with modifications for local conditions as needed.
The violation of quality criteria for any substantial length of time or in any substantial portion of a
waterway may result in an adverse effect on aquatic life and perhaps a hazard to man or other
consumers of aquatic life.
Quality criteria have been designated to provide long-term protection. Thus, they may provide a
basis for effluent standards, but it is not intended that criteria values become standards. It is recognised
that certain substances may be applied to the aquatic environment with the concurrence of a
government agency for the precise purpose of controlling or managing a portion of the aquatic
ecosystem, for example aquatic herbicides and pesticides. It is recognised further that pesticides
applied according to the official instructions to agriculture and forests may be washed to a receiving
waterway by a torrential rainstorm. Under such conditions, it is believed that such diffused source
inflows should be considered similar to that of a discrete effluent discharge. In such instances, the
criteria should be applied to the principal portion of the waterway rather than to that peripheral
portion receiving the diffuse inflow.
A particular constituent may have more than one criterion to ensure more than one water use or
condition, that is, hard or soft water, suitability as a drinking water source, protection of human
health when edible portion of selected biota are consumed, provision for recreational bathing,
skiing, and permitting an appropriate factor of safety to ensure protection for essential warm or
1
I
122' understalding Man-Made Disasters
cold water associated biota. Omission of certain quality constituent sbould not be considered that
an omitted quality constituent is either unimportant or non-hazardous]
I
10.5.3 Water Quality Criteria and Uses
Inherently water is multiple use resource and its demand has increased many folds during last
"
century. The main uses of water are public water supply, outdoor bathing, recreation, industries,
fisheries, wildlife propagation, and irrigation, cooling water in power plants, navigation and disposal
of wastes.
In order for any water body to function adequately in satisfying anyone ofthe above-mentioned
uses, it must have corresponding degree of purity. For example, drinking water needs highest
purity of water, whereas disposal of wastes can be done in any quality of water. In recent years, as
the demand for water has nearly approached in magnitude to the available resources, the concept
.
,
of management ofthe quality of water has become as obligatory as its quantity.
The CPCB classification of water quality helps the planners and policy-makers to set water quality
targets and identify needs and priority for water quality restoration programmes for various water
bodies in the country. The famous GangaAction Plan and subsequently the National River Action
Plan are results of such exercises.
It may be mentioned here that agriculture is the largest water user sector in India and accounts for
over 90 per cent of the total water consumed. Therefore, proper consideration of water quality for
agricultural purposes is quite important. Irrigation water quality is of particular importance in arid
and semi-arid regions because of potential adverse effects on the soil. Fecal coliform concentrations
below 100011 00 ml is recommended in order to avoid hazards from pathogenic microorganisms
orconsumption of raw crops irrigated with such waters. In addition, recommendations are also
given for trace elements, which are toxic in nature. The Bureau ofIndian Standards, and CPCB
also prescribe water quality requirement for irrigation with respect to limited number of physico-
chemical parameters. I
The main adverse effects are due to loss of water by evaporation from agriculture field, which
causes soluble salts present in water to be retained by soil. Thus, gradual building of salt in soil
leads to soil salinity and makes the soil infertile. Therefore, salt content of irrigation :vater is of
primary importance.
10.6 QUALITY STANDARDS FOR MUNICIPAL AND

DOMESTIC SUPPLIES
Municipal water required for domestic uses, particularly the water required for drinking, must be
colourless, odourless and tasteless. It should be free from turbidity and toxic chemical compounds.
Harmful microorganisms and radioactivity must be absent. The quality of water required for municipal
supplies is, therefore, generally controlled throughout the world and even W.H.O. has laid down
its standards for potable waters.
In India, the standards for public water supplies are basically laid down by the recomniendations
ofthe Environmental Hygiene Committee. These standard recommendations have further been
utilised by the Bureau OtIndian Standards in formulating the Indian Standard Drinking Water
Specifications (1991), which today stands as our national drinking water standards. These standards
are given in the following table.
-i
1 I
Water Pollution 123
,
,
I •
Tablel0. 4: Indian Standard Drinking Water - Specification (BIS 10500 : 1991 )
SI. Substance or Characteristic Requirement Permissible Limit

No (Desirable Limit) in the absence of
Alternate source
Essential Characteristics
1. .Colour, ( Hazen units, Max ) \ 5 25
I
2. Odour Unobjectonable Unobjectionable
3. Taste Agreeable Agreeable
4. Turbidity (NTU, Max) 5 10
5. pH Value 6.5 to 8.5 No Relaxsation
6. Total Hardness (as Ca C03) 300 600
.. mg/lit.,Max
1.0
7. Iron (as Fe) mg/lit,Max 0.3
8. Chlorides (as Cl) mg/lit.Max. 250 1000
9. Residual,free chlorine,mg/lit,Min 0.2
Desirable Characteristics I
10. Dissolved solids mg/lit,Max 500 2000
11. Calcium (as Ca) mg/lit,Max 75 200
12. Copper (as Cu) mg/lit,Max 0.05 1.5
l3. Manganese (as Mn)mg/lit,Max 0.l0 0.3
14. . Sulfate (as S04) mg/lit,Max I 200 400
15. Nitrate (as N03) mg/lit,Max 45 100
16. Fluoride (as F) rng/lit.Max 1.9 1.5
I
17. Phenolic Compounds . 0.001 0.002 !

I
(as C 6 HpH)mg/lit, Max.
I
18. Mercury (as Hg)mg/lit,Max 0[001 No relaxation

I I
19. Cadmiun (as Cdjmg/lit.Max 0 011
! I No relaxation
I r
01.01 No relaxation
20. Selenium (as S'e)mg/lit,Max
21. Arsenic (as As) mg/lit,Max ~.05 No relaxation
22. Cyanide (as CN) mg/lit,Max d.05
,
No rel~xation
23. Lead (as Pb) mg/lit,Max 0.05 No relaxation
24. Zinc (as Zn) mg/lit,Max 5 15 I
25. Anionic detergents 0.2 1.0 !
(as MBAS) mg/lit,Max

26. Chromium (as Cr6+)mg/lit,Max (W5 No relaxation
27. Polynuclear aromatic hydro carbons
. (as PAH) g/lit,Max /'
28. Mineral Oil mg/lit,Max 0.01 0.03

29. Pesticides mg/l, Max Absent 0.001,
30. Radioactive Materials
1. Alpha emitters Bq/l.Max O.l
11. Beta emitters pcill, Max 1.0
31. Alkalinity mg/lit. Max 200 600
32. Aluminium (as AI) mg/1, Max 0.03 0.2
33. Boron mg/lit, Max 1 5
7
10.7 CONCLUSION
Water is a resource, which cannot be produced or added as and when required by any technological
means. The total fresh and seawater content of the earth is essentially fixed. Although man has
been.able to modify to a certain extent the pattern of availability of the fresh water with respect to
" time and space, but the total availability of water has remained the same probably over millions of
years. The circulation of fresh w_aterover the earth can be represented by a continuous process
under the influence of solar energy, whereby water follows a cycle of evaporation from the earth's
surface (mainly from oceans), condensation, precipitation, flow over the land surface and below it,
and returning back to the oceans. This is called hydrological cycle. In this cycle, the surface and
ground water flow is the vital part as far as human needs are concerned. In this Unit, we have
discussed the significance of pure water. Besides, we have also explained the global water distribution
and major surface water resources ofIndia. In addition, we have dealt with main causes and
impacts of pollution. Lastly, water quality criteria and its uses have been described.
10.8' KEY CONCEPTS

Anthropologen processes The man-made processes of deterioration of water quality,
such as, industrial, agricultural, urban, domestic, radioactive,
mining sources, use of pesticides and fertilizers by man etc.
Biological Characteristics These parameters are related to the growth, transportation
of Water and germination of-livingmicroorganism, for example bacteria,
virus, protozoa etc.
Chemical Characteristics These parameters are related to the solvent capability of
of Water water. Alkalinity, hardness, fluorides, metals, and organics
are the main chemical parameters of concern in water quality
management. •
Hydrological Cycle It is the cycle of evaporation from the earth's surface (mainly
from oceans), condensation, precipitation, flow over the land
surface and below it, and returning back to the oceans.
Natural process The process of deterioration of water quality by the
decomposed vegetable, animal and weathered products,
leaching from natural geological formation.
Physical Characteristics The characteristics pertaining to the sense of sight, touch,
of Water taste or smell. Suspended solids, turbidity, colour, taste, odour
and temperature fall into this category.
River Basin The entire geographical area drained by a river and its
tributaries
Water Pollution Foreign substances, either from natural or anthropogenic
sources, contaminated with water supplies, may be harmful
to life because of their toxicity, reduction of normal oxygen
level of water, aesthetically unsuitable, and spread epidemic
diseases.
Water Quality Criteria It is a scientific rationale on which decision orjudgement on
the suitability of water quality to support a designated use is
based.
r I
Water Pollution 125
'10.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Chaturvedi, M.C., 1997, Water Resource Systems flanning and Management. McGraw-Hill,
New Delhi.
Davisand Cornwell, 1991, Introduction to Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New
"
York, USA.
Garg, Bansal, Twana, 2004, Environmental Pollution and Protection, Deep and Deep
Publciations (P) Ltd, New Delhi.
Gilbert, M. Masters, 1991, Introduction to Environmental Engineering; Prentice Hall ofIndia,
New Delhi.
. ,
Goel, P.K., 1997, Water Pollution Causes, Effects and Control, New Age International (P)
Limited, New Delhi.
Government of India, Indian Standard Drinking Water - Specification (BIS 10500 : 1991),
New Delhi.
Government ofIndia, Ministry of Urban Development, Manualon WaterSupply and Treatment,
1999,NewDelhi.
Meenakshi, P., 2005, Element of Environmental Science and Engineering, Prentice Hall of
India, New Delhi.
Monga, G.S., 2003, Environment and Development, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi.
Pramanik, A.K, 2002, Environmental Reporting and Accounting Reporting, Deep and Deep
Publications, New Delhi.
Radha, S. and A.S. Sankhyan, 2004, Environmental Challenges of the 21st Century, Deep
and Deep Publications (P) Ltd, New Delhi.
Rao, P.S.B, and P.M. Rao, 2000, Environment Management and Audit, Deep and Deep
Publications (P) Ltd, New Delhi
Singh, lK. and D.K. Das, 2004, Environmental Economics and Development, Deep and
Deep Publications (P) Ltd, New Delhi.
Singh, P.P.and Sandhir Sharma, 2005, Environment and Pollution Education, Deep and Deep
Publications, New Delhi.
Thakur, K, 2003, Environmental Protection, Law and Policy in India, Deep and Deep
Publications (P) Ltd, New Delhi.
10.10 ACTIVITIES
1) Explain the hydrological cycle and classify the distribution of Wateras Sea and Fresh alongwith
percentage of fresh water available.
2) Enumerate some ofthe water quality standards for physical parameter laid down by the
Bureau of Indian Standards.
1
!
UNIT 11
Structure \
\
, \

11.1 Introduction
.
"
11.2 Status of Deforestation in India
11.3 Causes of Deforestation !
11.4 Impacts of Deforestation
11.5 Deforestation: Disaster Management
11.6 Conclusion
11.7 Key Concepts
11.9 Activities

• Understand the significance offorest;

• Discuss the status of deforestation in India;
• Explain the causes and impacts of deforestation; and
• Bring out the remedial measures for deforestation.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Forestry is the second largest land use in India, after agriculture, covering about 22 per cent of the
total land base. However, the contribution from forestry and logging to Gross Domestic Product
was barely 1.1 per cent in 2001 (World Bank). About41 per cent forest cover ofIndia has been .
degraded to some degree, 78 per cent of forest is subject to heavy grazing, 50 per cent of the
forest is at risk from forest fires, and domestic demand for timber and fuelwood is already well
above the sustainable level. It has been observed that the clearing of tropical forests across the
earth has been occurring on a large-scale basis for many centuries. This process, known as .
deforestation, involves the cutting down, burning, and damaging of forests, The loss of tropical rain
forest is more profound than merely destruction of beautiful natural areas, If the current rate of
deforestation continues, the world's rain forests will vanish within 1Ouyears which will cause
unknown effects on global climate eliminating the majority of plant and animal species on the
planet. It is estimated, that 50,000 species of plants and animals become extinct every year due to
deforestation. Thatmeans every 12 minutes, a whole species of plant or animal is entirely wiped
out from its existence on planet earth. Also due to deforestation, 2.47 acres offorests, or about
2 football fields, are cleared every single second. That's equal to 78 million acres of trees disappearing
from the earth's surface every year. By the time you've finished reading this, 74 acres of rainforests
.and theirrnillions of inhabitants, have been bulldozed, shriveled up in widely spread fires, or washed
away in eroded soil. Deforestation is a major problem all around the world. Now only a mere 2
per cent of earth's surface is covered with rainforests because of rampant deforestation. In this
Unit, we will discuss the significance of forests, causes and impacts of deforestation, and strategies
to mitigate the impacts of deforestation.
1
De/ores tation 127
11.2 STATUS OF DEFORESTATiON IN INDIA

India is a vast country encompassing a large canvas of habitats and ecological niches rich in bio-
diversity and simultaneously supporting a rich and vibrant diversity of human cultures. The
Environments are as diverse as can be imagined; from the Himalayas in the north, the long coastline
;. touched by the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal in the east, to the islands of
Andaman and Nicobar and the Lakshadweep; from the deserts of Raj as than and Gujarat in the
west to the teak forests of Central India to the thick and towering rainforests in the Northeast.
Large parts of India like most other parts of South Asia and for that matter the rest ofthe world
were till recently covered in thick forests. This region is probably best known for the civilisations
that flourished in the plains of its great rivers like Ganges and Yamuna. These were civilisations that
reached a high degree of sophistication, and urbanisation. What are much less known are the
innumerable, small, vibrant, diverse and extremely sustainable forest cultures that survived and
flourished and continue to do so even today in the areas where the forests still exist.
In India deforestation is going on at a very fast rate. The over exploitation of forest started from
World War II, when the British started clearing forest to meet their needs. In post independence
period, the process of exploitation has been accelerated to meet development projects of railways,
industries, mining, river valley projects, defence etc. The urbanisation and expansion of agricultural
activities has also contributed to the exploitation offorest. During 1951-75 period, 43.28lakh
hectares area has been lost due to different development works. Maximum deforestation of
approximately 2 million hectare has occurred in Madhya Pradesh (including Chhattisgarh). Over
one million hectares of forest is lost in Maharashtra only. The total forest lost in Orrisa, Andhra
Pardesh and Jummu & Kashmir is also about one million hectare. In Rajasthan and Himachal
Pardesh, loss is approximately half million hectare. But in terms of proportion, Rajasthan, Haryana
& Punjab lost ove~ half of the forest cover and states like Himachal Pardesh and Jummu and
Kashmir lost over a third ofthe forest cover. Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur and Meghalaya are the
worst affected deforested states ofIndia.
To understand why deforestation is such a pressing and urgent issue, forests must first be given
credit for what they bring to global ecosystems and the quality oflife that all species maintain.
Tropical Rainforests presently provide home for 50 - 90 per cent of all organisms. Not only the
species are at risk, but the human race also benefits from what the trees give. According to the
World Rainforest Movement, 25 per cent of medicines come from the forests. This is a number
that does not do justice to all the cures that have yet to be discovered or that have been destroyed.
The forests give life, not only to other species, but they help to prolong the human race. The forests
have global implications not just on life but also on the quality of it. Trees improve the quality of the
air that species breath by trapping carbon and other particles produced by pollution; trap the
rainfall and replenish the atmosphere; cool and regulate the earth's climate in conjunction with
other such valuable services as preventing erosion, landslides, and making the most infertile soil
rich with life. The actual rate of deforestation is difficult to determine. Scientists study the deforestation
of tropical forests by analysing satellite imagery of forested areas that have been cleared. If
deforestation continues at current rates, scientists estimate that nearly all-tropical rainforest
ecosystems will be destroyed by the year2030.
11.3 CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

Deforestation occurs in many ways. Most of the clearing is done for agricultural purposes, that is,
grazing cattle, and planting crops. Poor farmers chop down a small area (typically a few acres) and
burn the tree trunks-a process called Slash and Burn agriculture. Intensive, or modem, agriculture
1 I
occurs on a much larger scale, sometimes deforesting several square miles at a time. Large cattle
pastures often replace rain forest to rear cattle farms.
Commercial logging is another common form of deforestation, cutting trees for sale as timber or
pulp. Logging can occur selectively - where only the economically valuable species are cut - or
by clear cutting, where all the trees are cut. Commercial logging uses heavy machinery, such as,
" bulldozers, road graders, and log skidders, to remove or cut trees to build roads, which isjust as
damaging to a forest overall as the.chainsaws are to the individual trees.
The causes of deforestation are very complex. A competitive global economy drives the need for
money in economically challenged tropical countries. At the national level, governments sell logging
concessions to raise money for projects', to pay international debt, or to develop industry. For
example, Brazil had an international debt of$159 billion in 1995, on which it must make payments
each year. The logging companies seek to harvest the forest and make profit from the sales of pulp
and valuable hardwoods, such as, mahogany.
Deforestation by a peasant farmer is often done to raise crops for self-subsistence, and is driven
by the basic human need for food. Most tropical countries are very poor by U.S. standards, and
farming is a basic way oflife for a large part of the population. In Brazil, for example, the average
annual earning per person is U .S. $5400,compared to $26,980 per person in the United States
(World Bank, 1998). In Bolivia, which holds part ofthe Amazon rain forest, the average earnings
per person is $800. Farmers in these countries do not have the money to buy necessities; they
raise crops for food and to sell.
There are other reasons for deforestation, such as, to construct towns or dams. However, latter
cases constitute only a very small part ofthe total deforestation. Besides there are other reasons
also that are contributing to deforestation,which will be describedbriefly inthe following sub-sections.
i) Population Growth and Deforestation
The World Wide Forest Report found that when the Roman Empire was in control of Europe, 90
per cent of the continent was forested. Today 500,000 hectares vanish in a single week. In this
regard, overpopulation in cities and developing countries is prominent reason for deforestation.
Population is growing at a very fast rate, especially in developing countries. Increases in population
force farmers and landowners to sell off their land. Thus, these landless peasants are forced to look
forland in the untouched forests. Bad land tenure, a shortage of modern agricultural tools, and
govemment neglect of subsistence farmers have put an influx ofhuman interference in the forests.
In attempts to settle farmland, the poor become "shifted cultivators" and resort to use slash and
bum methods of tree removal in the forests, which is the most devastating. In the methods of I
slashing and burning, trees are cut down and the remains are burned. The ash is used as a fertilizer,
and the land is then used for farming or cattle grazing, however, the soil, that is, cleared in slash and 1
burn is left infertile, the nutrients in the soil are quickly absorbed by surrounding organisms The
farmers move on, sometimes, to other areas and repeat this process. As a result, worthy land and 1
trees become scarce.
ii) Logging and Deforestation

I
1
The small farmer plays a big role, but it is modem industry that too cuts down the trees. The logging
industry is fueled by the need for disposable products. 11million acres a year are cut for commercial
and property industries. McDonald's needs 800 square miles of trees to make the amount of
paper they need for a year's supply of packaging; British Columbia manufactures 7, 500,000 pairs
of chopsticks a day, and the demand for fuel wood is so high that predictions say that there will be
1
Deforestation 129
a shortage soon. Logging does have its repercussions. The logging industry not only tries to
accomplish all this but it even indirectly helps the "shifted cultivators" and others to do more
damage. The roads that the loggers build to access theforests and generate hydroelectric power
create an easy way for many people to try to manipulate the forest resources. The amount of
damage to the forests cannot be measured.
"
iii) Cattle Grazing and Deforestation
Another of the more devastating forces behind deforestation is cattle grazing. With the international
growth of fast food chains consuming vast quantities of meat' and diary products, this seems to be
an evident factor in the clearing of trees today
iv) Other Causes
Beyond the major causes of deforestation lie some supplementary ones that too stack the odds
against forests around the globe. Acid rain and the building of darns have their share of harmful
effects. The race to produce cash crops, such as, fruit, spices, sugar, tobacco, rubber, and products
like paper, and cloth has given cause for destroying the forests. Even those in industrialised countries
may participate in the destruction of forests in the developing countries. The need for products in
industrialised countries drives production in other poorer, less developed countries. This increased
.production is at the cost ofthe trees and the services that they provide.
11.4 IMPACTS OF DEFORESTATION

Deforestation presents multiple societal and environmental problems. The immediate and long-
term consequences of global deforestation are almost certain to jeopardize life on earth, as we
know it. Some of these consequences include: loss ofbiodiversity; the destruction of forest -based-
societies; and climatic disruption.
i) Deforestation and the Global Carbon Cycle
Deforestation increases the amount of carbon dioxide (CO) and other trace gases in the atmosphere.
The plants and soil of tropical forests hold 460-575 billion metric tonnes of carbon worldwide with
each acre of tropical forest storing about 180 metric tonnes of carbon. When a forest is cut and
burned to establish crop land and pastures, the carbon that was stored in the tree trunks (wood is
about 50% carbon) joins with oxygen and is released into the atmosphere as CO2,
Carbon dioxide levels increase for a number of reasons; but one of the main factors contributing to
the increase of carbon levels is decay of woody material. The only way to help moderate the levels
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is through plant life. Alive plants and trees absorb the carbon
dioxide from decaying plants and trees. With a decrease in trees and plant life (due to deforestation)
it is much harder to moderate these levels. Ultimately, the amount of carbon will increase due to a
lack of plant life present to keep the carbon dioxide levels in check. This whole process of
deforestation leads to an albedo effect.which reflects more heat and light back into the atmosphere.
The loss of forests has a profound effect on the global carbon cycle. From 1850 to 1990,
deforestation worldwide (including the United States) released 122 billion metric tonnes of carbon
into the atmosphere, with the current rate being approximately 1.6 billion metric tonnes per year. In
comparison, fossil fuel burning (coal, oil, and gas) releases about 6 billion metric tonnes per year,
so it is clear that deforestation makes a significant contribution to the increasing CO2 in the
atmosphere. Releasing CO2 into the atmosphere enhances the greenhouse effect, and could contribute
to an increase in global temperatures.
130 . Understanding Man-Made Disasters
ii) Deforestation and the Hydrologic Cycle
Tropical deforestation also affects the local climate of an area by reducing the evaporative cooling
that takes place from both soil and plant life. As trees and plants are cleared away, the moist
canopy ofthe tropical rain forest quickly diminishes. Recent research suggests that about half of
"
the precipitation that falls in a tropical rain forest is a result of its moist, green canopy. Evaporation
and evapotranspiration processes from the trees and plants return large quantities of water to the
local atmosphere, promoting the formation of clouds and precipitation. Less evaporation means
that more of the Sun's energy is able to warm the surface and, consequently, the air above, leading
to a rise in temperatures.
iii) Deforestation and Flooding

Flooding is a quite serious consequence of deforestation. Clearing the forest dramatically increases
the surface run-off from rainfall, mainly because a greater proportion of the rain reaches the ground
due to a lack of vegetation, which would suck-up the excess rainfall.
Furthermore, the root systems of trees not only store and channelise rainwater, they also hold the
soil together. As this process retards the violent flow of water, it reduces the flow of floods and soil
'.
erosion.
In tropical regions where the forests are dense, flooding is not a serious problem because there is
vegetation to absorb the rainfall. It is in areas where there is little vegetation that there is a problem.
Hence, to avoid the disastrous effects of flooding, tropical forests need to remain dense and lush .
. .iv) Deforestation and Biodiversity

Worldwide, 5 to 80 million species of plants and animals comprise the "biodiversity" of planet
Earth. Tropical rain forests-covering only 7 per cent ofthe total dry surface ofthe Earth-hold over
half of all these species. Of the tens of millions of species, believed to be on earth, scientists have
only given names to about 1.5 million of them, and even fewer of the species have been studied in
detail.
Many of the rain forest plants and animals can only be found in small areas, because they require
a special habitat in which they live. This makes them very vulnerable to deforestation. If their
habitat is destroyed, they may become extinct. Every day, species are disappearing from the
tropical rain forests as they are cleared. We do not know the exact rate of extinction, but estimates
indicate that up to 137 species disappear worldwide each day.
The loss of species will have a great impact on the planet. We are perhaps losing plant species that
might show us how to prevent cancer or help us find a cure for AIDS. Other organisms are losing
species they depend upon, and thus face extinction themselves.
/
v) Deforestation and Nutrients

I
Different cutting techniques, and uses of the land have diverse effects on the ground and surviving
organisms that make up a rain forest.
In a tropical rain forest, nearly all of the life-sustaining nutrients are found in the plants and trees.
These plants and trees are cut down to sow the land. Farmers usually burn the tree trunks to
release the nutrients necessary for a fertile soil. As a result when the rains come, they wash ~way
most of the nutrients, leaving the soil much less fertile. In as little'as 3 years, the ground is no longer
capable of supporting 'crops. 1
1 l
'Yeforestation 131
.It is to be noted that when the fertility of the ground decreases, farmers seek other areas to clear
and plant, abandoning the nutrient-deficient soil. The area previously farmed is left to grow back to
a rain forest. However, just as the crops did not grow well because oflow nutrients, the forest will
also grow back just as slow. After the land is abandoned, the forest may take up to 50 years to
grow back.
" Modem farming can be more devastating for forest re-growth. Intensive agricultural systems use
large quantities of chemicals like pesticides and fertilizers. These chemicals kill a lot of the living
organisms in the area, seeping into the soil and washing into the surrounding areas. On banana
plantations, pesticides are used on the plants and in the soil to kill pest animals. However, these
pesticides also kill other animals as well, and weaken ecosystem health. Banana plantations also
use irrigation ditches and underground pipes for water transport, changing the water balance ofthe
land. After the abandonment of a banana plantation, or other intensive agricultural system, it can
even take centuries for a forest to re-grow.
11.5 DEFORESTATION:DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The forests in India remain largely in the state's domain. The government owns the majority-of
forestland. The state-level forest departments, in collaboration with the national Ministry of
Environment and Forests, make most decisions over planning, management, harvesting and
marketing ..
In the context of deforestation, only way to ensure mitigation of deforestation is to stop destroying
the forests all together. Since it seems impractical, therefore only thing we can do is to use the
forest products in moderation. However, this idea of moderation needs to be put into practice
immediately. The sad fact is that once the forests are gone, we won't be able to undo damage
which we have caused.
Today tropical rainforests are disappearing from the face of the globe. Despite growing international
concern, rainforests continue to be destroyed at such a pace that in the next 20 years there will be
almost no forest from Philippines to Burma (Myanmar), almost no cover in West Africa, and large
chunks missing from western Amazon in Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia, the Brazilian Amazon,
Papua New Guinea, and Central Africa. During the 1980's, the deforestation rate accelerated by
90 percent, today reducing the forest cover to less than 2.75 million square miles (6.8 million
.square kilometres).
This devastation will have global effects by altering the climate, dooming millions of species to
extinction, and being responsible for increased incidence and severity of poverty and outbreaks of
disease among humans. However, this destruction can be slowed, stopped, and in some cases
even reversed. But it needs strong will and resolve on the part ofthe people and"governments.
Previous approaches to rainforest conservation have failed as demonstrated by accelerated rate of
deforestation. These methods consisted of closing off forests as secured parks and reserves, using
guards and fences to secure park boundaries. As parks around the world were "established,"
rainforest still fell at a faster rate than ever. In certain places parks were officially sanctioned, they
were often not funded sufficiently and lacked the local support to be maintained. As a result, many
of these parks today are "paper parks," parks that exist only on maps and official government
conservation reports, but do not exist in practice.
People -living around the forests are often among the world's poorest people, and they depend
on unsustainable harvesting from the forest. A park does not alleviate their hunger, or satiate their
requirements for shelter and other necessities. Local inhabitants depend on the rainforest for their
survival and will continue to use the forest for immediate gratification in a non-renewable fashion, '
until other means become available.
7 I
Now the shortcomings of the former conservation policy have been realised, and the needs of
sustainable development of rainforest lands to allow local people to benefit from the forests without
destroying them have been emphasised. Conservation cannot come at the expense oflocal people;
they must be made both partners and beneficiaries 'in conservation. This strategy requires radical
changes in the economic uses of the rainforest and those who determine forest policy. Success
" depends largely on long-term planning, cooperation and coordination among environmentalists,
scientists, industrialists, developers., politicians, and local people to protect and manage the forests.
Saving rainforests will hinge on how reserves can be worked into the local fabric oflife and how
well, as intact systems, the forest can provide for the people that live around them. If managed
properly, the rainforests can provide for many ofthe world's needs on a perpetual basis.
Shade agriculture is one ofthe sustainable fanning methods. In this type offarming, many ofthe
original rain forest trees are left to provide shade for shade-loving crops like coffee or chocolate.
When the farm is abandoned, the forest grows back very quickly, because much of it was left
unharmed in the first place. After this type offarming, forests can grow back as quickly as 20
years.
Selective logging is remedial option for wood requirement. A study in Indonesia found that when
only 3 per cent of the trees were cut for logging operation, it damaged 49 per cent of the trees in
the forest. Even with that much damage the rain forest will grow back, relatively quickly, ifleft
alone after selective logging because there are still many trees to provide seeds and protect young
trees from sun.
It is essential that solutions be adapted for the circumstances and specific problems unique to each
region. Local conditions are of paramount importance in conservation. Without improving the
well-being of people living in and around forests, we cannot expect rainforests to persist as fully
functional systems and continue to cater to the needs. The World Bank report suggests that giving
greater rights and responsibilities to forest-dwellers over local non-protected forests could help
raise people's income substantially taking total forest income from an estimated US$ 222 million in .
2004 to aboutUS$2 billion per annum in 2020.
11.6 CONCLUSION
The Unit has discussed the significance of forest and phenomena of deforestation. It also described
the status of deforestation in India. In this Unit, we have analysed the main causes and impacts of
deforestation. In addition, possible remedial measures have been discussed. It has been realised
that deforestation is becoming alarming and whole humanity is to dream, think, plan and execute
the idea to safeguard the world from this disaster. The immediate effects of deforestation may not
yet be felt, but ifthis generation doesn't implement necessary action, the next generation will
suffer. Thus, immediate efforts are required to protect the forests and environment. Therefore, the
Unit has also discussed disaster management aspects of deforestation.
11.7 KEY CONCEPTS

Atmosphere The outer layer of gases that surrounds a planet.
Biodiversity The variation in life forms that exists on the planet.
Ecosystems Collection oflife forms, the way they live and interact with each
1
other ..
Erosion Land that becomes barren of nutrients and the soil literally "erodes"
and is swept away by the elements.
J
Deforestation 133
.Global Warming The temperature increase in the earth's climate, 'that is, caused by
an increased accumulation of a number of gases such as methane,
carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide that retain heat in the earth's
atmosphere.
Green. House Gases Gases that trap heat and hold it in the earth's atmosphere, helping
: to contribute to global warming.
Shifted Cultivators People forced off their land who resort to making homes and
farms in the tropical forests.

Brown, Katrina and David W. Pearce, 1994, The Causes of Tropical Deforestation, UCB •
Press,Vancouver.
Center for Science and Environment, 1985, The State of India s Environ ment, 2nd Citizens
Report, New Delhi.
Kothari, A., 1995, Hopefor the future: Regenerating Biodiversity in a
Himalayan Village Conserving Life, Kalpavriksh, New Delhi.
"New World Bank Report on the potential of Indian forests" , The World Bank in India, vo!.
41no 6, 2006, New Delhi.
: Poffenberger, M. and B. McGean ,1996, Village Voices, Forest Choices, Oxford University
, Press, Delhi.
Whitekar, R., 1985, Endangered Andamans., WWF India and Department of Environment,
Government of India.
Websites:
http;//www.gen.umn.edu
http://www.entitymission.org
http://www.igc.apc.org
http://www.globalfEorg
http://www.geocities.comiRainForest
11.9 ACTMTIES
1) Enumerate the major impacts of deforestation.
2) Visit a deforested area, analyse the major causes of deforestation and suggest measures to
further improve the forest management system in India.
3) On the basis of your observations, describe the remedial strategies to mitigate deforestation
in India.
7 I
UNIT 12 INDUSTRIAL W ~SlEWATER POLLUTION
Stru ture
12.1 Introduction
,"
12.2 Industrial Effluent Characteristics
12.3 National Scenario of Industrial Wastewater Pollution
12.4 Impactoflndustrial Effluent on Environment and Humans
12,5 Treatment oflndustrial Eftluents
12.5.1 Pro-Treatment of Industrial Wastes
12.5.2 Treatment Technologies for Industrial Effluents
12.6 Industry-Specific Treatment Scheme

12.7 Govemmentlnitiatives
12.8 Conclusion
12.9 Key Concepts
12.11 Activities
12.0 GOUTCOME
e Understand the concept of industrial wastewater pollution;
Discuss the characteristics of industrial effluent;
e Explain the national scenario of industrial wastewater pollution;
e. _ Describe the disastrous impact of industrial effluent;
• Analyse the treatment options for industrial effluent; and
Suggest the industry-specific treatment schemes.
12. ODUCTIO
As a consequence ofrnpidindustrialisation in the post-independenceperiod, the problem of industrial
effluent has grown significantly. Since the majority of industries are water based, a considerable
volume of waste water is discharged from them. Industrial eft1uen~s are as varied in nature as
industries themselves. The problem gets further aggravated as no standard procedure for treatment
can be recommended. It has been observed that industrial effluents are generally discharged into
watercourses that are either untreated or inadequately treated, resulting in a serious problem of
surface and sub-soil water pollution. Hence, our water resources are under dual pressure due to:
• requirement of a large volume of water for industry; and
• non-availability of clean water due to pollution from untreated wastewater.
I
j
i
l
-=-~
J
Industrial Wastewater Pollution 135
therefore, .it is necessary that industrial effiuents should be adequately treated to make them
innocuous for the receiving water bodies. In this context, in this Unit, we will discuss the concept
of industrial wastewater pollution; characteristics of industrial eftluent; the national scenario of
industrial wastewaterpollution; disastrous impact of industrial effluent; treatment options for industrial
effluent; and suggest the industry-specific treatment schemes.
12.2 INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS

Solid, gaseous and liquid waste from various industries is disposed of into the nearbyenviromnent.
Almost all industries use water for some process or the other, and finally discharge the wastewater.
Industrial eftluent usually contains acids and alkalis, suspended solids, toxic organic chemicals,
toxic inorganic chemicals, non-toxic organic chemicals, non-toxic inorganic chemicals, materials
that produce colour, turbidity, odour and taste, oil and grease, radioactive material, high temperature
wastes and non-biodegradable substances.
The pollutant characteristics of industrial waste have been divided into three following categories:
i) Physical Characteristics
The most important physical parameter of industrial effluent is its total solid content, which is
composed of floating matter, suspended matter, and dissolved matter; other physical characteristics
include temperature, colour and odour.
ii) Chemical Characteristics
Dissolved materials, pH, hardness, chloride, sulphate etc. are all associated with chemical properties
of the dissolved substances, which produce most of the chemical characteristics.
iii) Biological Characteristics

.
Microorganisms are mainly responsible for defining biological characteristics. Except for bacteria
and fungi, other microorganisms are absent in industrial eftluents.
Some of the undesirable characteristics of industrial eftluent are smnmarised as follows:
Soluble Organic
It causes depletion of dissolved oxygen, since most receiving waters require the maintenance of a
minimum quantity of dissolved oxygen. The quantity of soluble organic is correspondingly restricted
. to the capacity ofthe receiving water.
Suspended Solids
Solids deposited in quiescent stretches of a stream will impair the normal aquatic life of1he stream.
Sludge blankets containing organic solids will undergo progressive derompositiooresu1tingio oxygen
depletion and the production of noxious gases.
Trace Organics
It may consist of phenol and other toxic organic compounds, which may lead to odour and tastes
problems.
Heavy Metals
Metals, such as, cyanide, chromium, zinc and copper as well as other inorganic toxic matters may
be present in industrial effluent.
7
136 , Understanding Man-Made Disasters
Colour and Turbidity

They cause aesthetic problems. The process of photosynthesis is also adversely affected by turbidity,
causing less availability of oxygen.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus
.
" The presence of nitrogen and phosphorus may lead to undesirable algae, growth causing
eutrophication
Refractory Substances
Alkyl Benzene Sulfonate (ABS) comes from detergents, and some of these are toxic in nature to
aquatic life.
Oil and Floating Materials

They produce high Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BaD) and unsightly conditions.
lIigh Tet.nperature
Hot water discharged from factories affects the solubility and bacteriological action.
Acids and Alkalies'

These change the pH of water and affect fish and aquatic life and bacteriological action.
Major harmful metals and chemicals from industries include: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead,
mercury, cyanide, nitrogen, iron, zinc, and metallic sulphates, chlorides, nitrates, fluorides, phosphates
and sulphides. Table 12.1 provides a fair idea of the characteristics of untreated effluents from
various industries. Table 12. 2 depicts the details oftoxic chemicals present in effluent from selected
industries.
Table 12.1: Typical Industrial Effluent Characteristics for different Industries
,
NI.No. Industry Pollutant Characteristics
1 Paper & pulp Strong colour (7800), BOD( 1100); COD/BOD high; highly
Alkaline; & Sodium content; pH 8.5 - 9.5
2 Tannery Strong colour; BOD(16,000); high salt content; high dissolved
solids (35,000) presence of sulphide lime and chromium.
3 Textile BOD (1000); highly alkaline (17); high suspended solids (1500).
4 Distillery & brewery Strong colour; BOD(12000 - 40000); high chloride & sulphate.
5 Petrochemicals BOD (5800); COD (9000 ); high total solids (14500).
6 Pharmaceuticals COD (7000); high Alkaline or acidic; high total solid (1400);
CODIBOD 14.
7 Coke oven BOD high; high phenol content & ammonia; low suspended solids;
& high cyanide.
8 Oil refineries Free oil (3000); emulsified oil (120); H2S
9 Fertilizers High Nitrogen (600) and phosphorus (75) content.
10 Dairy High dissolved solids; suspended solids BOD (1000).
11 Sugar BOD (2000); high volatile solids and low pH.
Note: The unit of typical values shown in brackets is mg/l except pH which is expressed in number.
7
Table 12.2: Major Toxic Chemicals in selected Industrial Effluent
SI. No. Industry Toxic Pollutant

1. Fertilizer Ammonia & arsenic.
2. Coke oven Phenols, cyanide, thiocynate & ammonia.
3. Metallurgical Heavy metals (copper, cadmium, zinc).
4. Electra plating Hexa-valent, chromium, cadmium, copper, zinc.
5. Synthetic wool Acrylonitril, aetonirile.
6. Petrochemicals Phenol, heavy metals, cyanides
Source: M.N. Rao, Waste Water Treatment.

Industry-specific effluent standards are prescribed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB),
at the national level designated as Minimum National Standards (MINAS), so as to maintain
uniform standards for treatment and disposal at various stages. The standards permissible for
waste disposal into rivers, on land disposal, and for disposal into public sewers are also prescribed
separately.
12.3 NATIONAL SCENARIO OF INDUSTRIAL

WASTEWATERPOLLUTION
The total wastewater generated from all major industrial sources is approximately 83,000 MId
(million litre daily) that includes 66,700 Mid of cooling water generated from thermal power plants.
Out of the remaining 16,348 MId of wastewater, thermal power plants generate another 7,275
MId as boiler blow-down water and overflow from ash ponds. The second largest contributor of
wastewater in terms of volume is engineering industries. A major part of the industries in this
category are in the small-scale sector. Under this category, the major polluting industries are
electroplating units. Most electroplating units are found in the small-scale sector and the control of
pollution from this category is not very effective as many ofthese industries are located in congested
residential areas, where sufficient land is not available for the treatment of wastewater. The other
significant contributors of waste water are paper mills, steel plants, textile industries and sugar
industries.
The major contributors of pollution in terms of organic load are distilleries, followed by paper mills.
Since the distilleries generate highly concentrated wastewater, it is difficult to treat it. The paper
and board mills also generate heavy organic pollution load. A large number of paper mills are in the
small-scale sector. These industries do not have adequate arrangements for the treatment of
wastewater. Thus, they create heavy pollution in many areas. The other significant contributors of
organic load are sugar and engineering industries. The major contributors of organic load in the
treated effluent are paper mills, followed by distilleries and tanneries.
The industries generating chemical pollution can be divided in two categories, that is, those which
generate high Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) bearing effluent, and others which generate toxic
wastes for example pesticides, inorganic chemicals and organic chemicals. The major contributors
ofTDS load are distilleries, followed by pharmaceuticals, textile industries, and rayon plants.
Maj or contributors of suspended so lid loads are thermal power plants that generate a significant
quantity of cooling water, followed by paper mills, and tanneries. The major contributors of
suspended solids load in treated effluent are aiso paper mills followed by tanneries. Nitrogenous
fertilizer, and steel plants generate toxic wastes, such as, cyanide and arsenics.
. Steel plants and oil refineries are major contributors of phenol: Engineering industries contribute
the maximum amount of oil and grease followed by oil refineries, and the edible oil (vanaspati)
industry, Major pollution in terms of ammonia load is contributed by fertilizer plants (nitrogen),
which is followed by steel plants. Tanneries generate pollutants, such as, chloride while fertilizer
plants generate fluorides, and oil refineries generate phosphate and sulphide. Mercury based wastes
.
" are generated by caustic soda industries employing mercury cell process. Total wastewater generation
from the industries is 10,125 MId. The wastewater generation from different industries in India is
s~own in Fig. 12.1. It shows that the various major industries in India generate 10,2145 million 1I
liters of industrial wastewater daily.
j
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4000
.. 3500
aon
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~
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S:l
..•.•
- ..... 2 ,~ u
~ Q) ~ "_ ~ o
~ E ~ ~ '§
~ ~ ~ ~ g
Figure 12.1: Wastewater Generation from different Industries in India.
Source: Assessment of Industrial Pollution (PROBES/92/2002-03),
I
c.P.c.B. Publication
12.4 IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT ON 1

ENVIRONMENT AND HUMANS
Industrial pollutants bring about many physical and chemical changes in water for instance suspended
particles cause turbidity. Dyes, chromium and iron compounds change the colour of water. The 1 J
taste of water is severely affected by detergents, phenols and oil. Metallic contamination of water . ~
has immediate as well as far-reaching effects on human health. A few major heath consequences of
industrial water pollution are mentioned below.
-"
l
I
• Phosphorus and nitrates from fertilizers and detergents contaminate surface water where they 1
act as nutrients and promote the growth of oxygen consuming algae, which reduces the
dissolved oxygen level of water, killing fishes and other aquatic organisms. This phenomenon
j
I
is known as eutrification. J
I
• Industrial effiuents result in the addition of poisonous chemicals, such as, arsenic, mercury.
cadmium and lead. These kill aquatic organisms and their concentration is accumulated many
times as we go higher in the food chain. Consuming such contaminated food can have a
calamitous effect on the health of humans.
7
'. Industrial eftluents (petroleum refineries, paper mills, breweries, tanneries and slaughter houses)
.contaminate the water with organic pollutants, These provide nutrition for microorganisms.
which decompose the organic matter and consume oxygen and reduce the dissolved oxygen
(DO) level of the aquatic system thereby killing aquatic organisms.
• Non-biodegradable pesticides (especially organo-chlorines) travel through food chains and
,"
ultimately reach humans where they accumulate in the fatty tissues and affectthe nervous
. system.
• Fluoride containing pollutants cause fluorosis, neuromuscular, respiratory, gastro-intestinal
and dental problems.
• Thermal pollution ofwaterreduces the DO level of the aquatic system, making it incapable of
supporting life.
• Oil spills and pollution have been known to be responsible for the death of many water birds
and fishes.
• Radioactive pollutants (from mining and refining of uranium, thorium and nuclear power plants )
enter humans through food and water and get accumulated in the blood, affecting thyroid
gland, liver, bones and muscles.
• Heavy metals in the industrial wastewater are a serious threat to human health. The likely
pathological effects of various heavy metals are listed in Table 12.3.
Table 12.3: Pathological Effects of Heavy Metals (Water Pollution) on Humans.
S.No. Metal Pathological Effect

1. Mercury Foetal disorders.
2. Lead I Vomiting and loss of appetite; neurological disorders; kidney
damage; gastro-intestinal and pulmonary disorders; genetic
damage; anemia.
3. Arsenic Disturbed peripheral circulation; mental disorders; liver and lung
cancer; ulcer.
4. Cadmium Bone deformation; kidney damage; nervous system disorders;
growth retardation.
5. Copper Sporadic fever; hypertension.
. ..
6. Barium Excessive salivation; vomiting; diarrhea; paralysis.
7. -Zinc Renal damage; cramps.
8. Chromium Nephritis; gastro-intestinal diseases; ulcers; different cancers;
nervous system disorders.
9. Cobalt Diarrhea; low blood pressure; lung irritations; bone deformities;
paralysis. I
Source: Master, Introduction to Environmental Engineering & Science.
12.5 TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS

The proper and specific treatment of industrial effluents is necessary before its disposal into water
bodies or sewerage system, Industrial effluents and sewage may be mixed prior to treatment only
if industrial effluent meets the following quality criteria. Waste should also be homogeneous in
composition, and uniform in flow rate.
• Effluent has less suspended solids and BaD.
I
.• Eflluent is in the near neutral zone of pH.

• Eflluent is free from toxic chemical content.
It is preferable to pre-treat the industrial effluent completely before it is discharged into domestic
sewers to serve as an additional protection before final disposal.
.
"
12.5.1 Pre-Treatment of Industrial Wastes
The common methods of pre-treatment of industrial eflluents are explained below.
i) Segregation and Reduction of Waste Strength and Volume
Strong and weak wastes may be separately collected, treated, and disposed. As mixing the two
types of wastes creates large volumes, therefore treatment becomes difficult. If dilution is
advantageous, they may be combined.
The classification and grouping of different categories of wastes would help the engineer to take a
suitable decision on treatment and disposal methods.
• Disposal of cooling waters (used in steel plants), floor washings, and sullage waters is easy.
The separation ofliquid kiering wastes from textile mills and separation of chromium from
metal finishing units are also not difficult.
• A number of useful substances like grease, caustic soda, silver, potash and chromium may be
recovered for economic gains and to reduce pollution loads.
• Wastewater may be conserved by reusing or recycling within the industry, for example, white
liquors in paper industry, cooling water in steel plants.
• Process and equipment modifications may be tried to reduce the strength of waste. For
example, the use of phosphoric acid instead of sulphuric acid in pickling units and the use of
carboxymethyl cellulose in place of starch in textile mills. These changes in the process will
generate eft1uents, which are easy to treat.
ii) Equalisation and Neutralisation

Treatment units are always designed for specific characteristics and composition of inflowing or
influent wastes. Fluctuations or variations in the input quality affect the purification process. So,
storing the liquid wastes for a certain period of time and suitably mixing the various components in
a tank should maintain consistency in the quality. This process is known as equalization, and from
this unit comparatively uniform nature ofthe influent with regard to BOD or TDS can be fed into
the treatment units.
Most of the biological treatment plants function effectively within a range of 6-8.5 pH. Therefore,
for biological treatment of industrial wastes of acidic or alkaline nature, they have to be first neutralised
in a tank. The process is known as neutralisation. For example, acid wastes may be passed
through beds oflimestone. Waste fuel gas, as carbonic acid from boiler units, may be allowed to
react with caustic wastes to obtain a neutral pH value of effluent.
12.5.2 Treatment Technologies for Industrial Effluents

Before deciding the treatment technology for industrial effluents, following points should be
considered.
• The analysis of each eflluent with its rate of flow should be carried out to determine the daily,
monthly, and yearly average. Any proposed expansion of the plant should also be considered.
While fmalising the capacity ofthe wastettreatment plant), the average volume over a period
,
of24 hours should be taken. It is also essential to know the variation in concentration by
repeated analysis of the waste.
• Identification of pollutants and total pollution load.
• The concentrated effluents should be separated and treatment option should be separately
planned for concentrated as well as dilute effluents.
:
• A material balance with regard to raw materials, intermediates, and finished products should
be used to verify the position.
The industrial effluent treatment methods can be classified into three main categories, that is, physical
treatment, chemical treatment, and biological treatment.
i) Physical Treatment
The effluent treatment based on physical process and phenomena are classified under physical
treatment. In this regard, important physical treatment processes are:
• Coarse or fine screens as well as bar screens to remove large particles, wood pieces, paper,
cloth, rags, etc.
• Comminuting devices like grinders, cutters or shredders, which are employed to break up
solid materials.
• Grit chambers to arrest sand, dust, stones, cinders, and other heavy inorganic settleable'
material.
• Grease traps to remove un-emulsified oil and grease from the effluents.
• Plain sedimentation tanks to primarily remove suspended organic solids from the effluent
prior to biological treatment.
ii) Chemical Treatment

This is one of the common methods of treatment for toxic and non-organic effluent. Chemical
processes are predominant under this treatment. The following are important chemical treatment
processes:
• Neutralisation, for adjustment of pH to neutral range.
• Precipitation to remove dissolved substance, like metals and organic substance.
• Chemical destruction oftoxic substances like cyanides.
• Coagulation and flocculation are commonly used for the removal of colloidal particles.
iii) Biological Treatment

Biological treatment is generally preferred in agro-based industries that are having effluent with
organic impurities. Under this treatment process, microorganisms break down pollutants in a stable
and acceptable form. Many industrial effluents are deficient in one or the other essential nutrients,
which are essential for biological treatment. Therefore, it is always advantageous to biologically
treat them in conjunction with sewage, which provides not only the nutrients but also a heterogenous
population ofbacterial flora required for the breakdown ofthe pollutants. Biological processes
can be broadly classified as:
• aerobic, that is, biological process in the presence of oxygen; and
• anaerobic, that is, biological process in the absences of oxygen.
1 I
12.6 INDUSTRY-SPECIFIC TREATMENT SCHEMES

A variety of operations, either singly or in combination, may be employed for the treatment 01
effluent. The choice of the method of treatment is determined by the conditions of each situation,
such as, characteristics of effluents; size and capacity of water body being used for final disposal;
requirements ofthe state health department; and cost of the plant, and its operation.
.
"
While selecting the final method, it is also essential to determine its techno-economic feasibility.
for instance, the anaerobic treatment process has proven to be very effective for high-organic
wastes, like distillery wastes, tannery wastes, and slaughterhouse wastes. The aerobic process is
particularly useful for efiluents, which are not very rich in organic content, such as, dairy, distillery,
and food processing industries. Quite often, the anaerobic process has to befollowed by the
aerobic process for complete or near-complete treatment of effluent.
i) Distilleries
In distilleries, mother liquor (molasses) is acidified with sulphuric acid, supplemented with nitrogen
and phosphorus, fermented with yeast and finally distilled for obtaining ethanol. Distillery wastes
from molasses, containing high dissolved salts and ash content, are acidic and have high BOD.
About 50 litres of effluent is produced per litre of alcohol production and originates mostly from
spillages and fermenters. Potash can be recovered from spent waste. Distillery waste can be
treated by stabilisation ponds and lagoons followed by aerobic oxidation. Anaerobic digesters are
especially useful as most ofthe organics are converted into CO2, CH4 and other gases in anaerobic
digestion. Biogas and fertilizer are a by-product from this process. '
Distillery Anaerobic Aerobic Polishing Effluent

waste ---. lagoons lagoons ponds
ii) Fertilizer Industry
Fertilizer units mainly produce nitrogenous or phosphate compounds or a combination of them.

The presence of these compounds in the effluent from fertilizer plants depends upon the nature of
fertilizers being produced in the plant. Approximately 500 litres of effluent is generated in the
production of one ton of urea. In nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizer industries, sulphuric acid,
nitric acid, phosphoric acid, CO2, ammonia, rock phosphates, coal, naphtha, etc., are used as raw
materials. Oil is removed by oil separators, followed by coke absorption. Lime addition and c1ari-
flocculation neutralises and precipitates impurities like fluorides, and phosphates. Air stripping
helps in the recovery of acids. Ammonia and ethanol are stripped off in a distillation tower by
means of steam. Air stripping at high pH, dissociates ammonia, and further converts ammonia into
nitrates. It is aerobically converted into nitrogen and finally sludge is removed in lagoons or
settling tanks.
~Amrnonrn ~I Nrtrification~ ~oo
I Urea I Effluent
1
iii) Paper Industry
Cellulose containing wood material is cooked in caustic soda and sodium sulphide mixture, under
controlled temperature and pressure. Spent liquor (black liquor) is used for the recovery of caustic
soda, while pulp is washed and bleached with chlorine. In the process, sulphate is reduced to
sulphide and is converted to sodium hydroxide with lime treatment. The white liquor thus obtained
,"
is sent to digesters. Pulp is used in paper manufacturing by adding dyes, alum and talc to fibres. A
large volume of water is required to dilute pulp. The recovery of chemicals and fibres reduces the
pollution load. Lignin is recovered from black liquor after precipitating with lime and alum coagulation
treatment. Sedimentation and floatation is a reliable treatment. Lagooning is an economical option
for the removal of up to 80 per cent BOD. Activated sludge treatment is also a common treatment
process for paper and pulp mill wastes.
Waste
----.
Lime
treatment r----+ I Clarifie~
r Anaerobic
lagoons
r----+ Aerobic
lagoons
~
uent
iv) Refineries and Petrochemical Industries
Processing and cooling operations generate an effluent volume of20 m' per ton of crude production
in oil refinery units. Major pollutants are oil (500 mgIL) and chemicals, such as, acids, alkalies,
sulphides (50 mgIL) phenols (50 mgIL), and BOD (500 mgIL).
Depending upon the chemical process of manufactured items, the effluent pH, BOD, solids, sulphides,
phenols etc., can be estimated. Gravity separators and sedimentation cum air flotation tanks are
used to remove oily substances. For emulsified oils, the coagulation method is used while sulphides
are removed by aeration. Biological (aerobic) treatment is also very effective. Oxidation ponds
remove BOD, sulphides, phenols and oils to a satisfactory level.
Air floatation and clarifloculators, separate free as well as emulsified oil. Neutralisation, activated
sludge process, and oxidation ponds are suggested units of treatment. Cyanides, fluorides and
sulphides in effluent streams are segregated and should be treated separately. Sulphides are
precipitated by the addition of ferric chloride. Fluorides are precipitated by the addition oflime or
absorbed using activated alumina or activated alum treated carbon. Cyanides are removed by
alkaline chlorination and later treated in aerobic biological units.
----.
Waste Oil
seperator
Aeration
'----__
Lime
----'FeCI.
I Clarifier I ~
---"I
Trickling filtere
or oxidation
ditches
----. Settling
terk
~
uent
v) Pharmaceuticals Industries
Basic drugs and various formulations are manufactured in pharmaceutical industries. Effluent quantity
and characteristics depend on the nature of products and processes. Antibiotic plants yield effluents
with a pH value of 4-5, whereas sulpha drug unit effluents have the pH of about 9. The BOD varies
from 1,000 to 10,000 mg/l, and total solids ranges from 10,000 to 50,000 mg/l. Wastes mostly
come from filtration and distillation units. Neutralisation, extended aeration, chemical oxidation,
filtration, and oxidation ponds are employed f~r treating pharmaceutical wastes. Chemical treatment
with ferrous sulphate or alum is also useful. Although anaerobic lagoons are widely used, aeration
units followed by clarifiers are also adopted in some cases. .
1
Activated
sludge
process
Return sludge
'.
vi) Treatment of Toxic Chemicals
Apart from conventional effluent treatment methods, industrial wastes require different processes
to treat toxic chemicals, for example chromium, phenol, mercury and nitrogen.
Heavy metals like Ni, Zn are chemically precipitated and then removed. Lead is precipitated as
carbonate or phosphate. Fluoride is precipitated as Ca or AI fluoride. Phosphates are removed as
trica1cium phosphate using lime. Cyanide (CN) is removed by treatment with alkali and chlorine.
Adsorption is used for removing colour, odour and phenol, etc. Activated carbon is most commonly
used to remove odorous pollutants from industries.
Removal of Chromium
Hexavalent chromium is toxic (0.1 mg/l threshold limit) and is present in the effluent oftanning,
electroplating, fertilizer and other industries manufacturing some organic chemicals. Chemical
processes usually remove chromium. The following are different procedures for removing chromium
from effluents.
• Hexavalent Chromium (Cr+6) is reduced to Trivalent Cr+3 by the addition of sulphuric acid
and FeSO 4 (at pH 2-3). Later on, it can be precipitated in settling tanks after neutralising with
NaOH or Ca(OH)2' It is the most economical method.
.• Cationic resins can be used for the recovery of chromuim in the form of sodium chromate or
chromic acid. The regeneration ofthe resins is practiced with NaCI or H2SO 4 solutions.
• Lime coagulation (precipitation and settling) and adsorption with activated carbon is also
feasible.
• Sometimes, the reverse osmosis process with suitable semi-permeable membrane is also
adopted.
Removal of Phenol
Phenols are present in the effluent released by chemical, petroleum, pharmaceutical, plastic,
metallurgical, printing, and textile units. The following techniques are used for the removal of phenol.
• Oxidizing agents, such as hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate, and sulphur dioxide,
help in reducing phenolic compounds.
• Steam stripping, adsorption, ion exchange, and solvent extraction are other common methods
practiced.
Removal of Mercury
Chloro-alkali plants, mining industry, paper and pulp mills and pesticides units are the main sources
of mercury. Methyl mercury is more toxic and it accumulates with the food chain.
• By adding H2S or Na2S, mercury can be precipitated as sulphide, which can be removed by
settling process. FeCl3 may be added as coagulant.
y
,~---~---~--~~---
.• Acti vated carbon, clays and silica gels are used for adsorption of mercury.
• Mercury salts in solutions may be reduced by the additionof active metals like iron.
• Natural or synthetic resins may be used ih the process of ion exchange for the removal of
mercury.
;. Removal of Nitrogen
Nitrogenous compounds (ammonia) are mainly produced by fertilizer industries. The following
methods may be adopted for its treatment.
• Bacteriological and algal symbiosis in a stabilisation pond by adjusting pH to neutral range. It
is a low-cost treatment method.
• Aeration with large quantities of air at high pH at 10 to 11 by the addition oflime.
• Nitrification under aerobic conditions at pH 8-9 and denitrification under anaerobic conditions
with suitable microorganisms are suitable procedures in conventional treatment units.
• Ion exchange or reverse osmosis process.
12.7 GOVERNMENTINITIATNES
Government ofIndia formulated the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act in 1974 to
prevent the pollution of water bodies by industrial, agricultural and municipal wastewater. Controlling
the source of generation by monitoring levels of different pollutants is one of the effective ways to
prevent pollution. Different discharge standards have been fixed under this Act for wastewater
receiving bodies, such as, rivers, lakes, sewers and so on.
12.8 CONCLUSION
This Unit has discussed industrial eflluent pollution, i.e., industrial waste water pollution in India. It
described the characteristics ofindustrial eflluents and important toxic compounds present in industrial
waste. It also explained the effects of industrial effluent on environment and human health. In
addition, it dealt with the national scenario of industrial eflluent generation and its characteristics.
The philosophies of~dustrial eflluent treatment along with the specific treatment for a few industries
and toxic parameters have been discussed in the end.
12.9 KEY CONCEPTS

Chemical pollution The eflluent which is not organically degradable, or cannot be treated
by a biological process.
Effluent Wastewater generated in the manufacturing process of industrial
products.
Equalisation Storing the liquid wastes for a certain period of time and mixing in a
holding tank for reducing the fluctuation in effluent quality and
discharge.
Eutrification When phosphorus and nitrates from industrial eflluents are discharged .
in a water body, they act as nutrients and promote the growth of
oxygen, consuming algae which reduce the dissolved oxygen level
of water, killing fish and other aquatic organisms. This phenomenon
is known as eutrification.
y
. Neutralisation Industrial wastes of high acidic or alkaline nature are neutralised in a

tank or pond to obtain a neutral pfI value of effluent.
Organic load Amount of organic waste (degradable) in terms ofkglday (tonnesl
day).
Segregation Strong and weak wastes, or waste 'of different characteristics may
,.,
be separately collected, treated, and disposed.

Beiselievere, Edmund B., 1996,The Treatment of Indus trial Waste, McGraw-Hill, New York,
USA
Davis and Cornwell, 1991, Introduction to Environmental Engineering, International Edition,
McGraw-Hill, New York, USA
Eckfender, W.Wesley, 1998, Industrial WaterPollution Control, International Edition, McGraw-
Hill, New York, USA
Gilbert, M. Master, 1991, Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science, Prentice
Hall of India, New Delhi.
Government ofIndia, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Assessment of Industrial Pollution
(PROBES/92/2002-03) C.P.c.B., New Delhi.
Mahajan, S.P., 1991, Pollution Control in Process Industries, Tata MacGrawhill, New Delhi.
Peavy, Rowe and Tchokanoglous, 1998, Environmental Engineering, International Edition,
McGraw-Hill, New York, USA
Rao, M.N. and AK. Datta, 1978, Waste Water Treatment, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi.
12.11 ACTIVITIES
1) Make a survey oflocal water bodies especially in area around industries and try to locate a
eutrification state.
2) Visit an electroplating industry; draw the process flow diagram and record pH of each unit
with the help of pH paper.
3) Apply the concept of segregation and reduction of waste strength and volume in nearby dairy
industry and prepare the report of the same.
UNIT 13 ROAD ACCIDENTS
Structure
13.1 Introduction
,
"
13.2 Road Accidents in India
13.3 Causes of Road Accidents
13.4 Impacts of Road Accidents
13.5 RoadAccidents: Disaster Management
13.6 RoadAccidents: Statutory Provisions
13.7 Conclusion
13.8 Key Concepts
13.10 Activities
13.0 IJEARNING OUTCOME

• Describe the road accidents scene in India;
• Discuss the causes and impacts of road accidents;
• Bring out the disaster management aspects of road accidents;
• Explain the statutory provisions in respect of road accident; and .
• Highlight the steps to improve the safety culture and disaster management related to road
accidents.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Population in India, in the past decades, has grown considerably and public transport facilities
have not kept pace with the increasing demand. In fact facilities have decelerated in terms of
quality owing to deterioration from overuse and excessive load. This has led to undesirable
consequences like undue growth in the number of private vehicles/ forms of "personalised" transport
like two/three wheelers, which have added considerably to road traffic and led to consequent
crowding on the roads. Freight traffic on roads has also increased manifold and adds to the problem.
The amount of road traffic and traffic mix is dependant on population growth and the general
economic growth along with factors related to purchasing power of the road users. Most 'at risk'
are the pedestrians who run the risk oflosing their lives whenever they move out. During the year
2004, 1536 people were <
killed in 1782 fatal accidents in Delhi (delhitrafficpolice.nic.inl
roadaccidents). Infrastructure in terms of road quality, traffic signals, and geometric intersections
et al is quite inadequate, which reduces the capacity of the system to adapt quickly to changing
requirements. Town planning is also incremental/piecemeal in nature, since it is not practicable to
introduce large-scale changes/restructuring. As a result, incongruity remains like wholesale goods
centers are located in the heart of a city, which contribute to serious traffic congestion.
13.2 ROAD ACCIDENTS IN INDIA

A comprehensive document prepared by Transportation Research and Injury Prevention Programme
(TRIPP) brings out the magnitude of the problem in India and abroad. It gave the first official data
of accidents in 2002, recording 80,118 deaths and 342,200 injuries on Indian roads but conceded
," at the same time that many cases went unreported, and 1,200,000 required hospitalisation.
Significantly, the number of road deaths on highways has been observed as 32 per cent pedestrians,
,24per cent motorized two wheelers (MTW), 15 per cent cars, and 1per cent bicycle riders. But
in a city like Delhi, pedestrian fatalities were 52 per cent followed by 21 per cent on MTWs,
10 per cent on cycles and 4 per cent in case of cars. Trucks and buses inflicted more injuries and
fatalities than they suffered themselves. Road accidents are increasing menace on the Indian Roads.
To corroborate on the strength ofthe data, supplied by Chakraborty and Mehta (2001), following'
.. statements can be made .
• "Somebody dies on an Indian road every seven minutes; and another is seriously injured,
every two minutes.
• A total of75,000 people are killed every year in India in road accidents, the highest in the
world; another 350,000 are seriously injured.
• Apart from the human and social loss, just the economic loss arising out of road accidents in
India is estimated at Rs 5000 crore per year.
• National Highways comprise only 1.5 per cent of the entire road network, but account for
25 per cent of all accidents, and a shocking 34 per cent of f~talities."
Following table depicts the total picture of the road accidents in India during the period 1970-
1995. But we should remember that the real accident scenario is much more grim because a large
number of cases remain unreported.
Table 13.1 Road Accidents in India
Year No. of No.of No. of No. of Total

registered accidents persons persons (thousands)
motor (thousands) killed injured
vehicles (thousands) (thousands)
(thousands)
1970 140.1 114.1 14.5 70.1 84,6
,
1971 1865 120.2 15.0 70.7 85.7
1972 2045 122.3 16.l 76.4 92.5
1973 .2109 12.l6 17.6 79.3 , 96.9
1974 . 2327 114.3 17.3 76.7 94.0
1975 p 2472 116.8 16.9 77 93.9
1976 2400 124.7 17.3 82.5 100.3
1977 3260 135.4 20.l 95.6 115.7
1978 3614 146.3 21.8 99.5 121.3
1979 4059 144.4 22.6 102.9 125.5
1980 4521 153.2 24.6 109.l 133.7
1981 5391 161.2 28.4 114 142.6
1982 6055 166.2 30.7 126 156.7
1983 6973 177 32.8 134.l 166.9
1
---------~~~-- ~
Road Accidents 149
1984 7949 195 35.1 - 156.2 171.1

1985 9170 207 ; 39.2 163.4 202.6
1986 10577 215.5 40 176.4 216.4
1987 12618 234' 44.4 139 234.4
"
1988' 14818 246.7 46.6 214.8 261'.4
1989 16920 270 50.7 229.7 280.4
1990 19152 282.6 54.1 244.1 298.2
1991 21374 294 56.6 257.2 '313.8
1992 23507 259.3 57.2 . 270 327.2
1993 25505 279.3 60.3 289.7 350.5
1994 27660 315.7 64.0 312.1 376.1
1995 30287 328.1 59.9 307.1 367..0
Source: Motor Transport Statistics of India-1996, Transport Research Wing, MOST, GOI, New
Delhi.
The above table is self-explanatory. It can be seen quite clearly that road accident fatalities have
been constantly on the rise over the past decades. In the context of road accidents, Table 13. 2
highlights the road accidental deaths accordirig to type of vehicles.
Table 13.2: Road accidental deaths according to type of vehicles during 1998
Types of Vehicles No. of Accidental deaths Percentage share
TruckILorry 19731 25.7

Bus 13007 17.0
TempoNan 5429 7.1
Jeep 6890 9.0
Car 4777 6.2
,-'
Three- wheeler 2763 3.6

Two-wheeler 8098 10.6
Bicycle 2954 3.8
Pedestrians 7657 10.0
Others 5426 7.1
TOTAL 76732 100.0
Source: Adapted from Sanjay K. Singh, 2001.
It is evident from the above table (13.2) that trucks, lorries and buses share the major part of onus
for accidents on the road. There is need for greater vigilance over driving standards with regard to
these vehicles. Looking at casualties, there is probably need for traffic diversions and innovative
schemes for the same. Since innovation is the most important feature for organisational relevance,
perhaps rigid bureaucracy and lack of commitment, and application on the part of the administrative
machinery accounts for the lack of it.
13.3 CAUSES OF ROAD ACCIDENTS

Certain institutional and behavioural factors account for fatalities from road accidents. Few ofthe
glaring causes will be discussed in this section. The following statistics provided by Moorthy and
1
. .
Kamick (2005) make the picture clear with regard to causes of road accidents. Studies reveal
that:
• improper driving causes 77 per cent of the road accidents; I
• defective vehicles are responsible for more than 6 per cent accidents;
,"
•
•
. pedestrians contribute to 4 per cent accidents; and
cyclists contribute to 3 per cent ofthe road accidents in India.
j
The inference drawn by the authors is that development of a culture of safety is the prime
requirement. Traffic rules and regulations have not been effective. Road accidents caused by
improper driving 'can be avoided ifthe drivers are careful and cautious. Besides, the existing road ~
network in the city is inadequate and not maintained properly.
Lack of effective mass transport system provides the incentive to private/personalised modes of
transport. As per Singh and Misra, the pressure on roads in terms of increasing vehicular population
shows an increase of about 67 fold in the span of twenty years (4,384 registered motor vehicles in
1981 to 2,94,164 in 2001). In the case study ofPatna City they observed, "The roads in the city
are congested and encroached by other activities. Bus services in particular have deteriorated, and
their efficiency and quality of service have been declining thus inducing passengers to turn to
personlized modes and IPTs. This results not only in restricting the traffic flow, but also putting the
road users' .life at a great risk. The total number of fatal accidents as well as related fatality in the
city is increasing over the years. The number of persons killed.on roads per 100 accidents are
Vf alarmingly high, as high as 45 , during the year 2000. Pedestrian deaths as a percentage of all road
fatalities are also increasingly high. During the recent years, they constitute more than 90% of all
road fatalities." (Singh and Misra, 2001).
Bad maintenance of roads is a major factor in road accidents in India. In this regard, responsibility
also lies on municipal bodies. However, town planning is affected due to certain constraints, such
as, lack of inter-organisational co..wdination as well as requisite autonomy to specialists in the
hierarchy. There are various categoriesofroad users and types of vehicles, and a big number of
violations .per day. The highway patrols have few powers over traffic enforcement or vehicle
condition, and their activity is limited, that is,just overseeing the area and move the injured to local
hospitals. The police from adjoining towns generally come out on to the highways only after a
crash. Therefore, the TRIPP has recommended a unified authority, which could be a National
Road Safety Board, independent of the road building agencies. Like the Central Pollution Board,
it should also be empowered to define policies and coordinate their implementation.
Road accident related problems are exacerbated during heavy rains when roads get flooded and
shattered. In this regard, political and bureaucratic insensitivity add to administrative bottlenecks
and create hinderance in mitigating disaster. The road construction technology is still behind the
requirement, and substantial increase in traffic has reduced considerably the average age of roads.
The number of signal lights have increased. The amount of electric power required to run all these
signals has g ne up. All these activities certainly add up to resource requirements. However,
certain state governments also do not consider it a priority issue.
Loan schemes have also contributed in substantial increase in number of vehicles as it is easy to
buy vehicle due to easy loan facilities. However maintenance is a costly proposition, which requires
awareness and expertise. Ill-kept vehicles are prone to road accidents due to break failures,
engin~ failures, tyre failures or other unpredictable breakdowns. Sustenance of the vehicle also
depends on the condition ofthe roads. Functionally, roads do not have any hierarchy as each road
changes its characteristics after a short distance. There is no scientific classification of network, in
all areas, as per speed limits or types of vehicles etc. as in developed countries, which is difficult
because of infrastructure bottlenecks .
.1
Road Accidents 151
Lack of medical facilities lead to increased fatalities in the context of road accidents in developing
countries. Hospitals at regular distances, especially in rural areas, and near accident -prone locations
are not established all over India for immediate care without advance deposit. Awareness and
importance oftrauma care are yet to be recognised and much valuable time is generally lost in
reaching to a hospital. The tending of an accident victim at most hospitals in India also leaves
"
much to be desired.
According to Chakraborty and Mehta (2001), drunken driving is a major factor in road accidents.
Drunken drivers are a menace, and there cannot be enough punishment for them (which stands
currently at Rs 2000 and/or imprisonment up to six months). Citing experts, the authors argue that
even one peg of alcohol (approximately 30ml at 42.8 per cent by volume or greater) can impair
judgement. Mobile phones are the other serious hazards ifused while driving and many believe
that using a mobile phone while driving is far more dangerous than driving under the influence of
alcohol.
Traffic violations on the part of pedestrians by avoiding traffic signals during crossing roads, weaving
into the traffic by auto rickshaw and two wheeler drivers, and excessive speeding by reckless bus
drivers are the causes of most accidents. In Metro towns, especially in Delhi, young persons (less
than 18 years )not yet eligible to get driving license often resort to speed driving in big cars and
cause serious accidents. Lack of patience leads to frequent quarrels, swearing at slightest mistake,
and even beating to death. _
13.4 IMPACTS OF ROAD ACCIDENTS

Fatality rates in developing countries like India (defined as, road accident deaths per 10,000
vehicles) are quite high in comparison to developed countries. While traffic management scenario
has shown encouraging signs in E,urope and North America, the situation of management seems to
worsen in the developing countries. In terms ofrnoney, road accidents cost at least one per cent
of GNP every year. The proportion of commercial and public service vehicles that are involved in
road accidents are often much greater. It is estimated that in India total economic loss due to road
accidents is of Rs. 60 billion (Rs,6000 Crores) each year. It has been observed through data
analysis of road accidents in Patna city that most at risk is the economically active segment of
working adults in the age group of 18-20. The cost oflives, livlihoods of earning members and
other expenses from accidents has been estimated by insurance, World Bank, and other studies.
13.5 ROAD ACCIDENTS: DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The major factors for Road Safety (Moorthy and Karnick, 2005) are as under:
i) The amount of road traffic in a specific geographic area.
iI) The proportion of various types of road users.
ill) Condition and network of roads in the specific area.
iv) Fitness level of the vehicles on the road.
v) Implementation oflaw for the traffic.
vi) How well the road users are educated about the conditions of roads and traffic rules?
vii) Attitude of the users, and their concern for other road users.
viii) The driving skills, and maneuvering of the road users.
ix) Mindset of the driver to drive.
7
. -
. Traffic regulation on Indian highways is necessary to mitigate the road accidents. It has been
observed that fast cars, tractors, and cattle cannot move together on highways and about
70 per cent ofthe traffic on highways is local traffic moving towards a major metropolis. Therefore,
it is suggested that India needs to follow strict traffic rules and regulations.
Certain Do's and Don'ts are prescribed, as follows, for safe commuting/driving for road safety:
.. D Pedestrian discipline is absolutely vital. Look left and right while crossing the road, use the
zebra crossing; walk to the left'; do not shuttle between vehicles to cross the road; and,
, generally, keep cool.
ii) Traffic regulation is vital. Buses should not be overloaded; pedestrians should not board or
alight from a moving bus or expose parts oftheir body outside the vehicle or never stand on
the footboard.
ill) Certain specific guidelines for motorized vehicles are as follows:
• Motorized two wheelers (MTW) should keep speed ofthe vehicle under control to gain
time to be able to take corrective measures in case of sudden checks or when put under
duress.
• MTW riders should make themselves clearly visible during day and night. Colours
recommended for the purpose are yellow and orange. Hence, yellow or orange coloured
vests,jackets and helmets should be worn. Reflective strips should be pasted on all
sides ofthe helmet and at the front, back and side of the vehicle.
• Dipper should invariably be used at night. Proper helmet should be used, which should
be with proper padding and foam liners, and full-face helmet made of glass fiber.
• Overtaking from the left should never be attempted. Riders should stick to the left lane;
leave the right-side for faster traffic.
• "
The engine should be kept tuned, that is, to avoid pollution.
iv)
...
Guidelines for buses and trucks, involved in most number of accidents on the road, are:
• Speed governors are absolutely necessary to avoid accidents; speed limit for heavy
trucks and buses should not be more than 40 kmph.
• Entry and exit points at bus stations should be monitored to avoid crowding or parallel
standing, movement of people between plying vehicles etc. to avoid confusion which
could possibly result in mishaps due by way of unforeseen regulatory hurdles.
• Heavy vehicles should not monopolise the road.however, they should leave adequate
space for other vehicles to ply conveniently on the road.
• Excess material, weight, and volume should not be loaded on bus and truck.
• Fuel injection system should always be in good condition.
• Since highways are accident prone, regular stops should be provided for buses especially
to keep drivers' concentration alert and avoid "highway hypnosis."
v) Rickshaw pullers and auto-drivers face hazards while travelling on roads, therefore, they
should follow the following guidelines.
• They should always stick to the left side ofthe road, as there are relatively slow vehicles.
• They should not attempt to weave into the traffic, which may cause accident.
• They should stay close to the pavement, when looking for customers.
• They should be customer friendly.
Road Accidents 153
• They should not use horn unnecessarily, but only in case of danger or emergency.
vi) Motorists should be sensitive to their responsibility to mitigate accidentas in the following
context.
• Be considerate towards pedestrians and cyclists while crossing the road.
," • Use horn to avert emergency situations, not unnecessarily otherwise.
• Not over jump the traffic light; give way to pedestrians and the other vehicles at critical
traffic junctures.
• Keep speed in check; observe parking restrictions; keep vehicle in good condition; and
follow traffic signals. -.
,~.
• Remember that a good driver is considerate, courteous, drives safe, concentrates on

driving and road. He/She should not use mobile phone, listen music etc. while driving;
drives defensively, make allowances for the other driver, not expect it in turn.
• Avoid driving, if suffering from a medical condition like, hypoglycernia, hyperglycernia,
sleep apnea, heart problem and dementia.
• Never ever drive under the influence of alcohol or any other drug that could affect
" attention and judgement. This should be the cardinal principle even if it is taken in small
quantity.
• Drive slowly especially in rains to avoid hydroplaning.
• Observe rules; avoid following vehicles too closely, which is called, 'tailgating.'
.
Certain specific instructions in case of certain specific situations have been Issued by the Chandigarh
Traffic Police, which are mentioned below.
D In case of on going construction work, one should obey the warning signs, adjust speed as
per directions and condition. One should not attempt to change lanes, and should watch out
for workers and vehicles on the road. If the lane is blocked and no one is directing traffic,
driver should let the opposite vehicle pass and move carefully and slowly round the obstacle,
once the way is clear.
ii) One should be alert and slow down if a stray animal comes across the road because animals
are a major cause of road accidents.
ill) One should avoid:
• Using mobile phones or laptops; use voice mail in case of emergency calls, or slow
down to the left side and attend, if it is too urgent.
• Eating or drinking while driving.
• Talking with other passengers.
• Attending-to children while driving.
• Adjusting the control of the music system, while driving.
• One should get to the left side and slow down, in case an emergency vehicle passes by.
Certain steps to make road commuting safe and efficient, which are recommended by Moorthy
and Karnik (2005) are stated below.
• Make road safety rules compulsory especially in school curricula for students.
• Address the safety of pedestrians and bicyclists, in road planning and designing a policy
programme.
7
• Replace level crossings with over-bridges in India.

• Provide retro-reflective road signs, and clear thermoplastic road markings on the roads.
• Enforce the use of helmets for two-wheeler drivers, all over the country.
• Set-up road safety committees, right down to the Panchayat level.
," • Enforce modifications in specifications of critical components, such as, brakes, reflectors,
indicators, and headlights in the vehicles.
• Introduce a multi-model transport network comprising rail corridors, underground metros,
and-bus-ways in metropolitan areas.
• Ensure that traffic signals must function during the night and on holidays also.
• Make breath analyser tests mandatory on highways, and ensure punishment to drunken drivers.
• Provide round-the-clock wayside amenities for drivers to relax especially on high traffic , I
density corridors. These projects can be brought to fruition only by cross-disciplinary and
cross-administrative initiatives, backed by legislation wherever necess~.
• It may be useful to observe other countries having similar problems especially in what they
are doing to make their.roads safe. The right education building driving skill, and road discipline
is the key to road safety. There are web-based driving schools, which are recognised and
authorised by many states in the USA. These portals provide service to road users in different
states in the country as per the rules and regulations. It is suggested that defensive driving is
considered one ofthe most effective techniques in safe driving.
• The safest driving practice is supposed to be defensive practice. One must assume the
responsibility of safe driving oneself, at the same time, be accommodative of others' faults on
the road. One should follow the rules and not try to hit anybody, irrespective of whether ~..
others are following the rules or not. Assuming that other user may not follow the rule, be
prepared for it all the time on the road.
1
13.6 ROAD ACCIDENTS: STATUTORY PROVISIONS
J
. I
It is obligatory on the part of driver or other person in-charge ofthe vehicle involved in the accident
to carry the injured immediately to the medical practitioner. In this process, the medical practitioner
has to attend to such injured persons without waiting for procedural fonnalities.(Sec.134 ofthe
Motor Vehicles (MY) Act.) .
The amount of compensation to road accident victims on the basis of principles of fault liability
, both in the case of death and permanent disability has been doubled. (Sec. 140 (2) ofM.VAct.)
Vehicle owner who is carrying dangerous or hazardous goods will also take a policy under Public
Liability Act. It is with a view to provide compensation to the victims of oil tankers etc., who are
affected by the spillover liquids. (Sec. 146 ofM.VAct.)
The amount of compensation provided to the victims of hit and run cases has been doubled. (Sec.
161(3) ofM.V Act)
For payment of compensation to victims in road accident, a pre-determined formula is evolved
and the amount of compensation has been calculated, based on this formula.
Other salient features are that the compensation shall be paid on the basis of "No fault" , that is, the
claimants will not have to prove no fault ofthe victims.
If the claimant feels that the amount prescribed on the basis of pre-determined formula is
unacceptable, a claim can be filedunder the existing provisions. The adjudicating authorities in all
cases will, however, be the Motor Accidents Claims Tribunals.(Sec 163(A) ofM.V Act)
I I
Road Accidents 155
. .
'The road accident victims can file a claim at their discretion for compensation with a Tribunal in the
jurisdiction of the place of accidents, or on their place of residence. (Sec. 166(2) ofM.VAct.)
. i
The fixed time limit of six months or 12 months, subject to the discretion of the Tribunal, for filing
a claim application has been deleted. Now, the claim application can be filed at any time.(Sec.166(3)
ofM. V:Act.).
.
"
''The Claims Tribunal is authorised to treat the report of the Police Officer as an application for
compensation (Sec. 166( 4) ofM. V Act. )".
(Read at the official web site ofAndhra Pradesh).
13.7 CONCLUSION
.
, In this Unit, we have described the road accident scenario in India bringing out the causes and
impacts of road accidents. Disaster managen lent aspects in respect of road accidents have been
discussed at length and Do's and Don'ts have been identified. Finally the important statutory
provisions that cover road accidents have been listed.
13.8 KEY CONCEPTS

Dementia . Dementia is progressive impairment of the brain function. In the
beginning it appears as forgetfulness but develops into a complicated
problem later on like memory loss, disorientation, language skills etc.
Highway Hypnosis Long drives on the highway can be tiring. Drivers can lose concentration
due to lack of sleep/overexertion. This has been reported as major
cause of road accidents on the highway. Hence, rest intervals should
be mandatory; there could be suitable legislation and administrative
facility to regulate behaviour.
Hydroplaning When rain begins to fall heavily, vehicles may hydroplane. It means
certain vehicles might ride on a layer of water owing to buoyant force,
and not on the roadway. The safety precaution recommended in this
case is that the driver should go as slow as possible in such conditions.
Hyperglycemia Increased blood sugar level among diabetic patients can induce a
feeling of tiredness which can affect the ability to drive safely.
Hypoglycemia Reduced blood sugar levels among diabetics, who take insulin or tablets
for diabetes, (except metbormin) can impair driving skill and cause
accidents.
MOST Ministry of Surface Transport, Government of India.
Sleep Apnea Risk of falling asleep while driving on the road.

Chakraborty, Ritujoy & Rishad Mehta, 2001, "Accidents and Insurance: In Focus", Autocar, at
http://www.indiacar.com
Halder, Dilip, 2006, Urbn Transport in India: Crisis and Cure, Bokwell, New Delhi.
Moorthy, Krishna V & Bhaskar Kamick,(2005), "I DRIVE SAFELY - Let Peace Prevail on our
Roads", at http://www.nhair,org
7
Official web site of the Transport Department, Government of Andhra Pradesh, India at http://
wwwaptransport.org/htmlaccidentsap.htm .
"Safe Driving", at http://www.chandigarhtrafficpolice.org/readytodrivephp.
Singh.K; Sanjay and Ashish Misra, "Road Accident Analysis: A Case Study ofPatna City",
;' Urban Transport Journal, December 2001, 2(2).
http://www.delhipolice.nic. in
13.10 ACTIVfI'IES
1) Ifpossible, visit an accident prone area in your City. On the basis of your analysis prepare a
report of the causes of road accidents in the selected area.
.
,
2) Explain the role of driver in mitigating road accidents, and suggest the necessary measures to
be adopted for road safety.
UNIT 14 RAIL ACCIDENTS
Structure
14.1 Introduction
.
"
14.2 Rail Accidents: Causes and Impacts
14.2.1· Causes of Rail Accidents
14.2.2 Impacts of Rail Accidents
14.3 Disaster Management: Rail Accidents

14.3.1 Predictability
14.3.2 Possible Risk Reduction Measures
14.3.3 Specific Preparedness Measures
14.3.4 Rescue and Relief
14.4 Disaster Management: Constraints

14.5 Lessons Learnt
14.6 Conclusion
14.7. Key Concepts

14.9 Activities
14.0 LEARNINGOUTCOME
• Understand the causes and impacts of railway accidents;
• Explain the management of railway accidents in India;
• Discuss the constraints in management of railway accidents;
• Describe the lessons learnt on the basis of past experiences and practices; and
• Highlight the post-disaster needs.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Amongst all man-made disasters, railway accidents probably comprise the one single category
which arouses maximum hue and cry amongst the media and travelling public; generates intense
discussionson safety of the existing railway system; and causes both severe concern as also
serious apprehension throughout the country. This is more so because the railway system as it has
developed over time, is considered to be comparatively safer than other modes of transport. In
addition, it is also the most common mode of transport used by the general public. Hence, any
failure in this sector is generally considered to be fraught with the gravest consequences.
Safety expectations of averag~ railway user are becoming more and more stringent. Risk levels,
which were admissible, a few years ago, are now considered totally unacceptable. Furthermore,
commercial and political competition has made the race to safer world a much more desirable and
J
. achievable reality than it was a few years ago. Railways, particularly in developing countries, need
to improve safety levels to meet international standards.
The present Unit on 'Rail Accidents' covers causal analysis and vulnerability for railway accidents,
their preventive mechanism and most important of all, post -accident disaster management once a
mishap has already occurred.
.. To be able to lead a completely risk-free life is a Utopian dream. It is well known that even
seemingly harmless objects and innocuous situations can sometimes lead to accidents. Therefore,
risk is an element of everyday life, and so are accidents. To eliminate accidents altogether would
mean enormous investments and possibly unacceptable counter-measures. In spite ofthe above
disclaimer, study of safety in railways is progressively becoming more important.
14.2 " RAILACCIDENTS: CAUSES AND IMPACTS

.
,
In railway terminology, the term 'accident' envelopes a wide spectrum of occurrences which not
only affect safety but also cause interference with normal working. These occurrences, which may
not necessarily mean a mishap, include failures of railway equipment, such as, engines, rolling
stock, permanent way (track), signals etc.
According to the Northern Railway Accident Manual, "Any occurrence which does or may affect
safety ofthe Railway, its engines, rolling stock, permanent way, works, passengers or servants or
which affects the safety of others or which does or may cause delays to trains or loss to the
Railway" is defmed as an accident.
However, accidents are those which fall in the categories of collisions, derailments, accidents at
level crossings, fires in trains etc., resulting in injury or loss oflife, which agitate the public mind and
come in for severe criticism. By and large rail users judge the record of safety of rail travel by the
incidence of these accidents.
Every railway accident, which causes loss of human lives or serious damage to railway property of
the value exceeding Rs. 25lakhs or which causes interruption of any important line of communication
for at least 3 hours is deemed to be a serious accident.
Trend of Accidents
As a result of various safety measures, total number of accidents have come down from 2131
during 1960-61 to 414 during 2001-02 despite increase in traffic. Accidents per million train
kms., which is the universally accepted index of safety has also come down from 5.5 accidents/
mtkm. in 1960-61 to 0.65 accidents/mtkm. during 2000-01.
The category-wise comparative position of train accidents since 1960 is mentioned in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1: Types of Rail Accidents
Type ,. 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01

Collisions 130 59 69 41 2
Derailments 1415 648 825 446 350
L-Xing 181 121 90 36 084
Fire 405 12 29 9 17
Total Accidents 2131 840 1013 532 453

(Mtkm) (5.5) (1.8) (2.0) (0.86) (0.65)
7
Rail Accidents 159
14.2.1 Causes of Rail Accidents

Cause-wise analysis of railway accidents indicates that on an average, 2/3 rd ofthese are attributable
to human failures, either directly or indirectly. This high percentage of accidents on account of
human failures is nothing peculiar to Indian Railways. In transport industry, including road and
aviation sector, generally 60-70 per cent of accidents occur dueto human failure. The above
.. contention is borne out by the fact that during the last 40 years, despite overall reduction in number
of accidents, percentage of accidents occurring on account of human failures has more or less
remained at the same level of around 67 per cent.
Table 14.2: Causes of Rail Accidents
Causes 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02

1.
.
Human Failure
i) Failure of Railway Staff 268 287 293 248
ii) Failure of persons other
than Railway Staff 63 105 109 103
2. Equipment Failures
i) Rolling Stock 9 12 16 11
ii) Track 24 12 17 13
iii) Electrical - 3 - -
iv) S&T - 1 - -
3. Sabotage. 11 21 19 14
4. Combination of Factors 1 - 4 -
5. Incidental 14 15 11 20
6. Cause not established 7 7 4 5
Total 397 463 473 414
Factors contributing to vulnerability

The need to use existing infrastructure more intensively has resulted in more risky operations by
reducing safety margins that were available earlier. For instance, there is now a great effort to
reduce idle time on tracks by increasing the speed of trains and at the same time reducing the
headway between successive trains. From safety point of view, each of these steps leads to higher
risks. Equipment failures that result in abnormal working conditions further compound this.
Cumulatively these factors have an adverse impact on the stress level of staff making them prone to
committing a mistake. It is needless to say that all of these elements taken together multiply the risk
of an accident several times over.
Safety in railways irtmost developing countries is influenced by the following constraints.
i) High level of dependency on human element.
ii) Low motivation, non-ideal working conditions for staff.
ill) Indiscipline and lack of work ethics amongst work force.
iv) Casual approach to safety amongst middle level managers.
v) Paying oflip service to safety by top management.
VI) Lack of administrative and political will.
.\
I
In addition to the above, economic vulnerability of a developing country induces the following
disadvantages as far as railway safety is concerned.
0 Skewed policies and warped prioritisation ~ investment decisions.
iI) Sanctioning of projects having either negative or low rate of return, on other than administrative
or financial considerations.
ill) Less than minimum budgetary allocation for maintenance, repair and replacement of equipment.
iv) Social burden of operating un-remunerative lines or services, and carrying traffic or goods
below cost. .
v) Siphoning off and squandering away of whatever scarce financial resources may still be
available.
vi) Dependence on unreliable and outdated infrastructure. '1
.. vii) Non - exposure to modem technologies that can help to improve safety levels.
viii) Concurrent use oftechnologies of widely different vintages resulting in the need for larger
inventories.
ix) Higher levels of pilferage, vandalism and sabotage.
14.2.2 Impacts of Rail Accidents

It is well known that accidents add to operating cost since damaged assets have to be repaired
and/or replaced. In addition they also lead to indirect financial loss by reducing earning capacity of
rolling stock that suffer detention. From customers' point of view each accident impinges on quality
of service by affecting punctuality of trains and transit times of freight. More than anything else such
accidents result in loss of transport capacity, a loss that can never be effectively recouped over any
period of time . While such indirect losses have never been accurately computed, they would
aggregate hundreds of crores every year at a rough estimate. The comparative position of damage
to railway property during four years is as under:
Table 14.3: Damage to Railways Property (Rs. Crores)
Damage 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02

1. i) Rolling Stock 45.19 72.55 36.93 32.17
ii) Permanent Way 20.05 19.09 18.31 16.46
iii) Interruption to
communication (Hours) 3,492 4,100 4,045 3220
2. . Railway Staff
i) Killed 15 33 8 14
,-
ii) Injured 59 77 27 38
3. Passengers
i) Killed 280 341 55 85
ii) Injured 615 733 286 585
4. Others .
i) Killed 194 242' 153 168
ii) Injured 178 311 175 175
·5. Total i
i) Killed 489 616 216 267.

ii) Injured 852 1121 488 778
7
Rail Accidents 161
i4.3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: RAIL ACCIDENTS

14.3.1 Predictability
Railway accidents, like most other man-made disasters, are generally caused by human or
technological failures. Hence, these are not amenable to predictions. However, statistically, their
probability Of occurrence can vary from place to place depending on numerous factors. While
theoretically, railway accidents can occur on any stretch of railway track, experience has shown
that portions of railway track having double line sections are particularly vulnerable to serious.rail
accidents. This is primarily on account ofthe high density of rail traffic on these sections. The so-
called 'Golden Quadrilateral' comprising of railway lines connecting the four metros of Delhi,
Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata and their two diagonals comprises merely 22 per cent ofIR's route
kms. but carries almost 85 per cent of its total traffic. It is on these over-saturated sections that
efficiency is at a premium since there are increasing pressures to run more and more trains with
heavier loads and at higher speeds. It is on these intensively utilised sections that majority of accidents
take place.
14.3.2 Possible Risk Reduction Measures

Following are some ofthe measures that can reduce number of accidents.
i) Laying down of safety tolerances for track.
ii) Laying down of stringent parameters for maintenance of all assets and ensuring that these are
adhered to.
iii) Timely replacement of over-aged assets.
iv) Installation oftechnological devices, such as, Auxiliary Warning System, Track circuiting etc.
so that accidents do not occur even if staff makes a mistake.
v) Proper quality training of staff and human resource development.
14.3.3 Specific Preparedness Measures

The real capability of an organisation is invariably tested by the quality of its response to a crisis.
Swiftness of response in an accident primarily depends upon various components constituting the
accident relief team being fully conversant with their areas of responsibility. Indian Railway recognises
the importance of this cardinal principle; jobs entrusted to different tiers of the organisation for
dealing with accidents have been well defined, thereby ensuring speedy, well-planned and co-
ordinated teamwork in dealing with such emergencies.
14.3.4 Rescue and Relief

However, the success of rescue operation in case of major disasters depends upon two more
things. Firstly, it depends on the availability of adequate resources both in terms of men and materials
for handling such a massive operation. Secondly, it depends on extensive teamwork and eo-
. ordinated efforts of various departments; rather than on the diligence and dedication of individual
members of the rescue team. The extent to which different services of various departments interact,
co-operate and ultimately co-ordinate with one another without any communication gap determines
the level of success in all such cases.
Action taken for Relief and Restoration

Details of action to be taken by various officials in case of serious accidents are given in the
Accident Manual. In case of a serious accident following actions are undertaken in order of priority.
i) Saving life, rescue and immediate medical aid.

it) Quick relay of information to all concerned.
ill) Transporting the injured to nearest hospital.
iv) Supply of necessary materials to accident site.
,"
v) 'Protection of passengers' belongings and railway property.
vi) Preservation of clues regarding cause of accident.
It is the moral and legal responsibility of railways to render medical aid to persons injured in a
railway accident. As such after occurrence of an accident, railways undertake medical aid to
injured along with relief and restoration operations. Safety organisation of railways co-ordinates
relief and restoration operations after an accident. Appropriate monetary compensation as well as
ex-gratia is granted to the injured and to the next ofkin ofthose killed in accident.
Indian Railways have elaborate facilities to ensure quick 'relief and restoration' in case of an
accident. These include:
• Accident Relief Medical Vans,
• Accident Relief Medical Equipment,
• Accident Relief Trains,
• Break Down Vans,
• First Aid Boxes, and
• Fire Fighting Equipment.
Location, composition and beats of ARMY s, ARMEs, ARTs and BD Vans are given in the Accident
Manual of each Zonal Railway. The list of standard equipment for each of these is also given in the
Accident Manual. Officers in-charge of each of these ensure that these are always kept fully
equipped and in good fettle. "
Accident Relief Medical Vans (ARMVs) and Accident Relief Trains (ARTs)
The entire IRs network is divided into 9 Zones that are functionally independent for administrative
purposes. These Zones are again sub-divided into 59 divisions, whose territorial jurisdiction extends
to about 1100 route Kms on an average. For coping with accidents, an average of 1-2 mobile
Accident Relief Medical Vans (ARMV s) and Accident Relief Trains (ARTs) are based in each
division, generally at the divisional hdqrts. and if necessary at one more location at the other
extremity ofthe division. Thus the average beat of each ARMV and ART is approximately 300
Kms. (150 kms. in each direction). ARMY s are stabled in a siding in the passenger yard having
direct exit in both Up and On directions so that it is possible to despatch it with an engine ~ithin the
shortest possible time.
Both the composition and functional requirements of ARMY and ART are totally different. The
ARMV s manned by doctors and para-medical staff consists of only medical equipment and is
meant for catering to the medical aspects of rescue and relief. The ART on the other hand, is
manned by mechanical staff, and consists of a crane, pneumatic and hydraulic jacks, gas cutters,
cold cutting equipment and such other gadgets required in connection with re-railment operations
and restoration of traffic. Logistically, since less number of staff mans the ARMY; they are easier
and faster to mobilise. The ART on the other hand has a large complement of staff who have to
turn up, and the despatch of the ART is therefore delayed much after the ARMV
,1
Rail Accidents 163
This kind of segregation of the ARMY and ART had distinct advantages at the time when it was
originally formulated. In case of smaller accidents the ARMV can be turned out quicker, move
much faster, and reach the accident site and get on with the job well before the slower ART could
be expected to reach. Moreover, even from the relief point of view it is always better to pick up the
injured passengers from the site and clear out the ARMY from the blocksection before the ART '
is sent in. However, these aspects which are an advantage in case of smaller accidents turn out to
be severe handicaps in case of major disasters, More often than not in major disasters, specially in
case of high-speed collisions, coaches telescope into one another and get entangled. ARMY staff
attempt rescue work under such conditions without any mechanical gadgets, such as, cold cutters,
pneumatic jacks etc. face a herculean task. They, therefore, wait for the ART to arrive at the
accident site along with its backup support of mechanical equipment, and this invariably takes too
long. Even after reaching the accident site, high embankments, steep cuttings, non-availability of
approach roads are some of the factors that make the task of relief even more difficult.
Accident Relief Medical Equipments (ARMEs)

In addition toARMV s, chests containing medical equipment are kept at nominated junction stations
75 to 100 kms. apart. ARMEs can be Scale - I or Scale ~ II depending on the complement of
equipment provided and are transported by train to the accident site.
Tools, stores and equipment provided in ARMV sand ARMEs are periodically reviewed. The
complement of surgical equipment and list of medicines stocked are periodically updated as a
result oflatest and more sophisticated ones available.
Break Down Vans (BD Vans)

.With electrification of trunk routes use of cranes for re-railing operation has become time consuming
process due to downing of ORE (over head equipment) and slewing of electric masts. In order to
get over this problem railways have gone in for using hydraulic jacks and MFD equipment for re-
railing operations in smaller accidents involving wagons. These are kept in Brake Down Vans and
are sent to the site of smaller accidents.
First Aid Boxes

All stations and each guard is provided with First Aid Boxes, for dealing with medical emergencies
that may be encountered. The custodian of these boxes ensures that these are replenished from
time to time before the stocked medicines become expiry dated.
Fire Fighting Equipment

All stations and each railway installation is provided with Fire Fighting Equipment for dealing with
fire cases that may break out. The custodian of these fire extinguishers gets these refilled periodically.
,.
Disaster Management: Role of Indian Railways
The organisational set-up and functioning of Indian Railways at all levels is highly officer oriented,
as such rescue and relief operations do not really get going till such time as Divisional Officers
arrive at the accident site and take charge of the situation to provide effective leadership. In many
cases even though some other ARMY/ART located close by arrives at the accident site before the
divisional officers arrive, their functioning doesn't get mobilised effectively. till latter. While the
ARMY s and ARTs are very good concepts and a perfect basis of accident management once they
arrive at an accident site, their delayed arrival renders them less effective as far as major disasters
are concerned.
1
The senior most officer of the Division who reaches the site of accident first becomes "Accident
Manager" ofthe site and is required to take charge ofthe overall situation instead of discharging
merely his departmental functions. Staff and officers attending the site of accident wear identification
badges (Arm Bands) for easier identification, which are obtained from the ART in-charge
immediately on arrival of the ART). All Railway men reaching the site for accident relief work
"
.~~should report to 'Accident Manager' and take instructions from him. ,
"
\Dead bodies at the site of accident are handled with dignity and respect and proper arrangements
.made for keeping such bodies at the site before their final disposal. For this purpose, four EPIP
tents, and a number of white sheets (full size) are available as permanent store in the ARTs.
Accident Management on IRs is extremely well defmed. The interaction between different officials
after a railway accident is o~ganised by clear cut directives. Here communication channels are
distinct and duties are described in detail. Whenever an accident occurs, the on duty staff in
divisional control offices inform their respective departmental officers and senior supervisors as
per the priority list in force. The staff concerned, on the other hand, gets alerted by the blowing of
siren, which is sounded for turning out ofthe ARMY siARTs. While all staff attached with ARMY si
ARTs are required to turn up for duty and go to the accident site, the level of officers and staff
required to go to the accident site is decided by the severity of the accident. Simultaneously, the
second line of command of all departments turn up in the divisional control office and takes over
Charge. This task force in the control offIce is entrusted with the critical responsibility of managing
the crisis at the divisional level. The same drill is repeated both at the Zonal Headquarters and,
Railway Board office as well, especially in case of accidents attended with heavy casualties, Apart
from real-time monitoring of developments at the accident site, and ensuring that key persons are
posted with the latest details. The control office team also ensures that whatever assistance is 1
required at site is rendered immediately. Speedy and precise dissemination of information is the
sine qua non of accident handling. The drill laid down on IRs is not only quite comprehensive but
is also well rehearsed and fine-tuned over successive accidents that take place.
All emergency measures, such as, opening of information counters at originating and destination
stations ofthe train concerned and at intermediate major junctionslstations on the scheduled route
of the affected train are invariably done. Names and addresses of persons injured/killed in the
accident are also collected and are made available at all such information counters. Other information,
such as, plans for clearance of stranded passengers, running of special trains for bringing relatives
to the accident sites, cancellation! rescheduling/diversion!short termination etc. of other trains are
also equally well organised and handled with clock work precision. As soon as a crisis snowballs,
the public and press demand full details of the disaster. This aspect is of critical importance and can
be a source of controversy and embarrassment in case it is not properly handled. The Public
Relations Department, that is, the spokesperson ofthe Railways is kept apprised about important
facts ofthe accident and they in turn briefthe Press and Electronic Media. This ensures accuracy
and consistency in the media reporting, so vital to the organisation's image, The adequacy of relief
arrangements, medical aid to the injured, provision offood and water to affected passengers,
clearance of stranded passengers etc., are all fine tuned. By and large, with very few exceptions,
IRs has managed the aftermath of most accidents competently.
On IRs, each railway station and divisional control office has a ready list of doctors, dispensaries
and hospitals located within their jurisdiction. This ensures timely requisitioning of help in case of
accidents, The Army is indispensable during emergencies due to their organisational strength and
disciplined and systematic approach to the crisis. These two factors coupled with their technical
and human resource management makes their assistance invaluable.
1
Rail Accidents 165
.Photographs and Ex - Gratia

Arrangements are made for taking photographs of dead bodies, preferably in colour and from
different angles. If possible, Video filming is done. Before photography or video filming each body
is properly labeled with a unique serial number prominently displayed in the photograph.
"
Ex - Gratia payments are made as follows to the injured passengers and the next of kin of
the dead:
~ Dead Rs. 15,0001-
ii) Grievous injury Rs.5,0001-
iii) Simple injury RS.5001-'
Following compensation is paid to accident victims:

o Dead Rs. 4 lakhs.
ii) Injured. Rs. 32,0001- to 4lakhs depending on severity of injury.
14.4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: CONSTRAINTS

\
If a critical trauma patient is.not given definitive medical care within 1hour from the time ofthe
accident, the chances of'his ultimate recovery reduce drastically, even with the best of medical
attention thereafter. This 1hour period is generally known as the Golden Hour. For being fully
effective, any disaster management system must aim at recovering as many critical patients as
possible and rushing them to the relevant hospital within this time period. The main difference
between disaster management in railway accidents and other natural disasters like earthquakes,
floods etc. is with regard to response time. In an accident, the passengers are mostly trapped
inside the coaches, and taking them out within a specific time period is of utmost importance.
Moreover, since the area of operation is limited to merely a few hundred metres along the railway
track, rescue and relief operations can be better concentrated. However, while Railways are
extremely fast in extricating passengers once the ARMY and ART arrives at the site, the vastness
ofthe Railways network acts as a handicap in faster arrival at site.
Since neither of the ARMY nor the ART staff are on permanent 24 hours call duty, their response
time for turning up in case of an accident and for despatching of ARMY 1ART to the accident site,
has been laid down as follows:
Day Night
ARMY 20 Minutes 30 Minutes
ART 30 Minutes 45 Minutes
In case of an accident, it is usually the guard of the accident involved train who gives the first
information report regarding occurrence of the accident. On non-electrified routes, the guard of a
MaillExpress or passenger train is equipped with Portable Control Phone (PCP) which has to be
hooked on to over head control circuit wires running along the embankment. In electrified territory,
on the other hand, he is provided with similar PCPs that are to be plugged into the sockets that are
provided on Over Head Equipment (OHE) masts every kilometre. In the former case, access to
the over head control circuit wires is not easy specially at night; in the latter case, he has to walk at
least half a km. In both cases, by the time the guard assesses the situation, gets out his PCP set,
hooks it on to the control circuit and finally informs the section controller ofthe accident, around
15 minutes time would have passed.
7
. These targets that were laid down years ago have become outdated and are unrealistic under
present circumstances. At the time of steam traction, loco sheds dotted the geographic domain of
every division. Invariably each ARMV /ART, was based at a major station that also had a homing
steam shed. As such availability of an engine was not a problem, and it was easy to turn out a.
steam locomotive immediately and despatch the ARMY/ART to the accident site within the
stipulated time. With the advent of diesel and electric traction the convenience of captive steam
"
locomotives being available at any point of time is no longer true. Neither diesel nor electric
locomotives are kept on call duty for ARMY or ART and in case of an accident, engine has to be
arranged from the nearest train, which is on run. The situation is further compounded in case of an
accident on electrified territory. In all such major accidents, the OHE invariably snaps, thereby
immobilising all electric locomotives on the section. Locating a diesel locomotive on an electrified
division is a time consuming exercise since in most cases diesel engines have to be moved from
adjoining non-electrified divisions. Thus even after the ARMY or ART is ready for departure in all
.. respects, it waits for a locomotive. On an average at least 1 hour is wasted in locating a locomotive
and rushing it to the base depot for running out the ARMY and ART to the accident site.
Added to this is another 3 hours running time for covering an average distance of 150 Kms. and
the total response time for medical relief to arrive at the site of an accident comes to an average of
over 4 hours. This has been our experience in most ofthe major disasters on Indian Railways, and
in view of the reasons explained above, reaching the accident-affected patients to the hospital
within the Golden Hour is a theoretical impossibility for IRs under the present circumstances.
The guard and driver ofthe train inform the local divisional control office regarding occurrence of
an accident. Divisional office in turn organises rescue and relief work by way of ordering Accident
Relief Medical Van and Accident Relief Train to be rushed to the site of accident. Normally, it
takes railway's medical and rescue teams 3 to 4 hours time to arrive at the accident site. In all such
cases, local inhabitants are invariably the first persons to reach the site of accident and start rescue
and relief work. During this initial period, it is the local population and local administration including
Police that organise rescue and relief work along with about 25 to 30 railway staff travelling on the
accident affected train.
During most train accidents, it has been experienced that local public, nearby doctors and other
voluntary organisations have invariably reached the accident site much before railway medical help
and render immediate initial medical assistance to the injured passengers. Unfortunately, most
cities in India do not have full-fledged Centralised Accident and Trauma Centres. With this being
the state of affairs at most cities, the standard of medical facilities existing at any of the smaller
towns can well be imagined. As such the immediate medical assistance rendered by the local
public and nearby doctors is restricted to merely getting the injured out of the accident affected
coaches, rendering first aid and rushing them to the nearest hospitaL More often than not, ambulances
are not available what to speak ofthem having basic resuscitation equipment. Even the railway's
ARMV s are headquartered 150 kms, away. They are inadequately equipped for dealing with
disasters of vaSt magnitude. Smaller accidents involving lesser number of injured passengers are
well within the capability of ARMY s, once they reach the scene. However, any disaster involving
more than 50 deaths and comparative number of injured is beyond their capacity to handle efficiently
due to sheer magnitude ofthe problem.
In case a serious accident involving casualties occurs in the block section, railway officials normally
available at the accident site will be Guard, Engine Crew and Commercial staff, such as, Train
Conductor, TTEs etc. In addition to above, staff may be available on the train either on duty or on
leave, travelling by the train.
1
Rail Accidents 167
. Role of different Departments during Serious Accidents

In ordinary accidents involving freight trains the main Departments involved are Operating,
Mechanical, Civil, Electrical and S&T. However, in serious accidents involving casualties, other
departments which play an important role are Medical, Commercial and Security. In case of
railway accidents involving casualties, the initialS to 6 hours are extremely crucial as far as saving
," lives of injured passengers are concerned. For this purpose, contact telephone numbers of all
Officers and Supervisors are available with control office staff oftheir respective departments.
14.5 LESSONSLEARNT
As soon as IRs accepts the concept of rescue within the period of the 'Golden Hour', rapid
intervention vehicles and equipment are required. These should include equipment for trauma,
helicopters, self-propelledrapid interventionrail and road vehicles, portable life supporting equipment
in backpacks, and heavy-duty pneumatic jacks and cold cutters. It would be equally pertinent to
mention that under ideal conditions these should be stationed at distances of 100 kms of one
another so that the maximum distance covered does not exceed 50 kms.
However, what needs to be done now, that too on a war footing, is to go in for self propelled
Diesel Multiple Unit (DMU) type ARMV s. These should preferably consist of say three coaches
of which two coaches should have pure medical outfit and the third coach should have mechanical
rescue equipment including cold cutters, hydraulic jacks etc. which are to be used for rescue of
trapped passengers and not for restoration purposes. However, to what extent IRs is able to
implement these and within what time frame is important.
An important aspect that needs to be built into the Indian Railways' Accident Manual is the necessity
of conducting frequent and repeated drills for testing the response of the existing system in all
respects. While the Accident Manual does lay down conducting of periodic mock drills, these
merely consist ofturning out of ARMY s and ARTswithin the stipulated time schedule. Mock drills
do not test either the response procedure for ARMV s and ARTs, or the functioning of their staff
with respect to their duties at the site of an accident.
Do's and Don'ts,

All staff connected with disaster management on IRs, must be familiar with not only their own
duties but also with the duties which their subordinates are required to perform in an accident. •
Since all mock drills presently being conducted are without engagement, the staff concerned is not
really exposed to real life situations resulting in below expectation levels of performance at the time
of an actual crisis. ARMY IART staff basically operates on past experience. Neither are they given
any regular training nor do they possess adequate knowledge offundamental technique concerning
trauma patients. It should, therefore, be mandatory for all divisions to have at least one fun fledged
drill once in tw years where the entire exercise of disaster management at the accident site should
be gone through in its fullest detail. This should include setting-up of both Unified Command
Centre and Central Assistance Centre along with full complement of staff, so that the persons
concerned know exactly as to what is expected ofthem at such times.
What is now required ofIRs is a thorough and indepth analysis of the existing infrastructure, the
minimum requirement as per acceptable norms and the investments required for achieving the
same. For achieving this objective, IRs need to revamp the existing system ofARMvs/ARTs both
in terms of quality and quantity.
1
14.6 CONCLUSION
Indian Railways have a well organised and time tested disaster management system that has been
codified in the Accident Manual of each Zonal Railways. Personal copy ofthe Accident Manual is
issued to each and every staff when he joins railways service. The Staff members are required to
go through the Accident Manual. In this context, opportunities are provided during their training at
.
"
the Zorial Training Centres; during Induction Course- at the time of joining service; during
Promotional Course - before every promotion; and during Refresher Courses - which they undergo
once every 3 years. In this Unit, we have discussed the causes, impacts of rail accidents, and
constraints in disaster management. In addition, lessons learnt on the basis of past experiences
have been described. There is an urgent need of further improvements in safety levels that need a
paradigm shift in the management at all levels. In the context ofIndian Railways, improved
maintenance practices with its modernisation are imperative. In addition, Track Circuiting, Anti
Collision Device, and better Communication should be enhanced.
14.7 KEY CONCEPTS

IR: Indian Railway
L-Xing: Level Crossing

Government ofIndia, Ministry of Railways, Indian Railways - Annual Report and Accounts, 1
2001-2002.
Government of India, Ministry of Railways, Indian Railways - YearBook, 2001-2002.
j
1
Government ofIndia, Ministry of Railways, Northern Railway Accident Manual. '
, \ l
Government ofIndia, Ministry of Railways, 2002, Status Paper on Indian Railways - Issues '
and Options. 1
Government ofIndia, Ministry of Railways, 2003, White Paper - Safety on Indian Railways.
Government of India, Planning Commission, 2001, Integrated Transport Policy.
National Seminar on Disaster Management and Mitigation, 2003, Phoenix Publishing House,
New Delhi.
14.9, ACTIVITIES
1) What do you understand by the term railway accident? Explain.
2) What are the possible risk reduction measures, that can be and are being undertaken by the
Indian Railways?
3) Discuss the disaster management practices in rail accidents. Suggest the measures to improve
the system.
1
UNIT 15 AIR ACCIDENTS
Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Air Accidents: Causes and Impacts
15.3 Air Accidents: Disaster Management

15.4 Past Disasters: Lessons Learnt
15.5 Conclusion
15.6 Key Concepts
15.8 Activities

• Understand the causes and impacts of air accidents;

• Discuss the factors contributing to air accidents;
• Describe the disaster management measures in this respect; and
., Highlight lessons learnt from past air accident examples.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Aircraft accidents, though infrequent in nature, wreak havoc with little chance of survival for the
affected. It has been observed that majority of accidents occur during take offs and landings. In
case of airports, rescue and fire services have been in a better position to rescue occupants if the
accident has occurred on the runway itself or in undershoot or overshoot area of the airport.
However, survival rate is still extremely poor in case of an accident happening enroute, which
contributes about 25 per cent of the total number of accidents. Sometimes, an accident occurs
due to non-recognition of the features of the runway. As a result of which the aircraft is bound to hit
a slender object structure adjacent to a highly illuminated building or otherwise land just across the
runway during darkness! poor visibility conditions. Such an unfortunate incident is accompanied
by almost total loss oflife; very few people survive that too in very remote cases. More than
14.5 per cent accidents occur during take off when the aircraft is unable to get airborne. Besides,
about 47.5 per cent occur during landing for want of proper visibility conditions or on account of
malfunctioning oflanding gears or jamming of wheels. In this Unit, we will discuss the major
causes, impacts, and measures to prevent the recurrence of air accidents.
Air accidents are particularly disastrous as aircrafts carry hundreds of passengers besides huge
quantity of fuel. In this Unit, we will discuss all major issues relating to the causes, impacts, and
management of air accidents.
1 I
Circumstances Contributing to Air Accidents

It has been evaluated as a result ofthe investigational studies carried out by the advanced countries
in the recent past that the proportionate percentage of accidents, could be classified as follows:
0 Landing 47.5 percent

iI) . Takeoff 14.5 percent
.
"
iiI) During taxiing 9.5 percent

iv) Ground Accident 3.5 percent
v) Enroute 25 percent,
Total 100 percent
The important factors leading to above-mentioned air accidents could be due to:
• mal-functioning of some of the mechanism like under carriage, retracting fear or failure of
hydraulic power supply;
• non-functioning of one of the engine or engines;
• mal-functioning oflanding gear;
• sudden fire in Aircraft in the air itself; and/or
• unforeseen circumstances, in which suddenly the pilot loses control over the aircraft.
15.2 AIRACCIDENTS: CAUSES AND IMPACTS

The density of air traffic has been on the increase for the last three decades, and could increase as
bigger and bigger aircraft are brought into use. As per the statistics available on the subject, in the
year 1988, 1070 million passengers were carried on scheduled air services through the world.
This reflects an increase of 19per cent over the air traffic recorded in the year 1985.
Examination of the probability of an accident occurring on an airport reveals that there is on an
average, one air accident in 67000 movements and there is a likelihood that 50 per cent of these
accidents would result in fire. On the basis of the investigational studies carried out involving 500
accidents, it is evaluated that about 55 per cent ofthe total number of accidents are accompanied
by outbreak of fire.
Air accidents happen when the pilot, under sudden and unforeseen circumstances, loses control of
the aircraft either partly or fully. This may happen despite his best efforts to ensure the safety of the
aircraft and its occupants. The main causes that lead to loss and control over aircraft by the pilot
and consequent crashes are attributed to human errors, acute weather conditions, mechanical
failure, sabotage or enemy action.
Aircraft accidents may be generally classified as: 1
o Low Speed Accidents; and 1
ii) High Speed Accidents.

i) Low Speed Accidents
Low speed accidents occur when the aircraft is landing or taking off or when it overshoots or
undershoots the runway, usually due to mechanical defects or error of judgement. Structural
damage may not be great and outbreak of fire mayor may not occur. Most probable cause of
outbreak of fire is the ignition of free fuel vapour or oil from fractured feed pipes coming in contact
with a hot surface or due to spark from electrical short-circuits or from friction with runway. The
term low speed is a relative term as speed on landing or during take off may exceed 160 km per
1
Air Accidents 171
.hour, On account oflow speed.the chances of survivalof the occupants are higher and rescue
operations could be easily carried out.
The probable hot surface ignition sources are: exhaust pipes, hot engine parts, combustion heaters
and short-circuits or friction heated parts. Fuel, when gets splashed on hot surface may also catch
fire. Frictional heat may be caused by mechanical faults or by an aircraft sliding on the ground.
," Many materials may strike and produce a spark. Electrical equipment, such as, motors and
generators, and loose and short-circuited connections are all potential dangers in this regard.
a) 'Belly Landing
The commonest example ofthe low speed accident is the belly landing, which can result from a
failure ofthe under carriage retracting gear or the hydraulic supply itself or from the necessity of
landing the aircraft at ,:ery short notice before the undercarriage has had time to reach the correct
landing position. Fuel lines and even the tank may get ruptured by the scraping of the lower part of
.
, the aircraft on the ground, and tremendous heat and sparks may be produced at the same time,
which is more likely to occur on the concrete or the tarmac of an air field than on the soft ground
beyond it.
After a belly landing, a large aircraft is likely to be substantially intact and there is some possibility
of cabin door or at least escape hatches being operable from the inside so that the occupants may
be able to make their own way out. Iffire breaks out, an immediate attack should be made to
keep it clear of the fuselage and especially at the escape points while the crew organise the evacuation
of occupants. Entry into the aircraft of fire- fighting personnel may not be necessary unless the
crew is incapacitated. Later, however, when walking occupants are out of the way or when fire
conditions may be making evacuation difficult, rescue operations are more appropriate and should
be undertaken with speed. Every thing depends on the immediate subduing of the fire, if it has
broken out or the prevention of an outbreak by blanketing with foam.
b) Cartwheel Accidents/Crash
An aircraft at touchdown may strike the ground violently, as a result of which, its wing tip may turn
over and over before finally coming to rest. In the process, its fuel tanks break, spreading the fuel
in the area. Its back may break or may completely wreck, throwing its occupants out. Fittings
within the aircraft may twist, get buckled and deformed making rescue operations difficult. A
search for injured persons should be carried out all over the accident area including inside the
aircraft. Fires in the area should be tackled with foam or water as the situation permits.
ii) High Speed Accidents
High-speed accidents occur when an aircraft crashes from a height, either partly or completely out
of control, as a result of engine trouble, structural defects or collision or sabotage or due to enemy
action. They usually involve considerable structural damage to the aircraft accompanied, almost
invariably, by on outbreak of fire and frequently by an explosion of some severity. Often the
ground impact and resulting fire are so great that disintegration of the aircraft takes place with fatal
results to the occupants and little can be done in the matter. Also, high-speed crashes frequently
occur well away from the vicinity of an airfield.
As the remnants and scattered section of the wreckage are involved in fire, rescue operations need
to be co-ordinated to cover the area of the crash and beyond as passengers and crew could be
thrown for some distance or may have wandered away from the accident site.
a) Nose Dive Crash

On soft ground, a nose-dive high-speed crash usually results in a large crater within which it
contained the wreckage of the fuselage and engines, a quantity offuel and possibly the bodies of
7 I
the occupants. Under such conditions, there is little hope of rescue being carried out. Engines may
penetrate as much as 6 mts into the ground and throw up a large mass of earth. In some cases, an
explosion may scatter parts of the wreckage. Those parts or the aircraft in the crater will bum
fiercely often with small underground explosions ..
Where possible, a foam seal should be applied. Otherwise it may be necessary or advantageous to
," flood the hole by applying a foam blanket or by applying high expansion foam to completely cover
the wreckage. No salvage work should be undertaken until the debris is thoroughly cold.
b) Crashes into Water

I
Since many airports are situated adjacent to large areas of water like Mumbai, Trivandrum and
Chennai, there is always a risk that an aircraft accident may result in the aircraft crashing into the
water, so the aerodrome fire-fighting equipment generally includes some type of inshore rescue
.
, craft like fire boats, self propelled rescue coastal petrol driven boats, helicopters, hovercraft,
amphibious vehicles equipped with fire fighting equipment or having pre- installed foam monitors
which should be brought into operation for fire fighting and rescue purposes. In such an accident,
the possibility of fire is appreciably reduced due to the suppression of ignition sources, but the
surface of the water will probably be covered with fuel, whether burning or flooding on the surface.
As soon as possible, pockets offuel should be broken up or moved with large velocity jets, or
neutralised by covering with foam or by high concentration of chemical agents. Calm surfaces
usually present a greater problem than choppy or rough surfaces. Ifwreckage is on the bank,
foam equipment should be laid out in readiness to check any fire that may threaten it. If the aircraft
is half in and half out of water and has not inarched in fire, rescue operations should be carried out
with great care, since fuel rising to the surface may come into contract with heated parts ofthe
engines or with the exhaust of boats used to approach at the site.
Where occupied sections ofthe aircraft are found floating, care should be taken not to disturb their
watertight integrity. Removal of occupants should be accomplished smoothly and quickly, as any
shift in weight or lapse of time may result in the section sinking. Rescuers should beware that they
themselves may not become trapped and drowned. Where occupied sections are found submerged,
there remains the possibility that there may be enough air inside to maintain life. Divers if available
may be the only way to reach the trapped occupants.
c) Crash in Buildings
Such accidents are generally accomplished with acute disastrous results and present acute problems
and complications. In this case, fire brigade crews responding to the call may be required to use all
their skill and knowledge of fire fighting, rescue, special services and salvage at one and the same
time. It is evident, therefore, that each incident must be tackled according to circumstances found
at the time, commencing with officer-in-charge making a rapid but accurate assessment of the
situation.
The aircraft will normally have broken up on impact and the wreckage will have caused widespread
damage to surrounding property, hence the need for an inspection of the area as soon as practicable
can not be dispensed with. Fires can be widely separated and spread with great speed due to
scattered fuel, fractured gas and electrical services, domestic fires and other causes. Roofs and
upper stories of building may suffer considerable damage and the collapse of floors and walls can 1
well aggravate the rescue problems. Serious or superficial injuries may be caused to people within
and outside the buildings already threatened by fire or other dangers, as well as to the occupants of
the aircraft. In general, such an incident may be classified as a 'major disaster'.
I
Air Accidents 173
Responsible persons should undertake a search of properties with a view to removing casualties
from the site to reduce their nearness to danger. Further, it should be ensured that buildings adjacent
to the incident are evacuated, and all efforts should be exerted to minimise the gravity of the danger
to the casualties. In this context, following precautions are necessary.
• Fir.es in neighbouring home should be extinguished; gas and electric mains should be turned
.
"
off
• Smoking should be prohibited in 'the area,
• All steps should be taken to avoid the risk of any gas/air mixture, which may be
present and possibly getting ignited.
• It is almost certain that fuel tanks will be severely damaged and the contents distributed over
a wide area. Partly empty tanks or damaged engines may explode causing further damage
and casualties. Therefore, there should be no naked flame within a radius ono m.
• Immediate steps should be taken to prevent fuel running down the gutters and so out of the
immediate danger area, as the risk ofa 'flash back' is obvious.
• A generous assessment of assistance required should be made and appropriate local authority
department, public undertakings, municipalities, fire authority etc. should be approached via
the brigade control system. If fuel enters sewers and drains, it should be washed down with
as much water as possible. In addition, the respective municipal authority, and water and
sewerage bOirds should be informed accordingly.
15.3 AIR ACCIDENTS: DISASTER MANAGEMENT

In the previous section, some idea has been given ofthe immediate action required to be taken
under different types of air accidents. The emphasis was on restricting fire damage and rescue of
survivors. Now we shall discuss the possible risk reduction measures and the post-disaster needs.
Possible Risk Reduction Measures and Post Disaster Needs

The moment an information regarding development of trouble in an aircraft flying in the sky is
received by an Aerodrome, the emergency is declared not only at the landing airport but also in the
.
nearby Aerodromes. The distress in an airport may arise due to:
o malfunctioning of some of the mechanism like undercarriage, retracting gear or failure of
hydraulic power supply;
ii) non-functioning of engine or engines;
iii) mal-functioning oflanding gear;
ii) circulstances when suddenly aircraft catches fire in the air itself; and/or
v) unforeseen circumstances when suddenly the pilot looses control over the aircraft.
All of the above are shortcomings or circumstnaces, which directly point towards an emergency.
The responsibility for initiating risk reduction measures by emergency ~ction has been given to
Aerodrome Fire Services and Air Traffic Control.
'Classification of Risk Reduction Measures

There are five types of risk reduction measures, which are described below. In this regard,
preparedness is followed by emergency action to be taken by Aerodrome Fire Services and Air
Traffic Control.
.0 Visibility/Weather Standby
iI) Local Standby
ill) Full Emergency
iv) AircraftAccident (occurred)
.. v) Other fires/Ground Incidents/Special Service Calls.
i) VisibilitylWeather Standby
In these circumstances the visibility at an airport falls below the minimum requirement due to fog or
otherwise for safe landing. As per ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) safety
procedures, visibility up to 2000 metres and below is considered as poor visibility. This situation
calls for visibility standby to be declared by the Air Traffic Control (ATC) that will pass necessary
message consisting range of visibility, runway in use etc. to the Airport Fire Services.
As per rules in vogue, the Rescue and Fire Fighting vehicles duly mounted with crew and equipment
will proceed to predetermined positions specially marked for this purpose and park the vehicles
facing the runway with its engine running and RT (Radio Telephone) on. Where the pre determined
position ofthe vehicle is not marked, the crash Fire Tenders would be stationed 100 m away from
the edge of the nmway. Most of the airport authorities do not insist for the positioning of appliances
at or near the runaway or at predetermined positions. However, order demands for keeping the
appliances ready at the fire station itself, waiting turn out on the receipt of message.
An airport continuously operates under adverse weather conditions. Then the installation and use
of instrument landing system is considered essential. The airport rescue and Fire Fighting Services
are mobilised to their standby positions or preferably stationed at predetermined position.
Instruments Landing System(ILS) consists ofthe following main components:
• outer marker,
• inner marker,
• middle marker,
• glide path, and
• local iser.
The basic purpose of all the components ofILS is to achieve safe landing of the aircraft on the
. nmway itself
ii) Local Standby

The Air Traffic Control (ATC) declares Local Stand by. On the receipt of message of 'Local
Standby', all the flre crew will mount to their respective appliances, which would remain at a
. standby at their respective fire station with their engines running and RT on. Maintaining a proper
communication with the watchtower and listening to the conversation of ATC with other agencies.
The crew will remain in an alert posture and it would continue till a message received for the
termination of standby.
While delivering the message for local standby, the following information will also be passed on
by the ATC to the Fire Watch Tower.
• Type of Aircraft
• Flight Number
• Registration mark ofthe Aircraft
7
Air Accidents 175
'•. Owner's name

Nature of defect/trouble
• Runway in use
• Expected time of arrival of the Aircraft

. • Number of persons and crew on board
• Fuel position within the Aircraft .
• Any dangerous goods on boards.
iii) Full Emergency

Full emergency is declared by ATC when it is known that an aircraft approaching the airport is in
such a trouble that there is a danger of an incident on landing. The aerodrome fire service will turn
out and would be positioned at predetermined positions. The relevant details relating to number of
passengers on board, quantity offuel etc. as given above for 'Local Standby' would be conveyed
to Watch Tower and to the crew of crash fire tenders. The fire appliances would remain in touch
for latest information like change of 'runway' etc. As per the instructions ofthe ATC, the rescue
and fire appliances would follow up the aircraft after landing till it reaches the parking bays. The
fire appliances remain in touch with ATC and would report back to fire station after the safe arrival
ofthe aircraft.
In addition to aerodrome fire services, local authority fire brigade will also be called and would
take a predetermined position. Ambulances, airport constabulary and local police are also
summoned. Incoming assistance would be suitably guided and directed to the pre-decided position.
Hospitals and Trauma Services would have been alerted.
iv) Aircraft Accident

The aircraft is supposed to have met with an accident or having crashed if it fails to respond to
repeated calls by ATC or non-sighting ofthe aircraft by ATC after approximate expected time of
landing, or the crash has been sighted by ATC or security jeep on the runway or by the Fire Watch
Tower or by any other member of the public.
Preparedness when Aircraft Accident occu rred Within the Airport

i) Once theATC has located the crash,which has occurred in the airport or in its close vicinity,
the ATC would immediately initiate an emergency call by raising the siren alarm on a steady
. tone for 30 seconds followed by a verbal communication to Fire Watch Tower by quickest
possible means like Radio Telephony (RT) or Hot Line, giving the following details:
• Location of the accident with GRID reference;
• Flight number, and type of the aircraft involved;
• Time of accident; and
• Number of occupants including crew on board.
ii) As per the emergency procedure, the ATC should also activate the emergency plan by calling,
the local fire authority, fire brigade or other organisations on hot line or telephone giving them
necessary details as given above with grid map reference and asking them to report to
rendezvous points and/or scene of accident/disaster.
ill) : On receipt of information from the ATC about the aircraft accident, the man on duty in the
Fire Watch Tower presses the electrically operated crash bell accompanied by announcing
the message on Public Address System or RT. This message is conveyed to all the units at the
..
7
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~
station with full details of the crashed aircraft, and ensures the acknowledgement ofthe message
by all concerned. All the members of the Fire Crew would mount their respective appliances,
which would proceed to the scene of accident with a safe speed, observing usual traffic
norms of safety. The officer in-charge would ensure that requisite number of Fire Fighting
and rescue vehicles including ambulances have taken a turn out to the scene of accident by
," the shortest possible route. During dark to dawn, the High Mast Lighting Platform vehicles
would also accompany the fleet turned out to the site of accident.
! iv)
(,
All necessary details relating to the crash at time of receipt of message, time of turning out of
appliances, time taken to reach at the site, site of accident, time of commencement of operation,
control time, time for complete extinction, number of persons rescued, number of persons
given first aid and number of occupants sent to hospitals, and all other relevant information
would be recorded in the Fire Station Log Book. This logbook would be sealed and kept in
record for submission to investigating authority or court of enquiries instituted subsequently to
find the cause of the accident.
v) In case man on duty in the Fire Watch Tower locates or observes the crash first in and around
the runway or in the close vicinity of the airport or receives such message from any source
other than the ATC, then he will take all actions in a manner as if the call has been received
fromATC. The appliances would be turned out duly manned to the crash site, and immediately
he will informATC on RTlHot Line giving detailed facts stating that the appliances has been
turned out.
vi) In close conformity with the Airport Emergency Procedure, or also under the mutual aid
scheme, the local fire brigade will be informed about the aircraft accident/air crash by hot line/
on direct telephone, giving complete information about the crashed aircraft. In case the
accident has occurred inside the airport, all the assisting services will report at rendezvous
point at the airport, controlled by emergency control room, from where these would be
guided and directed to reach at the site of accident inside the operational area being guided
by 'Follow Me Services'.
vii) In zero visibility conditions at the Airport, in case the ATC is not able to directly observe the
, aircraft after landing and in the absence of communication from the affected aircraft or in
doubt about the position of aircraft, the concerned authority shall immediately inform Apron
Control to carryout the runway inspection to check and report the position of the aircraft in
reference to the runway in use to ATC on RT or by Hot Line or by usual telephone.
Aircraft Accident/Disaster in the vicinity ofthe Airport

i) In case the aircraft accident occurs off the airport, but just in the vicinity of the airport, airport
fire services should bear the responsibility to carry out rescue and fire fighting operation
exerting their efforts to save the maximum lives
ii) The vicinity ofthe airport for this purpose has been defined as any area, zone or point which
lies up to a distance of 5 kilometres in approach path on both the ends ofthe runway and any
other area up to a distance of two kilometres around the airport boundary.
ill) In case of an accident occurring in the vicinity area of the airport, one CFT (Crash Fire
Tender) and one ambulance would be detained to proceed to.the site of accident, ifthe length
of the aircraft is less than 39 metres and fuselage width not exceeding 5 metres, which means.
an aircraft up to 6th category lengthwise is included.
iv) If the size of the aircraft involved in the accident is larger or it falls under category 7 or above
up to category 8 of the aircraft lengthwise, then one Crash Fire Tender (CFT) pulls one
Airport Fire Fighting and Rescue. Vehicle (AFFRV), andone ambulance would be despatched
1
Air Accidents 177
to tackle the situation. However, in case the length of the aircraft is above 39 metres and
accident has occurred outside the boundary of the airport then two number of Crash Fire
Tenders (CFTs) and one ambulance would be turned out to deal with the situation.
Aircraft AccidentlDisaster Outside the Vicinity of the Airport

., As per the statistics available 25 per cent ofthe total number of accidents occurs enroute outside
the vicinity of the airport. In such cases, the following measures are adopted to manage the
disaster. .'
o In case the accident occurs beyond the vicinity of the airport, normally no crash fire tender
should be sent to the crash site.
ii) In case of off the airport aircraft accident when city fire services are available at the site, the
overall command would be exercised by the senior most official of the City Fire Brigade
available at the site.
#
ill) In case ofthe communication system with the airport, where the aircraft is destined to land,
stands cut off and no signals are received for a considerable time, then the aircraft most
presumably is considered lost, somewhere on the way. In such cases, the Civil Administration
is approached, police authorities are requested and other organisations at grass roots level
are contacted to search for this aircraft. Helicopters of the armed forces are pressed into
operation and all efforts are exerted to locate the crashed aircraft.
iv) Whenever a crash occurs off the airport, availability of a specialised vehicle with power tools
for cutting, dri lling, for operation of power saw, power generating set, besides vehicle from
Municipal or Military Engineering Service for lifting heavy load or for making an approach up
to the site should be available. Such items could be included in the plan. In this regard, list of
the hospitals and nursing homes should be prepared well in advance and the addresses should
appear in the emergency plan indicating from where additional ambulance could be called for
transportation of serious cases to the respective nursing homes and hospitals.
v) Once the aircraft is located, the civil authorities would provide assistance forrescue of the
personnel with help offire services. Extrication ofthe bodies and their ultimate disposal,
cordoning off the area and proper arrangement for transportation ofthe belongings and baggage
ofthe occupants of the aircraft should be carried out in liaison with other concerned authorities
by 'the respective airlines.
Observation and Watching Duties of Airport Fire Services

In addition to their normal duties, the watch room of the fire station should maintain constant
observation of flight movements throughout the time, when the airport is operational. The correct
location ofthe fire station is the most important issue to provide maximum visibility overall the
aircraft in the movement area and even beyond the movement areas. The watchtower duty personnel
should include Cl few ofthe following visual checks.
i) Prevailing weather conditions and their effect on aircraft and vehicle movement including
emergency vehicles.
ii) Level of visibility.
ill) Notable changes in power output of aircraft both on the ground and in the air.
iv) Refuelling, taxiing operations, maintenance, landing gear, and security.
v) Changes in the availability of approach road and routes, taxiways and runway.
}l
. Aircraft Ground Incident

o Where an aircraft being still on the ground may get involved in an incident which may endanger
.the lives of the occupants, the airport services are alerted and one of the rescue and fire-
fighting vehicle may be kept in attendance.
ii) Sometimes, fire occurs in the aircraft on the ground due to engine starting or closing down
operations, accidental spillage of fuel during filling operations or as a result of ground collision
with another aircraft, vehicle OT structure while taxiing. While attending such an incident,
drivers of appliances should avoid passing through smoke at speed in the vicinity of the fire as
ground crews and possibly passengers may be on the fire side of the smoke zone. Warning
horns, siren or bells should be sounded continually up to the moment of positioning. Fire
appliance indicating flashing orrevolving lights should be kept in operation until arrival.
.. Bomb Alert on Aircraft

i) Any aircraft, that is, suspected of carrying a bomb should be parked in an area at least 300 m
away from any terminal building or other structure including other aircrafts
.n) All passengers should be evacuated immediately by the fastest means whilst the local or
airport police arrange for bomb disposal experts to attend and search the aircraft. All baggage
should be left on board until it has been searched and cleared. Airport rescue and fire
services.should standby at a point no less than 300 m from the air-craft and the pre-deterrnined
procedure for bomb alerts should take into account the calling oflocal authority services of
fire, police, ambulance and hospitals.
ill) These types of incidents may occur on the ground or in the air including the seizure of an
aircraft unlawfully (hi-jack), the placement of a bomb on board or a suspected bomb on
board, or an armed attack on the aircraft, which may include the taking of hostages. In such
circumstances, airports normally have a contingency plan which firstly demands positioning
the aircraft away from the main runway and terminal buildings and secondly police and law
enforcement agencies are contacted as necessary.
iv) Air traffic control must maintain continuous communication with the rescue and fire fighting
services to ensure that they are kept updated in relation to any change in distressed aircraft
condition.
Domestic Fire and other Emergencies

The term domestic fire is used within the context of airports to state the situation in which fire
occurs within the boundary walls of an airport. However, the cause is not connected with the
safety ofthe aircraft. Airport rescue and fire services attend all domestic fires on airport and also
pass message to the local authorities fire brigade who may provide additional assistance.
Aerodrome rescue and fire service personnel may attend special calls which are not fires but which
require the use of specialised equipment and operation to deal effectively with the incident. Such
calls can be defmed as special services. A primary role ofthe airport fire and rescue services is to
provide fire coverage for the entire airport's operational area and in some cases this bears a legal
responsibility for adequate fire cover during aircraft operation. Therefore it is incumbent that the
fire personnel should not be detained on other-duties, which may cause delay in providing fire
coverage.
Procedure for Immediate Response

Casualties should be carried to upwind position at least 50 metres from the aircraft unless ambulances
are already in attendance. They should be kept warm and not laid on damp grass and should be
7
Air Accidents 179
. covered (both under and over the casualty) with whatever material can be improvised. Cigarettes
should not be offered; there is a danger that internal injuries may be aggravated in addition to the
risk that fuel may still be present.
Clothing should be examined to ensure that it isnot smouldering and is not contaminated or saturated
with fuel. Ifthe latter is the case, anyone who might handle the casualty should be warned. First-
aid treatment should be limited to stopping the flow of blood and treating for shock, but as much
detail as possible about injuries should be given to ambulance attendants before the casualty is
taken to hospital. Gloves should be worn by personnel carrying out rescue work to avoid the
danger of infection from broken pieces of bone etc.
Triage Area
The triage area, established at adistance of about 50-100 metres depending upon terrain in upwind
and possibly uphill direction, is a primary centre for assessing 'and classification of casualties,
where all the casualities are brought after rescue by the fire crew for immediate medical examination
by the doctors. Priority of treatment and transportation of injured to different hospitals are decided
by the doctors on the site. In this context, basis for priorities is depicted in table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Prioritywise Categories for Treatment
Category Status Arm band or Description

(priority) Identification
Tag
P-l Immediate Care Red Serious injuries, haemorrhage, asphyxia, facial injuries
open and compound fracture, extensive bums, crash
injuries, and severe shock symptoms.
P-II Delayed Care Yellow Simple fracture, limited bums, cranial trauma with coma
and rapidly progressive shock Injuries to sort parts,
bums less than 30 %.
P-IlI Minor Care Green Minor injuries - need only first-aid on the spot.
P-O Dead Black Declared dead by the doctor.
Hi-Jacking or Unlawful Interference with Aircraft

i) When the ATC receives the message that the aircraft arriving at the airport has been hijacked
aboard, ATC will contact the fire watchtower and declare the full emergency giving the full
description ofthe affected aircraft.
ii) The detail covers flight number, type of aircraft, owners name, runway in use, ETA of the
aircraft, nature of trouble (hijacking), passengers, and fuel on board. Such an aircraft after
landing is directed to one of the remote search area, that is, predetermined as per emergency
procedure.
ill) The fire appliances will follow the aircraft maintaining a safe distance from behind the aircraft
till it reaches the remote search area, when it comes to a halt, the fire appliances would be
positioned not nearer to 50 metres and further:would be dispensed and deployed in a formation
which would reduce hitting by fragmentslbullets. As regards personnel, appliances and
equipments, the appliances should never be positioned in line with the nose or tail of the
aircraft and further the fire crew will not dismount from the vehicle merely with the anxiety to
see what is happening next and outside. /'
1
. Additional Facilities
Whenever an airport is nearer to the sea or any large area of water, the emergency plan generally
provides for calling assistance from the Navy: Coast Guard or other marine craft users as well as
facilities should be created for air-sea rescue.procedure wherever it is considered practical with
utmost safety of the crew, In mountainous, swampy or heavily wooded regions of the country,
,"
support of service helicopters may be insisted upon.
Determining the Best Positions for Standby of Emergency Vehicles

i) Despite pre-determined rendezvous points or standby positions, local conditions play an
important role in determining any ofthe emergency procedure. Experience demands sufficient
flexibility within those procedures so that best relative position for emergency vehicles could
be worked out to deal with any specific incident. .
.. ii) The vehicles should be positioned to give the best possible coverage of a potential crash area
on the assumption that at least one crash tender will be in attendance at an incident within the
shortest possible time.
ill) In situations where there is a mal-functioning of undercarriage, it may be necessary to position
vehicles close to the touch down position and then follow the aircraft down the runway until
it comes to a halt.
15.4 PAST DISASTERS: LESSONS LEARNT

A number of disastrous air accidents have occurred in allover the world. A few cases discussed
below.
i) An Air India Aircraft 'KANISHKA' flight No.182 with 329 passengers and crew on board,
took off on 23rd June 1985 from Toronto to New Delhi, exploded off the coast of Ireland. All
329 passengers and crew on board went deep into the sea probably due to a bomb explosion
which caused total loss without any survivors.
ii) On October 19, 1988 two accidents occurred. In one of these, all 131 persons on board in
an Indian Airlines Boeing 737 died when the aircraft crashed just outside the runway at
Ahmedabad, probably mistaking most illuminated structure of the powerhouse as a part and
parcel of the airport area. On thesame day a Fokker Friendship crashed near Guwahati,
killing all the 35 passengers on board.
ill) On February 14, 1990, an Airbus A -320 while landing at Bangalore crossed over shoot area
and got landed in a pond beyond the boundary wall of runway. However, inspite of the best
efforts exerted by the Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (HAL) fire brigade, 92 persons lost their
lives in the accident. A slight delay was caused as the crash tenders had to be driven to the
site outside the boundary wall .'
iv) On May 31, 1973, 48 persons on board a Royal Nepal Aircraft died in an air crash which
occurred on the rocky area of Vas ant Vihar in New Delhi where the bodies were found
completely charred. Shri Kumar Mangalam, a Cabinet Minister and Sh.Gurnam Singh the
then Chief Minister of Punjab was among the victims. The pilot mistook the area as the part
of runway and while climbing down, the aircraft got entangled in high-tension wires, struck
with the poles and trees and ultimately caught fire. The bodies were completely burnt,
reduced to skeleton rendered to a stage beyond recognition. However, one ofthe pilots
escaped the burn injuries and was admitted to the hospital with broken bones and deep cuts.
v) The recent accident on the civil side is of an ill- fated Alliance Air Flight CD 7412 Aeroplane,
which crashed on 17th July 2000 outside the runw.ay into a residential colony, just a few
Air Accidents 181
minutes before it was due to land at PatnaAirport. Unfortunately instead oflanding on the
runway, the aircraft climbed down and plunged into a residential colony and burst into flame.
It resulted in killing 51 persons including a crew of five, besides five residents of the colony
who could not escape the thrust ofthe impact. "The relatives ofthe passengers vehemently
argued that the aircraft was more than 20 years old and was the oldest of 12 Boeing aircraft
being operated by the Alliance Air and it was not fit for flying as it began losing height and hit
"
a two storied building and then another building before bursting into flame at a point a kilometre
away from the airport.
ix) Mid- air accidents are very remote and rare. However, when these occur, there is a total loss
oflife of passengers and crew. Further in 90 per cent cases, fire breaks out involving both the
aircrafts. On November 12, 1996, a mid-air collision, aviation accident, occurred near Charkhi
i,
Dadri (Haryana) between Saudi Airliner and Kazakh Plane in which 351 lives inclusive of
crew members including ladies, children and infants were lost. It was one of the most tragic
incidents of the recent times where a minor error on the part of the pilot resulted into an
accident, which was worst ever air accident in India.
15.5 CONCLUSION
In this Unit, we have discussed the causes, impacts, and disaster management practices in respect
of air accidents. In this context, we have described past air accidents, which will help us to learn
lessons for disaster management in India. Lastly, suggestions for mitigating disasters are also dealt.
Poor maintenance is also cited as reason for hardware failures within the aircraft, which causes
disasters. The World Disasters Report 2004, of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies has
highlighted the growing incidences of aviation disasters in the recent past. In the present context, it
is worth mentioning that fire services and other rescue services should be kept in a state of readiness
to deliver prompt service in case of air disasters majority of which take place during landing.
15.6 KEY CONCEPTS

Belly Landing As per the Wikipaedia, a belly landing is an emergency landing
procedure in which an aircraft lands without its landing gear
fully extended, using its underside, or belly, as it's primary
landing device. During a belly landing, there is normally
extensive damage to the airplane and ifthe speed is too high
then the airoplane can flip over.
Local Standby the Air Traffic Control declares it when an aircraft approaching
the airport has some problem or defect or minor trouble, which
is not thought of serious nature as to prevent the aircraft from
safe landing.
Outer and MIddle Marker These are located at a distance of about 6.25 k.m. and 1.25
k.m. from the beginning ofthe runway respectively. In this
context, the glide path, is an instrument to help the aircraft to
descend at a particular angle of approach and is installed
beyond the inner marker. The localiser, that is, generally located
at the end of the runway assists the aircraft to remain on the
centre line of the runway. The purpose of all the components
ofILS is to achieve safe landing ofthe aircraft on the runway
itself
r
, \ ,
Understanding Man-Made Disasters
Triage Area Triage area is a designated area in a mass-casualty incident

where the triage officer is located and patients are initially
triaged before being taken to the treatment center (Rescue
House.corn) .

RescueHouse.com, Fire EMS and Police web Portal.
Siromony, P. Michael Vetha, (Ed.), 2000, Source Book on District Disaster Management,
LBSNAA, Mussoorie.
Wikipedia, Encyclopaedia at httpt//wwwwikipedia.org ,
World Disasters Report, 2004, Building Community Resilience, International Red Cross and
.~
Red Crescent Societies.
15.8
1)
2)
ACTIVITIES
Write a report on a recent air accident, and highlight the sho~omings in disaster management.
On the basis of your study, bring out the causes and impacts of air accidents in India.
,
I
UNIT 16 SEA ACCIDENTS
Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Sea Accidents: Causes and Impacts
16.3 Types of Sea Accidents
16.4 Sea Accidents: Disaster Management
16.4.1 Various Agencies involved in Disaster Management
16.4.2 Organisational Structure
16.4.3 Search, Rescue and Relief
16.5 Disaster Mitigation

16.5.1 Action Plan
16.5.2 International Preventive Measures against Sea Accidents
16.6 Lessons Learnt: Past Experiences in Disaster Management
16.7 Conclusion
16.8 ' Key Concepts
16.10 Activities

• Understand the causes and impacts of sea accidents;
• Discuss the types of sea accidents;
• Explain the role and organisational structure of agencies involved in sea accident disaster
Management;
• Highlight the contingency action plan to respond to various types of sea accidents; and
• Describe the lessons learnt on the basis of past experiences of disaster management.
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Sea accidents are of two types: accidents at sea, and those associated with the sea which impact
on land causing heavy damage and destruction. Mostly the effect of sea accidents are felt both at
sea and over land. However, such differentiation holds good since management measures and
expertise necessary are different in each case. The sea is vital for life on earth. It is a domain in
perpetual motion that modifies weather and governs climate at all times: 71 per cent of the earth's
surface is covered by sea-water. The worst prediction is that the level of water will rise further in
case the temperature increases beyond the permissible limits by global warming. In such event
most of the low lying areas-the coastal interfaces, internal low lying areas connected by riverine
waters and other inlets, low lying islands, etc-will be inundated by sea-water, and push the
1
~
I

•I
population further inwards to higher grounds. This is in addition to other damages the phenomenon
of global warming can cause to life on earth.
16.2 SEA ACCIDENTS: CAUSES AND IMPACTS

The sea is a multi-dimensional terrain. It is normally seen in five parts: \Ij
"
1
• the seabed at the bottom, which is almost similar.to the land on earth, with resources on the
bed (metallic nodules) and underneath (oil, gas, etc);
• the deep water column above, with its resources (fisheries, sea weeds, etc.) and currents;
• the interfacial layer on the surface continuously interacting with the sun and air;
• the airspace above that acts as carriers of water vapour; and
• the intercoastal surfaces 'where the sea meets the land.
All these fractals contain activities that will result in continuous energy exchange. Natural energy
exchange is vital for sustaining life on earth. Uncontrollable exchange of energy, or when the energy
exchange in these fractals impacts unfavourably on life and property, can result in accidents leading
to disasters. Disaster is an occurrence that causes large-scale damage and destruction to life and
property. The causes of sea accidents could be natural, human induced or a combination of both.
The forces that cause sea accidents may work in tandem. It is therefore, important to appreciate
the forces in their correct perspective to manage a sea accident either by avoidance (prevention)
and, ifnot successful, by appropriate and adequate post-disaster response.
Weather and climate play major roles in causing sea accidents. The sea is the main arbiter of
climate conditions. The capability of the sea to sustain life on earth can get affected by climate
change. Heat and pressure are the main ingredients that can cause the sea conditions run amok.
Climate scientists are ofthe opinion that ocean temperature can rise as a result of global warming
causing unprecedented disaster situations .
. The impact of a sea accident or a sea-based disaster could be unimaginably destructive and
sometimes irreversible. The forces that are at play in the marine environment can cause permanent
changes to the geographical profile of the land, flora and fauna. The impact of a sea-based disaster
will depend upon the nature of the incident, location and its vulnerability. For example, a tsunami
can wipe out the entire population of a distant coastal front or an underwater earthquake can sink
or create a whole island near it. The accidents can cause serious collateral damages too. In a major
. tanker or offshore oilrig emergency, there could be a need for search and rescue, fire control, oil
spill containment, and salvage and lightnmg operations-all in one go. These multiple operations
can take their toll and affect each other unless planned previously at the stage of preparedness.
The impact of sea accidents could be transboundary. The damages and costs inflicted often extend
beyond national boundaries. The impact of sea accidents will call for large-scale humanitarian
assistance as in any other case of disaster. The insurance figures will sky rocket. The sea is not a
convenient terrain to fight a disaster situation. In addition, normally, the weather conditions under
which the disasters occur will also make mobilisation difficult for response operations.
16.3 TYPES OF SEA ACCIDENTS

There are different types of sea accidents. The world faces almost every conceivable disaster
based on sea accidents repeatedly. These disasters have drawn and redrawn the profile of the
natural world, and periodically redefined habitability and nature of ecosystems and continue to do
so. But the most serious disaster will come when the sea becomes an instrument of the final climate
.1
Sea Accidents 185
.change. The journey to the next ice age will begin there, that is, when the ocean becomes unable to
regulate the mechanism that governs life on earth. This is what is the worrying factor to most of the
population who are concerned about climate change that could be induced by the much talked
about global warming. This will happen when natural currents in the sea become warmer and less
saline by the induction of fresh water from melting glaciers and ice packs. About 99 per cent of
fresh water available in the world is locked up in solid ice packs in glaciers and icebergs and
partially buried deep inside the earth according to studies on the subject. The ice when melts
because oftemperature rise can raise the sea level submerging low-lying areas including islands
and' coastal areas. Subsequently, the temperature will fall and freeze the world towards the ice age.
It is a nightmare for scientists who are ever on the lookout for identifying the tipping points that may
lead to massive destruction oflife on earth.
At a lesser level, there are many sea accidents occurring periodically causing heavy damages to life
and property, and economic destruction. There are various types of incidents that can cause ocean-
based disasters. They cannot be typecast in any specific pattern, except for convenience of
explanation. Besides, when disaster strikes, there will be multiple effects ofthe incident gone out of
control. Often there is a domino effect wherein one accident becomes instrumental in causing a
chain of accidents thereby magnifying the cumulative effect. The types of situation in the known
areas of sea accidents are:
i) Marine Casualties
A marine casualty is when a vessel or an ocean structure is involved in an accident causing loss or
damage to life and property at sea. Such accidents involve capsizing, sinking, grounding, collision,
fire, explosion, etc. A vessel by definition is every watercraft used for transportation by water.
Vessels could be ships, hovercraft, hydrofoils, fishing boats, sailing boats, ferries, tug boats,
submersibles, sea planes, etc. Ocean structures are fixed platforms at sea used for various operations.
Examples are oil exploration and production platforms; ocean based fixed satellite launch sites;
seabed mining platforms; floating hotels (sometimes called floatels), etc. All these platforms, moving
and fixed are susceptible to the vagaries of the sea and meet with serious accidents if the design
and operational procedures are violated.
ii) Oil Spill

An oil spill at sea is a probable outcome of a marine casualty. It is a collateral damage. A major oil
spill could turn out to be disastrous to marine ecosystems and facilities that may impair a nation's
economy. There were many examples in the past when serious oil pollution has occurred as a
result of marine casualties involving tankers and oil platforms. The marine sources of oil pollution
are spills caused from shipping operations, shipping accidents, offshore oil platform accidents and
near shore oil and ship facility operations. Oil can seriously damage the marine environment and
fisheries resources, and threaten health security. Oil spill from the sea can leach into the water
tables on the coastal belt and affect drinking water. Some of the world's serious oil pollution
incidents and their causes are tabulated below.
iii) Hazardous Waste Dumping and Chemical Spills

. Illegal dumping of hazardous wastes into the sea is a serious threat to marine environment. It is
estimated that 3 million tonnes of toxic cargo is dumped into sea every year. This is in addition to
the spillage caused by chemical carriers. The dumping grounds have become virtually underwater
deserts, especially in the Mediterranean. The only marine organisms that thrive there are the
scavenger variety, which are immune to toxicity.
Table 16.1: Oil Pollution Incidents and their Causes
Date Incident Location Spill Estimate

16 March Grounding- Off Brittany, 68.7 million gallons
1978 Amoco Cadiz France
," 3 June 1979 Blowout - Ixtoc I Bay of Campeche, 140million gallons
(offshore oil well) Mexico
1 November Collision - Burmah Gulf of Mexico 2.6 million gallons
1979 Agate and Mimosa
24 March Grounding- Prince William 37,000 tonnes .
1989 Exxon Valdez Sound, Alaska
8 June 1990 Lightering accident - Off Galveston, Texas 5.1 million gallons
Mega Borg
6 March 1990 Explosion and fire - Linden, New Jersey 127,000 gallons
Cibro Savannah
10 August Collision - Bouchard Tampa bay, Florida 336,000 gallons
1993 B165, Balsa 37 and
Ocean 255
16 February Grounding- Southwest Wales, 70,000tonnes
1996 Sea Empress U.K.
19 November Broke up - Prestige Off the coast 4,500 tonnes spilled and
2002 of Spain 64,000 tonnes sank
with the ship.
27 July 2003 Grounding- Off port of Karachi 28,000 tonnes

Tasman Spirit
iv) Bio Invasion of Alien Microorganisms
Marine biogeography and biodiversity contours can shift alarmingly by the invasion of alien
microorganisms. Microorganisms that traverse the waters by clinging to ships' hulls or in ballast
water have caused serious harm to maritime nations by turning predators in their new environment
and damaging the natural flora and fauna of such waters. Ships that visit ports normally use
seawater as ballast from elsewhere and discharge it in the port or near to it before loading cargo.
The alien microorganisms in the ballast water thus get discharged into the new environment. Ballast
water, estimated at about 3 to 5 billion tonnes transferred annually around the world, has become
a vector to introduce non- indigenous marine species innocently, It has become a matter of serious
discussion in international forums since such invasions besides altering the ecosystem, can deplete
fisheries resources in an area and cause health problems to population.
Questions persist on how to deal with these predator marine species. Following marine organisms
are considered the most dangerous:
• Cholera strains (Vibro cholerae),
• Cladoceran water flea (Cercopagis pengoi),
• Mitten crab (Eiochelr sinensisi,
• Toxic algae (various species: red, brown and green,
• Round goby (Neogabious melanostamus,
Sea Accidents 187
• European green crab ( Carcinus maenus,

• North Americn comb jelly (Mnemiopsis leidyi,
• North Pacific Sea Star (Astcrias amurensis,
• Zebra mussel iDreisenna pal \morpha), and
• Asiankelp (Undaria pinnatfidai.
v) Air Crash at Sea

An air crash is a disaster accident. Such accidents could take place over the sea. Civil and military
aircraft regularly flyover the sea and have crashed into it. It is a disaster situation that needs urgent
response.
vi) Crimes at Sea

Crimes atsea can lead to violent consequences. Maritime violence is often associated with piracy
of all kinds and armed robbery. There are cases when ships were pirated and violently attacked by
armed criminals, hijacked by the crew and used for militant and transnational criminal purposes.
Such crimes could upstage collateral damages, besides inducing trauma in the crew. There were
incidents when armed pirates had hijacked fully loaded tankers that had lost control for hours.
Such incidents could cause heavy oil spills by grounding or collision.
vii) Subversive Activities

The sea is a favourable terrain for subversive activities that can cause heavy damage to life and
property. A militant attack on a ship or facility at sea, or over land using the sea route can result in
disastrous consequences. Lately, it has become a major concern. Though there were only limited
attacks by militants at sea so far, the danger looms large at sea the more they are cornered over
land. Possibility of militants using the sea for transportation of dangerous cargo and agents for
militant activism ashore is seriously and continuously examined by various security agencies.
viii) Tsunami
A tsunami is a secondary effect induced by an underwater earthquake, landslide or any such
disturbances that could generate an extremely long wave at very low amplitude travelling at high
speed. Normally the waves have an average speed of about 900 kilometres per hour. When such
waves approach the shallows near the coastline, it hits the interface at high speed causing serious
harm to life and property around. The height and mass ofthe wave increases substantially when it
reaches shallow waters.
ix) Cyclones
A cyclone is a tropical revolving storm that picks up huge force on its path. It is known by different
names around the world-"hurricane" in the Atlantic and Eastern pacific, "typhoon" in the Western
Pacific, "willy-willy" in Australia and "bagius" in the Philippines. Cyclones usually originate from
the sea in the tropics (between 5 to 30 degree parallels oflatitude on either side ofthe equator) and
frequently rake the tropical coastlines. It is made of bands of thunderstorms that spiral around a
centre called the "eye." Winds and low pressure combine to build a mound of water near the
storm's eye at sea:As the cyclone approaches the shore, the mound creates a storm surge that
swamps coastal areas. A cyclone has a knack of swirling all on its path and inundating the area
over land under massive precipitation. Besides uprooting structures in strong gale winds, the
precipitation causes flash floods causing heavy loss of life and property.
. 16.4 SEAACCIDENTS:DISASTERMANAGEMENT
Disaster management process comprises both disaster avoidance management and disaster
response management. Disaster avoidance management primarily deals with efforts to prevent a
disaster, whereas disaster response management attempts to professionally respond to the disaster
to mitigate its effects and rehabilitate the situation. Disaster management is a multi-faceted approach
"
by groups of professionals with the competence to address diverse issues that will involve
formulation of rules and regulations, preparation of guidelines and operating procedures, law making,
enforcement of legislations, managing humanitarian aspects and traumatic situations, addressing
complex socio-economic and technical issues. The techniques, therefore, have to be based on
knowledge infrastructure by competent professionals related to the terrain and activities thereon.
16.4.1 Various Agencies involved in Disaster Management

.
, Various agencies are involved in the management of sea-based disasters. It depends upon the type
of incident and nature of disaster management required in a situation based approach.
The Indian Coast Guard is the primary agency in India that deals with maritime affairs related to
marine environmental protection and maritime search and rescue in addition to other duties in
accordance with its charter under the Indian Coast Guard Act 1978 on non-military maritime
security. It is an armed force ofthe Union created in 1978 with the specific charter to protect the
maritime and other national interests ofIndia within the maritime zones ofIndia. In accordance
with its functions, it has been designated as the national agency for maritime search and rescue (M-
SAR), central coordinating authority (CCA) for oil spill disaster response in the maritime zones of
India and also the chair organisation of the offshore security coordination committee (OSCC). It is
also the lead intelligence agency (LIA) for intelligence related to coastal border areas that also
involve its functions in preventing disasters in India waters.
In addition to the Indian Coast Guard, there are other maritime agencies which are involved in
maritime disaster management. The military armed forces, customs, police, merchant marine
departments, fisheries organisations, environmental authorities, marine scientific institutes, oil safety
agencies, space agencies, communication agencies, coastal state authorities, corporate sectors,
etc. are part ofthe maritime disaster management sector. .
16.4.2 Organisational Structure

The mandate of the Indian Coast Guard is to carry out its duties and functions according to the Act
as it deems fit without duplication of efforts jointly or otherwise with other competent agencies.
The jointness in operation is important when it deals with disaster situations that need massive
mobilisation by sea and air. It is also important that the agencies involved carry out operations in a
cost-effective manner.
Maritime search and rescue operations are carried out in accordance with the National Maritime
Search and Rescue Manual (NMSARM) approved by the National Search and Rescue Board
(NSARB). The manual provides guidance to the members ofthe National SAR Board and others
involved on the implementation ofthe National Maritime SAR Plan (NMSARP).
The following organisations, departments and agencies represent the NSARB, under the chairmanship
ofthe Director General, Indian Coast Guard, besides acting as resource agencies for support:
• Indian Coast Guard
• Directorate General of Shipping
• Indian Air Force
1
Sea Accidents 189
.' IndianNavy
• ChiefHydrographer to Government of India
• Airport Authority of India
• Department of Telecommunications
.
"
• Department of Space
• Central Board of Excise and Customs
• India Meteorological Department
• Major Ports of India
• Coastal State Governments
• Fisheries Cominunity of India
• Sailing Vessel operators of India.
The Indian Coast Guard operates a voluntary ship reporting system called the INDSAR Indian
(Maritime) Search and Rescue (Computerised Ship Reporting System) along with a special reporting
system called the ISLEREP (Island Maritime Search and Rescue Reporting System).
The INDSAR, effective since 1 February 2003, maintains daily plot of ships operating in or transiting
through the Indian Search and Rescue Region (ISRR), an area in the Indian Ocean that covers
about 4.1 million square kilometres. Information in the plot is provided by ships voluntarily on toll
free numbers to the Maritime Search and Rescue Coordination Centres (MRCC) operated by the
Indian Coast Guard. The MRCCs, situated at Mumbai, Chennai and Port Blair coordinate the
maritime search and rescue operations in the ISRR through nine Maritime Rescue Sub-centres
(MRSC) operating from the Coast Guard District Headquarters (CGDHQ) situated at Porbandar,
Goa, New Mangalore, Kochi, Vishakhapatnam, Paradeep, Haldia, Diglipur and Campbell Bay.
The ISLEREP supplements the INDSAR. Its purpose is to enhance navigational safety in the
waters ofthe Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep. Ships are encouraged to participate
in ISLREP on VHF communication channel. The ship reporting systems provide easy access to
information to divert the nearest ship immediately on receiving a marine casualty report, before
assistance could be augmented. The SAR system functional matrix that enables distress alerting
and subsequent activities according to the N SARM is given below.
ELEMENTS FUNCTIONS
I SAR Authrority I
I Coordinating I
I MRCCIMRSC I
I SAR Resourcest--- :----i .Replaying!

Responding
I Alerting Facilitylf-----I
I Ships!Aircraft it-------l
Witness I
I I
I Distressed Unit I I Alerting

The mission organisation for M-SAR operates under a SAR coordinator (SC) designated for the
duration of operation whose responsibilities include establishing, staffmg, equipping and managing
the SAR system optimising available resources by coordinating with resource agencies. Designated
SAR Mission Coordinators (SMC), On Scene Commanders (OSC) and SAR units (SRU) -
vessels and aircraft - function under the Se. The typical mission organisational structure for M-
SAR is given below. ~
,"
se
1
•
I
I ~p
IOsCl
~
l-r-'\
-SR-U -, I SRU 'II'---SR-U---'
The toll free number for ship reporting under the INDSAR is 43 in INMARSAT-e. In addition,
i
,
the toll free number 1718 provides easy access to anyone who wish to pass information about a
disaster or likely disaster to the Indian Coast Guard for immediate assistance.
Oil spill response operations are carried out in accordance with the National Oil Spill Disaster
Contingency Plan (NOS-DCP) eo-coordinated by the Indian Coast Guard. The plan was approved
by a committee of secretaries on 4 November 1993. The supporting ministries and resource
organisations under the plan are:
• The Indian Navy
• Ministry of Shipping
• Department of Ocean Development (Now Ministry of Earth Sciences)
• Ministry of Environment and Forests
.- • Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas
• Ministry of Agriculture
• Coastal state authorities
• Major port authorities
• Central and State Pollution Control Boards
• Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
• Oil India Limited
• Oil Refifieries
• Indian Oil Corporation
• Directorate General (Shipping)
• Mercantile Marine Department
• Shipping Corporation ofIndia
• National Institute of Oceanography
.
•
'
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute
Any other concerned agency as appropriate .
r
Sea Accidents 191
.The plan allocates functional responsibilities to various miriistries and departments. The Ministry of
Defence is the nodal ministry for crisis management in case of art oil spill disaster according to the
plan. Members are drawn from other agencies in the plan.
The Directorate General of Shipping is the riodal agency for maritime administration under the
Merchant Shipping Act, 1958. It works under the Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport, and
: Highways, It is responsible for preventive legislative measures, among other functions, in marine
safety and related aspects of shipping. The Directorate-General is also the nodal agency in India
fordealing with International Maritime Organization (IMO).
16.4.3 Search, Rescue and Relief

In any disaster situation, search, rescue and relief operations are carried out in accordance with the
prevailing national policies and plans. Often such operations are extended abroad under geostrategic
considerations by the government through bilateral or regional agreements. Receiving and providing
aid in a disaster situation will be strictly a matter of prevailing national policy. Internally, search,
rescue and relief operations are carried out by organisations with appropriate charter and other
organisations that could be voluntary and non-governmental.
16.5 DISASTER MITIGATION

Disaster mitigation is a post disaster activity. The terrain in a sea-based disaster will be the marine
environment, coastal interface or coastal area that has been affected. The main mitigating activity in
any disaster is centred basically on saving life and relieving human suffering that may sometime call
for very daring operations. Of course, the objective is also to save and/or salvage property and
assets. Professionalism is the key.
16.5.1 Action Plan

The action plan for disaster mitigation has to be at national level that should incorporate logically
coordinated, integrated and progressive sequence of preparedness, measures and related actions
with a quick jump-start. The action plan is aimed at minimising damage by optimising resources,
and thereby cost of operation. The plan should be supported by effective contingency plans at all
. levels of execution. At the same time, one should be aware that there is no blueprint for disaster
response. Each disaster is different. Operational flexibility, therefore, is the cornerstone of a well-
defmed action plan. Various stages in the action plan for disaster mitigation are: .
i) protecting property;
ii) preventing further escalation (where it was not possible to contain before);
ill) safeguarding the life systems and environment from further damage;
iv) public information;
v) keeping the traffic flow; and
vi) recovery and preservation.
16.5.2 International Preventive Measures against Sea Accidents

Generally; the preventive measures adopted by a nation in the case of a sea accident will have the
elements of international preventive measures incorporated in them since such accidents, most of
the time, are transboundary in nature. These measures are supported by international legislation
and related agreements by the parties concerned. The maritime search and rescue, for example,
7
revolves around a number of international conventions. India is a signatory to the International

Convention for the Safety of Life At Sea 1974 (SOLAS), the International Convention on Maritime
Search and Rescue 1979, and the United Nations Convention on the Law Of the Sea 1982
(UNCLOS). These conventions impose obligations on the part of the signatories to follow
international procedures to prevent and respond to accidents at sea among other requirements.
.
"
Leading international conventions to protect marine environment from pollution include the
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973 as modified by the protocol
,1978 thereby called MARPOL 73-78, the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness,
Response and Cooperation (OPRC) (adopted in 1990 and promulgated in 1995), and the OPRC-
HNS Protocol. The State parties are expected to have regional contingency plans sponsored by
the United Nations under the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) to respond to
pollution incidents at sea.
.
, The MARPOL 73.:.78is in five annexes. Annexes I (prevention of pollution by oil) and Il (Control
of pollution by noxious liquid substances) are integral part ofMARPOL. All State parties to
MARPOL 73/78 are also parties to the two annexes. Annexes III (Prevention of pollution by
harmful substances in packaged form), IV (Prevention of pollution by sewage from ships), V
(prevention of pollution by garbage from ships), and VI (prevention of air pollution from ships) are
optional. At the moment of accepting the Convention, States can declare that they do not accept
any number of these Annexes.
Parties to the OPRC convention are required to establish measures for dealing with pollution
incidents either nationally or in co-operation with other countries. IMO enhanced the scope of
OPRC by adopting the OPRC-HNS Protocol in 2000, that extended its coverage to pollution
incidents by hazardous and noxious substances (HNS) for international cooperation in establishing
systems for preparedness and response at the national, regional, and global levels.
Safety of ships and fixed platforms from unlawful acts has been a concern ofIMO for a long time.
Accordingly a Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime
Navigation and the Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed
Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf were signed on 10 March 1988, Countries acceded to
the Convention and the Protocol are required to make national legislation. India gave effect to the
.Convention and the Protocol by an Act ofthe Parliament called the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
Against Safety of Maritime Navigation and Fixed Platforms on Continental Shelf Act, 2002.
These conventions and others under progressive discussions and deliberations provide for IMO to
,play important coordinating role in activities related to sea accidents.
16.6 . LESSONS LEARNT: PAST EXPERIENCES IN

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Though disaster is a common term used to express an incident that causes serious damage to life
and property, the anatomy of each such incident could be different. The lessons learnt, therefore,
are limited to the incident. For those involved in managing disasters, it is a question of deduction to
prevent and mitigate disasters. Still disaster happens. It validates the theory that each disaster is
different.
Disasters from the sea can hold many lessons to those involved directly or indirectly. Important
among them are stated below.
• Preventing a disaster is best done by following the guidelines in preparedness and control of
each disaster. This has to be inculcated by safety awareness education among seafarers,
7
Sea Accidents 193
coastal population and those involved in disaster management.

• A national level plan is important to jump-start mitigation measures in case of a disaster.
/'/' .
• . Absolute command and control under th~ coordinating authority is a must to avoid conflicts
during disaster management since it is a group and multi-dimensional activity.
• Disaster often causes collateral damages-preventing the domino effect of a disaster should
"
be carefully executed.
• Early response and availability of facilities can limit damage in a disaster.
• The sea is a terrain vital to life on earth; it has to be preserved in a healthy state at any cost.
16.7 CONCLUSION
The sea, while sustains life on earth, is also a domain from where disasters surface. The expanse of
the sea carries many mysteries in isolation. Disasters do not follow any specific code of conduct. It
occurs when the system collapses. The solution lies in preventing a system collapse at sea and, if it
fails, meeting the post-disaster requirements
, in a cost-effective manner. It is possible only by
following the rules and guidelines related to the domain, and enforcing them successfully besides
having disaster mitigation plans in place at appropriate levels and, above all, being prepared at all
times.
16.8 KEY CONCEPTS

Ballast water Sea water carried by ships in tanks for stability when unladen.
Domino effect An effect produced when one event sets off a chain of similar events.
Fractals Fractals are complex dynamic systems that have continuously changing
shapes and character. It is a mathematical term used to express
geometric shapes that possess "fractional dimension." A coastline or
an underwater contour is a fractal.
Global warming Potential increase in average global atmospheric temperatures resulting
from the greenhouse effect.

Indian Coast Guard, Safe Waters, Biannual Newsletter on Maritime Safety and Security, 2006,
Coast Guard Headquarters, New Delhi.
Indian Coast Guard, Blue Waters, Biannual Newsletter on Marine Environment Security, 2006,
Coast Guard Headquarters, New Delhi.
f' •
Malvya, G, and P. Paleri, "Response to Ocean Crimes", Journal of Indian Ocean Studies,
Vo1.8, No. 3, December, 2000.
Paleri, P., 2004, Role of the Coast Guard in the Maritime Security of India, Knowledge
World, New Delhi.
Parasuraman, S. and P. V. Unnikrishnan, (Eds.), 2000, India Disasters Report, Towards 'cl
Policy Initiative, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Untied Nations, 1983, The Law of the Sea, UN Publication, New York.
7
I
16.10 ACTIVITIES
1) What are the causes of sea accidents? Analys.e briefly with examples,
2) What are the types of sea accidents? Explain the impact C?feach on human life, environment
. and property?
.
"
3) What should be the ingredients of a good contingency plan for sea accidents disastermitigation?
..
l
I
I
NOTES·
MPDDIIGNOU/P.O. 1T/Novem er, 2Q15 (Reprint)
ISBN-978-81-266-34231

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Indira Gandhi National Open University MPA·002

Understanding Man-Mad-e Disasters - '-

.Ilfu~ ~ cnT ~ -B: ~ GFmft ~ 3ltt 3tf\if '

Understanding Man-Made Disasters

PGDDM Programme Coordinator(s)

Dr.Urna Medury Dr. Dolly Mathew

MPA-002 Course Coordinator Course Editor

Dr. Durgesh Nandini Dr. S.M.· Kulshrestha

Units Writer Units . Writer

November, 2015 (Reprint)

Unit 6 Coal Fire 63

Unit 7 Forest Fire 72

Unit 8 Oil Fire 82

I Unit 11 Deforestation 126

.Unit 12 Industrial Wastewater Pollution 134

I Unit l3 Road Accidents 147

[Unit 14 Rail Accidents 157

Unit 15 Air Accidents 169

Unit 16 Sea Accidents 183

Unit 1: Understanding Man-Made Disasters

Unit 2: Nuclear Disasters

Unit 3: Chemical Disasters

·. Unit 5: Building Fire

Unit 6: Coal Fire

Unit 7 Forest Fire

Unit 9 Air Pollution

Unit 10: Water Pollution

Unit 12 Industrial Wastewater Pollution

Unit 13 Road Accidents

Unit 15 Air Accidents

Unit 16 Sea Accidents

1.0 LEARNING OUTCOME.

Distinction from Natural Disasters

Causes of Man-made Disasters

Nature of Man-made Disasters - Basic Facts

Understanding Man-Made Disasters 13

1.2 CONCERNS IN DISASTER MANAGEJVIENT

ii) Inadequate and / or Irregular Flow of Resources

iii) Frequent Transfer of Trained Personnel

iv) Lack of Motivation among Personnel

vi) Golden Hour Concept

vii) Absence of Rewards and Punishments

1.3 TYPES OF MAN-MADE DISASTERS

1.3.1 Industrial and Technological Disasters

• Industrial fire accidents.

• Coal Mine Fires.

1.3.4 Rail and Road Accidents

this could cause a victim of an accident to lose life.

ii) Rail accidents

1.3.5 Air and Sea Accidents

ii) Sea accidents

1.3.6 Complex Disasters

1.4 RESPONSE TO MAN-MADE DISASTERS

Specific Risk Reduction and Preparedness Measures

1.6 KEY CONCEPTS

1.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

2.2 Causes of Nuclear Disasters

2.3 Nuclear Disaster Management

2.4 Lessons Learnt

2.6 Key Concepts

2.7 References and Further Reading