Bending stresses

Bending stresses
Introduction
Abeam when loaded undergoes bending, but this bending becomes critical at appoint in which it becomes a
maximum in value. This maximum bending moment weakens the beam (called a punishment factor) and may reach
equilibrium or the beam fails.
4
The shape of the beam’s x – Section and materials of which this shape is made up of (measured in mm ) have to
combine to provide resistance to this punishment , later on called Moment of Resistance of the beam.
NB:

for equilibriu m Max bending moment of applied external loads  moment of resis tan ce of beam

Therefore at this stage, the main aim of design of beams is to ensure that, under full working loads on a beam, it
reaches a state of equilibrium at which the stresses induced in the fibers are just below the permitted values.

Methods of Design
There are three methods namely;
1. elastic theory or theory of bending method
2. load factor method
3. limit state design

Stresses in beams
Are of two types,
 Bending stresses
These are stresses that result due to bending moments and they occur parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam
hence the name longitudinal stress.
They are either tensile or compressive stresses
 Shearing stresses
These are lateral or longitudinal stresses acting tangentially to the plane of reference.
They are induced by application of shearing forces.

These two sets of stresses occur simultaneously in a beam but their co current analysis may not easily be
understood. So each is considered separately

Elastic theory method or the Theory of Bending

This considers the distribution of bending stresses across a plane section to vary from zero at the neutral axis to
maximum tension and maximum compression at the extreme fibers.
Also simple analogy shows that the compression and tension generated within the beam section combine to resist
the external bending moment.

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 Bending stresses

Assumptions of simple bending

 The beam is in a state of pure bending. Pure bending is a state of a beam in which a long its entire length
only bending stresses occur constant and no shear stresses occur. i.e. only bending moments are induced
and no shear forces.
 The beam is of homogeneous material which is elastically isotropic i.e. having the same young’s modulus
both in tension and compression (or Before and after bending)
 The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal fibers bend in the form of circular arcs with a common centre
of curvature and a radius which is large compared with the dimensions of the x-section.
 Lateral x- sections remain plain and perpendicular to the neutral axis before and after bending.

General Expression for Simple Bending

Consider a portion of a beam before loading with two plane sections A-B and C-D taken very close together.

The layer E – F lies on the Neutral axis and a fibre GH having a x – sectional area a at a distance y from the neutral
axis.
Fibers decreases in length to A’C’ (compression)
Fibers BD increases in length to B’D’ (tension)
The planes AB and CD remain straight but are rotated to positions A’B’ and C’D’ but fibre EF= E’F’ at the neutral axis
neither increases nor decreases in length.
The small portion has bent through small angle δθ (in rads) at a radius of curvature R

strain 

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 Bending stresses

Changes in length of fibre GH to G ' H ' is called strain

G 1 H 1  GH
strain in fibre GH  GH  
increase in length

original length GH

but GH  EF where E ' F '  EF  R and  G ' H '  R  y 

strain  GH  
R  y   R

R  y  R

y
R R R

But from properties of a material stress  strain

 E  young ' s mod ulus 

f

stress f
stress in fibre GH over area a  E  strain

.............1
Ey f E
f GH  ;  
R y R
Force
Load on fibre GH over area a  stress  the area
Ey
 a
R
Eay
 load  force GH 
R

Moment of load about N  axis

Eay Eay 2
M GH  y
R R
 Eay 2 
 For the whole area M r    ; but E and R are cons tan t
 R 
then Mr   ay 2 and  ay 2 is the sec ond moment of area I or inertia of the shape
E
R
but from equation 1; 
EI f E
 Mr  ;
R y R
Mr I E
  the general Expression for simple Bending
f y R
f I
 Mr   I  Mr  f  ...........Equation of simple Beam Design
y  y
Elastic section modulus

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 Bending stresses

I
Section mod ulus Z 
y
NB:
1) if the permissible stress is the same for both top and bottom (compression and tension)

Then safe bending moment Mr  f  least Z

2) in cases where compression stress is not equal (same) as Tensile stress

Then safe bending moment Mr  lesser of the two

i.e. M c  f compression  Z comp and or M t  f tension  Z tension but the lesser of the two

Example 1
A strip of steel 1.4mm thick has to pass over a pulley. Determine diameter of the pulley if the bending stress in the
2 2
steel must not exceed 120N/mm , E=210kN/mm
Radius of pulley  Radius of bending curvature
E M f
from   ; where f  120, E  210  10 3 , y  1.4
R I y
Ey 210  10 3  1.4
 R   1.23  10 3 mm
f 120  2
hence 
diameter d of pulley  1.23  10 3  2 mm  or d  2.45m

Example 2
Determine the maximum bending stress that will occur in a timber beam of rectangular section (150 x 50) mm when a
bending moment of 600Nm is applied about x – x axis.

I I bd 2
Mr  f where Z and Z 
y y 6
150 mm

x x 50  150 2
 600  f 
6
600  6  10 3
 f   3.2 N / mm 2
50 mm 50  150 2

Example 3
A timber beam of rectangular section 240 x 80 mm is simply supported over a span 4 m. if the permissible bending
stress is 5N/mm2; determine the max. Allowable uniformly distributed load that the beam may carry.
a) Applied perpendicular to the x – x axis
b) Applied perpendicular to the y – y axis

Solution

Max. stresses occur at extreme fibres

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 Bending stresses

I I bd 2
Mr  f where Z  Mr  f  Z and Z 
y y 6
80  240 2
 Mr  5   3.84  10 6 Nmm or 3.84kNm
6

wl 2 Wl
for a UDL and simply sup ported M max  
8 8

but Mr  M max  3.84  10 

w 4  10 3
6  
2

8
w  1.92 N / mm 2

For loading perpendicu lar to y  y axis

240  80 3 db 2
Mr  5   1.28  10 6 where Z 
6 6

but Mr  M max  1.28  10 

w 4  10 3 6  
2

8
w  0.6 N / mm

Example 4
A timber beam having a rectangular cross section 240 x 85 mm is loaded as shown below. Determine
a) The max. bending stress in the beam
b) The bending stress in the beam at a point situated 0.2m to the left of B and 30 mm below the upper edge of
the section.

6 kN/m 3 kN  M  B  0; 3R A  6  3  1.5  3  1.2

R A  7.8kN
A C
from V  0; R A  RB  3  6  3
B 1.2m
3m
RB  21  7.8  13.2kN
RA = 7.8 kN RB = 13.2 kN

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 Bending stresses

but M max occurs at a po int of zero shear say z from A.

7.8
 Q z  7.8  6 z  0; z   1.3m
6
1.3 2
then M max  7.8  1.3  6   5.07 kNm
2
85  240 3
sec ond moment of area I xx   97.92  10 6 mm 4
12
then the max . bending stress
M max  y 5.07  10 6  120
f max    6.21N / mm 2
I xx 97.92  10 6

b  At a po int 0.2m to the left of B

0.2 2
M  13.2  0.2  6   3  1.4  1.66kNm
2
 M  1.66  10 6 Nmm
My 1.66  10 6  120
then extreme fibre stress at this po int will be, f  
I 97.92  10 6
f  2.04 N / mm 2

Tension
2.04N/mm2 is the extreme fibre stresses
2.04
By similar triangles;
30 f’
120mm

f1 90 90
90  ;  f 1  2.04 
x x 2.04 120 120
120mm

f 1  1.53 N / mm 2 ; tension
Compression

2.04

Example 5
a) Calculate the dimension x to the centroid of the section shown below
b) Determine I xx and the two Values of Z xx for the section.
c) What safe inclusive uniformly distributed load can a beam of this section carry on a span of 3.6m if the
2 2
tension stress must not exceed 20 N/mm and the compression stress 100 N/mm

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 Bending stresses

100
24 X  Sectional area
200  36  7200mm 2
24  300  7200mm 2

360
24

N A 100  24  2400mm 2
total area A  16800mm 2
x

36

200

position of centoid ;
16800 x  7200  18  7200  186  2400  348
x  137.1mm
sec ond moment of area
200  36 3 24  300 3 100  24 3
Ixx 
12

12

12

 7200 119 2  49 2  2400  2112 
 280.99  10 6 mm 4

sec tion mod uli

I xx 280.99  10 6
Z tension    2.05  10 6 mm 3
x 137
I 280.99  10 6
Z compression  xx   1.26  10 6 mm 3
y 360  137
Moments of resis tan ce
compression moment M c  f c Z c  100  1.26  10 6  126  10 6 Nmm
Tensile Moment M t  f t Z t  2.05  10 6  20  41  10 6 Nmm

W
Safe moment of Re sis tan ce Mr  41.0  10 6 Nmm;
Wl
Mr  M max 
3.6 m 8
W  3.6  10 6
 41.0  10 6 
8
 safe Load W  91kN
91
or w  25.3kN / m
3.6
Example 6
A small floor 4.8 m x 4.2 m is to be supported by one main beam and 150 x 48 mm joists spanning between the wall
and beam as shown.
2
a) Calculate the safe inclusive floor load if the stress in the timber has a max. value of 7.0 N/mm .
2
b) Choose a suitable section modulus for the main steel beam if the stress is not to exceed 165 N/mm . Ignore
the weights of the joists and the beam.

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 Bending stresses

2.4 m 2.4 m a  Total load to be carried by one timber joist

Total load  2.4  0.36  w  0.864 wkN
bd 2 48  150 2
Z of joist    180  10 3 mm 3
6 6
Moment of resis tan ce of one joist
4.2 m

150 x 48 mm joists at
150 x 48 mm joists at 360 mm c/c 0.36 m Mr  f  Z  7.0  180  10 3  1.26  10 6 Nmm
360 mm c/c
Wl 0.864W  2.4  10 6
Thus M max    1.26  10 6
8 8
Safe inclusive floor load W  4.86kN / m 2
1.2 m

b Total safe load to be carried by the main steel beam

 
Each Secondary joist transfers half 1 of its loads to the main beam as an end reaction 
2
and other half to wall
Safe load  4.2  2.4  4.86  48.99kN  49kN this is treated as aUdl
Moment of resis tan ce of main steel beam
Wl 49  4.2  10 6
Mr  f  Z  M max    25.73  10 6 Nmm
8 8
Mr 25.73  10 6
Section Modulus Z    155.9  10 3 mm 3
f 165
Example 7
The section shown is that of a cantilever 4m long carrying a uniform load of 3kN/m which is applied perpendicular to
the x – x axis. Calculate
a) The maximum bending stress in the beam under this loading.
b) The maximum concentrated load that may be carried at the free end of the cantilever in addition to the
2
uniform load, if the permissible bending stress is 120N/mm .

100mm The sec tion moment area will be the difference

between the values for two rec tan gles
8mm 100  200 3 92  160 3
I xx    35.25  10 6 mm 4
200mm

x 12 12
2
3  42
a  M max 
wl
  24kNm
2 2
20mm  24  10 6 Nmm
My 24  10 6  100
f    68.1N / mm 2
I 35.25  10 6

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 Bending stresses

b  Since the total stress must not exceed 120 N / mm 2 , the stress due to the concentrat ed
load only must be lim ited to
f cl  120.0  68.1  51.9 N / mm 2
then the allowable additional bending moment due to the concentrat ed load will be
fI 51.9  35.25  10 2
M cl    18.29  10 6 Nmm
y 100
 18.26kNm
Now for a concentrat ed load on the free end of a cantilever M  W  l
then the allowable concentrat ed load , Wcl  18.29  4.57 kN
4
Composite materials (Beams of two Materials)
This is when a beam is built up of two materials with different elastic moduli but the components are joined together in
such a way that the bending strains at the material interfaces are the same in both.
Examples of these beams are

1. Flitch beams
2. Reinforced concrete beams

Conditions
 The components must be of different materials
 They should be securely attached or bolted together along the whole length to ensure no slip hence perfect
bond. Strains at interfaces must be equal

1. Flitch Beams
These are beams or sections made up of timber and steel.

Consider a timber beam and steel beam shown.

t b t Steel plates

D x x

timber

The timber joist section is reinforced with steel plates attached securely together such that;

f
The bending strains at interfaces are equal i.e. strain in steel  strain in timber and from E 

 fs  ft E Es
   ;  f s  s f t but 
 Es  Et Et Et
 f s   f t ...............1

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 Bending stresses

1. the applied bending moment is partly taken by each component, i.e. partly by steel and partly by timber

Mr  Ms  Mt...........2

Also because of the composite action, the radius of curvature must be the same for both timber and steel

M f E f f E
the from   ;  M    I and 
I y R  y y R
Et I t Es I s
 Eqn 2becomes Mr  
R R
Dividing both sides by Et
It E  Is Es
  mod ular ratio 
Mr
    s  but
Et R  Et R Et
Et
 Mr  I t   Is 
R
Et ft
but also 
R y
f
 Mr  t I t   I s ............3
y
From the equation 3 above; I t   I s
is the sec ond moment of area of the equivalent timber sec tion

f  fs  It  f 
 Mr   t  I tequivalent and for steel Mr    I s    s  I sequivalent
 y  y    y

μt b μt b
t b t Steel plates t  t

D x x D x x
x x

Timber Timber
Timber
Equivalent timber Beam section
Equivalent Steel beam section

 f 
Mr   t  I t eqv. f 
 y Mr   s  I s eqv.
 y

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 Bending stresses

Example 1
A composite beam consists of a rectangular timber core 150mm x 100 mm which is secured along its entire length
between steel plates 150mm x 9mm as shown. Determine the maximum bending stresses induced in the timber and

steel by a bending moment applied about the x – x axis of 6kNm .

Etimber  10.5kN / mm2 ; and Esteel  210kN / mm2 .

9mm 100mm 9mm

solution u sin g timber Units 
E s 210
150 mm

mod ular ratio ,     20

x x Et 10.5
I xx  I t   I s
timber
100  150 3 20  9  150 3  2
   135  10 6 mm 4
12 12
ft I f
from Mr  I t  I s   xx t  t
y y
 Mr  y  6  10 6  75
f t      3.33 N / mm 2
 I xx  135  10 6

And stress in steel f s   f t  20  3.33

 66.7 N / mm 2
Example 2
A composite beam section consists of a timber joist and steel plate of the same length as shown. The beam when

loaded is subject to a sagging bending moment in the plane of y – y axis which has a maximum Value of 1.8kNm .
Determine the maximum compressive and bending stresses induced in the section by this moment when:
a) The two sections remain in contact with each other but are not bolted together.
b) The two sections are firmly bolted together along their length.

Young ' s mod uli : timber  10.5kN / mm2 ; and steel  210kN / mm2 .
Solution

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 Bending stresses

a  if the timber & steel are not bolted together , they will bend seperately without composite
action , but if they also remain in contact their radii of curvature will be equal
f 1 fs f 1
Then   cons tan t   t 
Ey R E s y Et y R
fs E y 210  10
Giving  s   2.67
ft Et y t 10.5  75
Now Total BM  Total Moment of resis tan ce  Mr in steel  Mr in timber
100mm

Mr  1.8  10 6 kNm
150 mm

 fI   fI 
x x
     
20 mm  y  s  y t
2.67 f t  100  20 3  2 f t  100  150 3  2
 
12  20 12  150
therefore
100 f t  23567
1.8  10 6 
100 f t
6
2.67  20 2  150 2  
6
1.8  10  6
6
hence f t   4.58 N / mm 2
100  23567
and f s  2.67  4.58  12.24 N / mm 2

b if the timber & steel components are firmly fixed together , composite action will be
developed and the equivalent timber sec tion will be as shown
100mm

 f s   Es  210
Then          20
 f t   Et 
150 mm

x x
10.5
y
position of centroid
20 mm
_

  b  2000mm
40000  15000 y  2000  20  10  100  150  95
_
y  33.18mm
Second Moment of area of equivalent timber sec tion
2000  20 3 100  150 3
I xx    40000  23.18 2  15000  61.82 2
12 12
I xx  108.28  10 6 mm 4
My s 1.8  10 6 95  33.18
hence ft    2.27 N / mm 2
It 108.28  10 6
My s  1.8  10 6  33.18 
and fs    f t     20  11.03 N / mm 2
Is  108 .28  10 6


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 Bending stresses

Example 3
A flitch beam is made by fixing a steel plate of 20 cm x 2cm at the top of a 25 cm x 40cm timber beam. Find the
maximum point load which can be carried by this beam at its free end if the beam is built in a wall at one end, the
2 2
span of the beam is 2m. Young’s Modulus for steel 195kN/mm , young’s modulus for timber is 10kN/mm ; yield stress
2
of timber is 7kN/mm .

200mm 200 x m= 3900 mm ft

20mm
mod ular ratio
220
E s 195
200
m   19.5
Et 10
400 mm

y X  sec tional area

A  250  400  100000
B  3900  20  78000
250 mm
ftmax
Total area  178,000mm 2
Position of centroid
178000 y  100,000  200  78000  410
y  292mm
Second moment of area I xx  I 0  Ah 2
250  400 3 3900  20 3
I xx    100,000  92 2  78000  118 2
12 12
I xx  3268.4  10 6 mm 4

fI 7  3268.4  10 6
Moment of resis tan ce Mr    78.35  10 6 Nmm
y 292

W
M max  Mr  Wl
2W  10 6  78.35  10 6
2m Max. safe load W  39.2kN

Example 4
A composite beam is formed using a 400 x 180 mm timber beam with a 300 x 12 mm steel plate securely fixed to
2
each side as shown. The maximum stresses in the steel and timber respectively must not exceed 140 and 8 N/mm ,
and the modular ratio is 20.
a) What will be the actual stresses used for (i) the steel, and (ii) the timber.
b) What is the safe moment of resistance in Nmm for the beam section?

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 Bending stresses

180
240 240 f t max
12mm 180 mm Steel plates

200
150
400

300
x D x x

ft
Timber Timber Stress distribution Diag.
Equivalent timber Beam section
Because of symmetry
 240  300 3  180  400 3
I xx  2      2040  10 6 mm 4
 12  12

from stress diag and applying similar triangles

if f t max  8 N / mm 2
f t max f 8  150
 t ; ft   6 N / mm 2
200 150 200
 stress in pure steel would be f s max  m  f t ; f s max  20  6
f s max  120 N / mm 2  140 N / mm 2
140 f t max 7
if f s max  140 N / mm 2 ; ft   7;  ;
20 200 150
f t max  9.33 N / mm 2  8 N / mm 2
a  safe stresses developed in the beam are f s  120 N / mm 2 ; f t  8 N / mm 2

b  Moment of resis tan ce

f t I t 8  2040  10 6
Mr    81.6  10 6 Nmm
yt 200

2. Reinforced Concrete Beams

Concrete is a material strong in its resistance to compression, but very weak indeed in tension. The safe stress in
1 th
tension is usually limited to not more than 10 of its compressive stress.

In order to increase the safe load carrying capacity of the beam, and allow the compression concrete to use to the
full, its compressive resistance, steel bars are introduced in the tension zone of the beam to carry the whole of the
tensile forces.
1 th
For a given tensile stress, the concrete would be apparently stressed to m of this.

The concrete would crack through failure in tension at a stress very much lower than this and thus its resistance to
tension is disregarded.

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 14

 Bending stresses

The critical area of steel

This is the least or minimum area of steel for a given size of steel which will allow the stresses in conc. To reach its
permissible value at the same time the stress in the steel reaching its max. Allowable value
In designing reinforced conc. Beams, the designer is always seeking to choose the depth of the beam (effective
depth) and the area of steel which will allow the stresses (in conc. & steel) to be attained together, producing a
balance or economical section.
The breadth of the beam is always chosen from practical consideration (i.e. b = 200 - 300) and μ = 15.
NB. If the two given safe stresses are reached together, then the required area of the steel will always remain a

 dn   la 
constant fraction of the beam’s area and the neutral axis factor   and the lever arm factor   will also have
 di   di 
constant values.

Elastic theory Design Assumptions

In the design of reinforced concrete beams the following assumptions are made.

 Plane sections through the beam before bending remain plane after bending.

 The concrete above the neutral axis carries all the compression.

 The tensile steel carries all the tension.

 Concrete is an elastic material, and therefore stress is proportional to strain.

 The concrete shrinks in setting and thus grips the steel bars firmly so that there is no slip between the steel
and the surrounding concrete.

From above assumptions

 di 
a) The position of the neutral axis will not normally be at   from the beam, but will vary in position
2
according to the relation between the amount of concrete above the neutral axis and area of steel.

b) The moment of resistance is equal to the maximum bending moment of the applied loads and is
given by the couple set up by the compression force in the concrete and tensile force in the steel.

i.e. Mr  M max  M conc.  M T

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 15

 Bending stresses

Derivation of Design equations

b
 c  f c Ec fc

dn
3
dn C
dn
di
x x la  di  dn3
D

x
di - dn

 s  f s Es ft
X – Section area
Stress distribution Diag.
Strain dist. diag

Considerin g strain diagram and similar ' s

fc
dn  dn Ec
 c; 
di  dn  s di  dn fs
Es
dn E  f  Es
 s  c ; but m
di  dn E c  f s  Ec
 f 
 m c       1
di
di  dn  fs 

lever arm is given by

     2 
dn
la  di 
3
Moment of resis tan ce of the sec tion is provided by the
compression  tension force couple

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 16

 Bending stresses

Total compression force  area in compression  Average compression stress

1
2
1
 bd n 
f c  f c bd n
2

acting at adepth of 1 dn below the top edge
3

Tension force T  Area of steel in tension  tension stress in steel
 As  f s acting at di below the top edge 

Moment of resis tan ce Mr with resp to conc.. in compression

1 1  dn 
Mr  M c  f c bdn  la  f c bdn di   and by proportion
2 2  3 
1  dn la  1 dn la
Mc  f c b      di 2 and if K   fc  
2  di di  2 di di

dn la
where  Neutral axis factor ; and  lever arm factor
di di

M c  kbdi 2      3

The moment with respect to steel

M s  As  f s  la          4 
Mc
Effective Depth di  ;        5 from M c  kbdi 2
kb

Example 1

Design a reinforced concrete beam which is built in a wall at one end and the other free. The span of the beam is 3
m; the beam is carrying a point load of 1tonne at its free end, Use elastic theory to design a beam of width 30cm.
2
Allowable stress in conc. = 7 N/mm
2
Allowable stress in steel = 150 N/mm

300
 c  f c Ec fc
dn
3
dn dn C
di
x
di - dn
x x la  di  dn3
T
 s  f s Es ft
X – Section area
Stress distribution Diag.
Strain dist. diag

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 17

 Bending stresses

dn f dn 97 0.42di
 c;   0.42; dn 
di  dn fs di  dn 150 1.42
dn  0.3di          1
 dn   0.3di 
lever arm la   di     di  
 3   3 
la  0.9di          2
1 dn la 1 0.3di 0.9di
but k fc   7 
2 di di 2 di di
k  0.945
Compressive Moment Mc  kbdi 2  0.945  300  di 2

W = 10 kN
1tonne  1000kg
1000  9.81
W  9.81kN
1000
3m
 10kN

Maximum Bending Moment Mr  Wl

Mr  10  3  10 6  30  10 6 Nmm

M c  Mr  0.945  300  di 2  30  10 6
30  10 6
di   325.3mm
0.945  300
Effective Depth di  325mm

cross sec tional area

Mc 30  10 6
A   683.76mm 2
f s la 150  0.9  325
Assume to use 16mm bars
Total Area 683.76  4
No. of bars    3.4
Area of 1 bar 16 2  
The no. of bars  4bars.
stirrups
1
The min imum diameter of the links must be less than the diameter of main bars
4
1
 diameterof links   16  4mm but not present at the market
4
 Adopt 6mm bars

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 18

 Bending stresses

Maximum spacing must not exceed 12 of the main bar

12  16  192mm
Pr actical spacing 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 275, 300
So Adopt 200mm

Number of stirrups

 1  16 links bars 
span 3000
No. of stirrups  1 
spacing 200

Overall Depth = 325 + 16/2 + 25 + 6/2 = 360mm

Detailed beam

4Y16 - T

16 R 6 - 200

Example 2
Design a simply supported reinforced concrete floor slab whose plan area is 3 m x 4 m and is supporting a total load
2
of 750 kg/m . Use the elastic theory method. Make a sketch of the slab showing the main bars.
2
Allowable stress in concrete = 6.5 N/mm
2
Allowable stress in steel = 145 N/mm
solution
750  10
Total inclusive load w  7.5kN / m 2
1000
Total load carried w  inclusive load  Area
w  7.5  3  1  22.5kN
Wl 22.5  3
M max    8.44kNm
8 8
 8.44  10 6 Nmm

Assume breadth of the slab to be 1000mm

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 19

 Bending stresses

 c  f c Ec fc
1000

dn
3
dn dn C
di
x
di - dn
x x la  di  dn3
T

 s  f s Es ft
X – Section area
Stress distribution Diag.
Strain dist. diag

15  6.5
dn  0.4di          1
dn
  0.67;
di  dn 145
 dn   0.4di 
lever arm la   di     di  
 3   3 
la  0.87 di            2 
1
k  6.5  0.4  0.87  1.131
2
8.44  10 6
M c  kbdi 2  1.131  1000  di 2 ; di   86.4mm
1.131  1000
 Effective Depth di  86.4mm
Area of steel
Mc 8.44  10 6
As    774.36mm 2
f s la 145  0.87  86.4
Assume 16mm diameter bars
As  4 774.36  4
Number of bars    6.8  7bars
12 2  12 2  
 No. of bars  7bars
spacing
span b  2  cov er   
 spacing  
n 1 n 1
1000  2  25  16 
  155.7 mm  300mm
7 1
adopt spacing  150mm

overal depth
D  di    cov er  86.4  16 2  25  119.4mm
2
 119mm

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 20

 Bending stresses

1000 mm

86.4 mm
119mm

7 Y12 - 150

2. LOAD FACTOR METHOD

This is the method of design adopted to test destruction (failure) or yielding condition of the beam. I.e. as failure
condition is approached, the distribution of compressive stress is much nearer to rectangular than triangular as in
elastic theory.
Therefore compressive stresses are greater than those got from elastic theory method.
Assumptions
 Compression stress in conc. is 2/3 of the permissible compressive stress in conc. in bending.

2 3 of f c  permissible stress 
 Stress is uniform over a depth dn not exceeding  1 2  of the effective depth di 
i.e. dn  12 di 

2
3 fc
b

dn
dn 2 C
di
x
di - dn x x la  di  dn2
T
ft
X – Section area
Stress distribution Diag.

For equilibrium to occur

Compressive force Fc = Tensile force FT

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 21

 Bending stresses

2
f c bdn  As f s
3
 3A f 
dn   s s           1
 2 f cb 
dn
lever arm; la  di 
2
and dn foreconomic reasons, must not be greater than half the effective depth.
1 11 
i.e. dn  di; la  di   di 
2 22 
 la  3 di          2
4

Moment (Torque) set up

Mc  fc  la
 2 f c bdn  la  2 f c b  3 di  1 di
3 3 4 2
M c  1 f c b  di              3
2
4

Tensile Moment M T
M T  FT  la  As  f s  la          4 
Example 1
Design a reinforced concrete beam using the load factor method, built in a wall at one end and the other is free. It is
carrying a uniformly distributed load of 24 kN/m over its whole span of 4 m.
The width of the beam is to be 300mm
Permissible stress in steel = 135N/mm2
Permissible stress in concrete = 12N/mm2
Use 25mm θ bars

300 24 kN/m

dn
dn 2 C 4m
di
x
di - dn x x la  di  dn2
T Wl
ft M max 
X – Section area 2
Stress distribution Diag.
24  4 2
  192  10 6
2

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 22

 Bending stresses

1 1 192  10 6  4
M max  M c  f c bdi 2   12  300  di 2  192  10 6 ; di   461.9mm
4 4 12  300
Effective Depth di  462mm
di 3
lever arm la  di   di  3  462  346.5mm
2 4 4
Mc 192  10 6
Total area of steel As    4104.54mm 2
f s la 135  346.5
U sin g 25 mm diameter bars
As  4 4104.54  4
No. of bars n    8.36bars
d 2 25 2  
overal depth D  di  1 2   cov er
D  462  1 2  25  25  499.5mm
Adopt overal depth D  500mm
Combined stresses

This is when both direct stress and bending stress does occur simultaneously in a loading situation and therefore
there combined effect has to be analyzed and determined.
Direct stress:
2
This is caused by tensile or compressive loads being spread evenly across a section with units N/mm

axial load P
direct stress fd  
x  sec tion area A
Bending stress

My M 6 Pe
These develop as a result of bending moments and are given by bending stress fb   
I Z bd 2

For example consider a column section loaded centrally as shown

Consider the same loaded column with the same load, but this time the load is placed a distance e from the centroid
(center or y-y axis) in which case the load induces in the member both bending and direct stresses.

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 23

 Bending stresses

NB. It’s important to note that the direct stress

y
will be the same as in the previous example i.e.
P P
fd   every where on the load. And
P kN A bd
x x because the load is eccentric by e, the bending
moment m  P  e develops which creates both
e
compressive and tensile bending stresses in the
member and therefore the maximum stress developed
y
P M
in the member may be 
p A Z
A Incases where the column is eccentrically loaded in
both axes, the maximum stress developing will be
P Mx My
 
m
A Zx Zy
z

Example
A short timber post carries a load of 40kN eccentric from one axis only as shown in the figure. Calculate the intensity
of stress at
(a) At face BC
(b) At face AD

P 40  10 3
y
fd    4 N / mm 2 Every where
A B
A 100  100
on the load. And because the load is eccentric by e,
100
the bending moment m  40  10  20 develops
40 3
kN
x kN x
which creates both compressive and tensile bending
12mm stresses in the member and therefore the maximum
stress developed in the member a long face BC may
D 100 C
be
kN
P M 40  10 3 40  10 3  12  6
f max    
p
A A Z 100  100 100  100 2
f max  4  2.88  6.88 N / mm 2

m Minimum stress at face AD

z
40  10 3 40  10 3  12  6
 
6.88N/mm2

1.12N/mm2

f min
100  100 100  100 2
f min  4  2.88  1.12 N / mm 2

Example 2

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 24

 Bending stresses

Calculate the stresses at each corner

Direct stress
P 100  200  150  10 3 450  10 3
fd   
A 450  450 450  450
450mm
A B fd  2.22 N / mm 2

Bending stresses
200  10 3  100  6
f 200   1.32 N / mm 2
100kN 200kN 450  450 2
450mm

x
150  10 3  100  6
f150x   0.99 N / mm 2
100

100
450  450 2

150kN
150  10 3  120  6
f150y   1.19 N / mm 2
D 120 C 450  450 2
y Stress at corners
A:
P P200e P150x e
fA     2.22  1.32  0.99  1.19
A bd 2 bd 2
f A  1.10 N / mm 2

Stress at B

P P200e P150x e P150y

fB      2.22  1.32  0.99  1.19
A bd 2 bd 2 bd 2
f B  1.36 N / mm 2

Stress at C

P P200e P150x e P150y

fC      2.22  1.32  0.99  1.19
A bd 2 bd 2 bd 2
f C  3.34 N / mm 2

Stress at D

P P200e P150x e P150y

fD      2.22  1.32  0.99  1.19
A bd 2 bd 2 bd 2
f D  3.08 N / mm 2

Example 3
A 203 x 203 UC60 carries 3 loads as shown below. Calculate the stresses at faces AC, BD; given that the properties
of the UC are:

A  7580mm2 ; Z xx  580000mm3 ; Z yy  200000mm3

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 25

 Bending stresses

x Direct stress
P 140  300  80  10 3 520  10 3
B 205mm 205mm A
fd   
A 450  450 7580
fd  68.6 N / mm
140kN 80kN 2

300kN Bending stresses

C 140  10 3  205
D f140x   49.5 N / mm 2
x 580000
80  10 3  205
f 80x   28.3N / mm 2
580000
Stress at face AC
P P80e P140x e
f AC     68.6  28.3  49.5
A Z Z
f AC  47.4 N / mm 2

Stress at face BD
P P80e P140x e
f BD     68.6  28.3  49.5
A Z Z
f BD  89.8 N / mm 2

Water Pressure on Rectangular Dams

Consider a rectangular dam retaining water on one of its sides as shown below,
Now consider a unit length of the dam. Let H= Height of water retained by the

H
P
H
3

w R
dam.
We know that total pressure on the dam due to water,

wH 2
P
2
And this pressure will act at a height of H above the base of the dam.
3

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 26

 Bending stresses

Let W be the Weight of the dam masonry per unit length of the dam.
We know that W will act downwards through the centre of gravity of the dam section.
Now the resultant pressure of the force (P) and Weight (W) will be given by the relation.

R  P2  W 2
And the of inclination of the resultant with the vertical   will be given by the relation;
P
tan  
W

Now with OL and ON or LQ (equal to W and P to some scale) complete the rectangle OLQN. We know that
the diagonal OQ will give the resultant (R) to scale. Now extend OL and OQ to meet the base line at M and R as
shown above.
Let x be the horizontal distance between the centre of gravity of the dam and the point through which the
resultant cuts the base (i.e. MR). The distance x may be found from the similar triangles) OLQ and OMR. i.e.

MR LQ x P P H
 or  x 
OM OL H W W 3
3
Example 1: A concrete dam of rectangular section, 15metres high and 4 metres wide has water standing 3
metres below its top. Find:
a) Water pressure on 1 metre length of dam
b) Height of the centre of pressure above base and
c) The point at which the resultant cuts the base.
Assume the weight of concrete as 24kN per cubic metre.
Solution.
Given; total height of the dam = 15m; width of dam (b) = 4m; height of water (H) = 15 – 3 = 12m and weight of
3
concrete = 24kN/m .

4m 4m

3m 3m

15 m
15 m
12m
12m

O O
P P
H H
3 3

M R M R

w R W

Water pressure on one metre length of dam

We know that total water pressure on one metre length of the dam.

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 27

 Bending stresses

wH 2 9.81  12
2
P  kN
2 2
 706.3kN
Height of the centre of pressure above base
We also know that centre of pressure is at a height of H/3 above the base

12
I.e.  4m above the base
3
The point at which the resultant cuts the base
We know that weight of concrete per unit length of the dam;

W  24  15  4  1440 kN

And distance between mid-point (M) of the dam and the point where resultant cuts the base(R).

P H 706.3 12
x     1.96m
W 3 1440 3

Water pressure on trapezoidal Dams

A trapezoidal dam is more economical and also easier to construct than rectangular dam. That is why now days,
trapezoidal dams are preferred over the rectangular ones.
Consider trapezoidal dam ABCD retaining water on one of its sides (say vertical side) as shown. Considering a
unit length of the dam;

Let H = height of water retained by the dam.

Like the rectangular dam the total pressure on the trapezoidal dam per metre length will also be given by the
relation;

wH 2
P And the horizontal distance between the centre of gravity of the dam and the point, at which the
2
resultant cuts the base will also be given by the relation;

P H
x 
W 3

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 28

 Bending stresses

D C

H
P

H
3 B
A M x
R
W

NB.
 The resultant thrust on the base of the dam per metre length may be found from the relation.

P  P2  W 2
 The point M at the base of the dam through which the centre of gravity of the dam passes may be found out
either by taking moments about A or by the relation;

a 2  ab  b 2
AM 
3a  b 
Where a and b are the top and bottom widths of dam, resp.

 If the water is retained on the inclined face, the water pressure will act normally to face. In such a case, the
horizontal and vertical components of the pressure are to be used for calculations. This may be simplified by
assuming the surface to be vertical. Now the weight of the triangular wedge of water, over the inclined
surface, is included in the weight of dam.

Example 2.
A concrete dam 20m vertical face has water on it 16 m high from the base. The base of the dam is 8 m wide and
top 3 m wide. Find the resultant thrust on the base per metre length of the dam and the point where it intersects
3
the base when it contains water 16 m deep. Take weight of the concrete as 24 kN/m .
Solution
Given height of dam = 20 m; base width = 8 m; top width 3 m; depth of water 16 m; and weight of conc. 24
3
kN/m .
Resultant thrust on the base per metre length of the dam.
We know that total water pressure per metre length of the dam

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 29

 Bending stresses

3m

16m

20m
O
P
H
3
M
A x
R
W
8m
wH 2 9.81  16 2
P   1255.7 kN
2 2
And weight per metre length of dam;

1 
W  24    8  3  20 kN
2 
 2640 kN
 The resultant thrust on the base per metre length of the dam,

R  P 2  W 2  1255.7 2  2640 2
 2923.4 kN
The point where the resultant thrust intersects the base.
First of all, Let us find out the point (M) at the base of the dam through which centre of gravity (G ) passes.
Taking moments of the area of the trapezoidal section about A and equating the same;

 3  8  3  5 5 
AM  20    20  3    20   3   m 2
 2   2  2 3 
110 AM  90  233.3
323.3
 AM   2.94m
110
We know that the distance between the mid point (M) of the dam and point where resultant cuts the base (R),

P H 1255.7 16
x     2.54m
W 3 2640 3

 AR  AM  x  2.94  2.54
 5.48m

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 30

 Bending stresses

Example3:
A trapezoidal masonry dam having 2m top width and 8 m bottom width is of 15 m height as below.

2m

15m
12m

2m 2m 4m

Find:
i. Total water pressure per metre length of the dam
ii. Resultant thrust on the base of the dam
iii. The point where the resultant thrust cuts the base.
iv. Stress distribution at the base
3
Take the weight of the masonry as 22.5 kN/m .

Solution
Given;
3
Top width 2m; bottom width 8m; height of dam 15m height of water H = 12 m; and weight of masonry = 22.5 kN/m .

i Total water pressure per metre length of dam

We know that total water pressure per metre length of dam,

wH 2 9.81  12 2
P   706.3 kN
2 2

ii. Resultant thrust on the base of the dam,

We also know that weight per metre length of dam.

W 1  22.5 
2  8  15  1687.5 kN
2

The distance AM may also be found out from the relation.

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 31

 Bending stresses

a 2  ab  b 2 2 2  2  8  8 2
AM    2.8m
3a  b  32  8

And weight of water wedge (AEF) per metre length of the dam,

1
W 2  9.81   AE  EF
2
1 
 9.81    12  1.6   94.2kN
2 
 Total weight W  W 1  W 2  1687.5  94.2
 1781.7 kN
And resultant thrust on the base of the dam,

R  P2 W 2  706.32  1781.7 2  1916.6kN

The point where the resultant thrust cuts the base

First, let us find the point (m)at the base of the dam, through which centre of gravity (g)passes by taking moments of
the area of the water section of AEF and trapezoidal section about A and equating the same.

2m

E
F

15m
12m

P
R
M
A
2m 2m 4m

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 32

 Bending stresses

 EF   2 AJ 
AM  total wt   wt of H 2 0 AEF     wt of masonry ADJ 
 3   3 
  4 
 wt of mas' ry JKCD  2      wt of mas' ry KBC   4  
  3 
 1  1.6   1  2  2
AM  1781.7  9.81    12  1.6     22.5    15  2    22.5  15  2   3
 2  3   2  3 
 1  16 
 22.5    15  4   
 2  3
 50.2  450  202.5  3600  6125.2 We

AM  6125.2 / 1781.7  3.44m

12 12
length EF is got by simillar triangle  AJ   2  1.6m
15 15

know that distance between the mid point (m) of dam and point where the resultant cuts the base(R),

P H 706.3 12
x     1.59m
W 3 1781.7 3
AR  AM  x  3.44  1.59  5.03m

(iv) stress distribution at the base

We test for middle third rule.

base 8
  2.67m
3 3
Since AR = 5.03m falls within the middle third [b’tn 0 & (2x2.67)], therefore no tensile stresses will occur

Eccentricity e

base
e  AR 
2
e  5.03  4  1.03m

W 1781.7
direct stress f d    222.71kN / m 2
A 8 1

M 1781.7  1.03  6
bending stress f b    172.05kN / m 2
Z 8 1
2

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 33

 Bending stresses

W M
Therefore Max. Stress f max    394.76kN / m 2
A Z
W M
Min. stress f min    50.66kN / m 2
A Z

8m

1781.7kN
1m

W
 222.7kN / m 2
A

M
 172.05kN / m 2
Z
W M

A Z W M
  394.76kN / m 2
A Z

Soil Pressure
Pressure due to retaining soil and other granular materials like earth (Sandy, gravel, coke, coal)
Are arrived at depending on the property of internal friction (friction due to adjacent grains)
And not a property of internal cohesion like for clays.

Soils react differently to changes brought about by weather, moisture content, drainage conditions thereby causing
changes in the densities and therefore strengths.
This resulted into different theories, among which we have

 Rankine’s theory/coulomb’s or wedge theory

Rankine’s theory states that the outward pressure per square meter at a depth h meters due to a level fill of soil is

kagh there by less than the actual value gh pressed by a liquid since some soil is self supporting.

He came up with the following assumptions;

 The material is granular, homogenous and incompressible
 The material is cohesion less and that it posses only internal frictional resistance to movement between the
grains.
This material therefore if tipped on flat surface, forms a conical heap whereby materials support them selves by
internal friction between their grains.

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 34

 Bending stresses

i.e.
Pr essure at hm depth  kagh
1  sin 
where ka   frictional cons tan t 
1  sin 
θ θ
1  sin  
P     gh
1  sin  
P  active earth pressure at adis tan ce h m below the soil surface
  density of soil
g  accelerati on due to gravity

The angle the sides of the cone make with the horizontal is called angle of repose.
The angle of shearing resistance is equal to angle of repose for a moisture free solid.

Perpendicular wall faces

Example
Determine the factor of safety of the wall in relation with:
1. sliding failure
2. overturning failure
Given the following data; density of wall material 2400kg/m3
Coefficient of friction at the base of wall is 0.4

3m

Angle of repose θ
9m =35o. 9m
Density 1980
kg/m3 P

d
2
24.5kN/m
A B
5m R
W

Lateral force per meter length of wall

1  sin  1  sin 35 o
P  1 kagh 2 ; but ka    0.27
2 1  sin  1  sin 35 o
1 1980 2 
P    0.27   9   21.24kN
2 1000 
Weight of wall/dam per meter length

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 35

 Bending stresses

W  1 ha  bg
2
 1  93  5 2400  9.81
2 1000
 847.58kN

Moments per meter length

h 9
MOT  P   21.24   63.72kNm
3 3
2400  3 1 2400 2 
Mr  3  9   9.81  2     9  2   9.81    2
1000  2 2 1000 3 
 2507.43kNm
Factor of safety against overturning

factorofsa fety  f .s  
Mr 2507.43
  39.42
MOT 63.72
Factor of safety against sliding

R 0.4  847.58
factorofsa fety  f .s     15.96 >>>>2
p 21.24
Therefore the dam is safe against overturning failure and sliding failure

Surcharge Loading
These are superimposed loads on retaining walls and include among others load due boats, vehicle, persons etc.

Example1:
3
The trapezoidal retaining wall shown weighs 22kN/m and retains on its vertical face soil with an equivalent density of
3
16kN/m and an angle of repose (or internal friction)   30 o . The retained soil carries a superimposed vertical load
2
of 9.6kN/m .
Determine the pressure under the base AB.

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 36

 Bending stresses

9.6 kN/m2
0.5 m 3.2kN/m2

16kN/m2
4m 4m

d
2
24.5kN/m
A B
2.9 m R
W

The imposed load is converted to an equivalent additional height of the soil as:

int ensity of impossed load kN / m 2 9.6

h1    0.6m
equivalent density of soil kN / m 2 16
1
Therefore; the pressure at the top of the wall, level T1 is Ka  w  h1  16  0.6   3.2kN
3

Ka  w  h1  H   16  4.6 
1
And at that under side of the wall;  24.5kN
3
Total lateral force P acting on vertical face is equal to the area of pressure diagram which is a trapezoid.

P  1  43.2  24.5  55.4kN

2
Position of action of lateral force P

4 1  82.4
55.4h  3.2  4    4  24.5  3.2 
4
2 2 3  55.4
h  1.49m

Weight of the wall

H a  b g   40.5  2.9  22  150kN

1 1
W
2 2
Position of action of weight

a 2  ab  b 2 0.5 2  0.5  2.9  2.9 2

Am    0.99m
3a  b  30.5  2.9

Resultant force on dam

R  W 2  P 2  150 2  55.4 2  159.9kN

Distance between line of action of weight and where the resultant cuts the base

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 37

 Bending stresses

P 55.4
x h   1.49  0.55m
w 150
Position of resultant soil pressure

AR  0.99  0.55  1.54m from heel

rd
Middle 3 rule

base 2.9
  0.97m  resul tan t cuts the base with in middle 3rd
3 3
Eccentricity e  1.54  base  1.54  2.9  0.09m
2 2
Resultant

1. 54 m
W pressure at toe
W We 150 150  0.09  6
  
2.9 1.94 0.97 0
A Z 1.0  2.9 1.0  2.9 2
e
 61.3kN / m 2
C.L of base
pressure at heel
42.09 kN/m2

1.45 m 1.45 m
W We 150 150  0.09  6
  
61.35 kN/m2

A Z 1.0  2.9 1.0  2.9 2

 51.72  0.63  42.35kN / m 2

NB:
rd
(i) If Rsp (resultant soil pressure) occurs within the middle 3 of the base, or if the heel is capable to

P M
resist tensile stress the distribution of soil pressure will be given by fp  
A Z
rd
(ii) If Rsp occurs outside the middle 3 of the base position, tension joints will occur and if the heel is
not capable of resisting the tension it has a tendency of lifting. In this case, the point where the
resultant cuts the base should be considered middle third such that the effective width of the base
becomes 3times the distance AS

2W 2 Rsp
A x S B
f max  
3 AS 3x
W Where x – distance from toe to Rsp

3AS B
x
The distribution of soil pressure will
fmax be triangular

W M 
 A  Z 
rd
(iii) IF Rsp occurs at the edge of the middle 3 both cases above will hold true.

Lecture notes NDBCE 2014/15 - 0775042356 38