Resisting Elephants Lurking in the Music Education Classroom

Author(s): Thomas A. Regelski

Source: Music Educators Journal , June 2014, Vol. 100, No. 4 (June 2014), pp. 77-86
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of MENC: The National Association for
Music Education

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43288878

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Sage Publications, Inc. and are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access
to Music Educators Journal

This content downloaded from

147.156.104.5 on Wed, 19 Jul 2023 03:19:14 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 by Thomas A. Regelski

Resisting Elephants
Lurking in the Music
Education Classroom
Abstract: Music education has many 'elephants' in its classrooms: obvious major problems
that go unmentioned and suffered silently. Two of the larger, more problematic 'elephants'
are identified, analyzed, and critiqued: (1) the hegemony of university schools of music on
school music and the resulting focus in school music on "presentational" music (i.e., concert
performance), with a corresponding lack of "participatory" music in schools; and (2) an
increasingly problematic 'anything goes' anarchy of teaching methods (methodolatry) - this
condition being worsened by the absence of shared curricular ideals for guiding the field
towards the status of a true helping profession. The ethical premises such professionalism
are explored (duty ethics, consequentialism, and virtue ethics) and a professional ethic for
teaching music is proposed.

Keywords: critical theory, helping professionals, methodology, participatory music, presentational

music, professional ethics, sociology of education
Ļ ¿ A n elephant in the room" refers to
/ ' an obvious problem that remains
/ V unmentioned and is suffered
silently. Music education has many such
'elephants' in its classrooms, and music
teacher educators often seem resigned to
working around them or worry about con-
fronting them. Others are in collusion with
these 'elephants.' Both the orthodoxies
of silent suffering and of complicity that
thwart professionalism can be challenged
by identifying two of the larger, more prob-
lematic 'elephants' affecting us. Following
critical social theory and critical peda-
gogy,1 an ethic of resistance is needed to
confront elephantine obstacles that prevent
An ethic of resistance
is proposed by the
author to confront
elephantine obstacles
music education from being a true helping
that prevent music
profession.
education from
Program Hegemony
being a true helping
Most readers know that music education
profession.
programs are so dominated by coursework
focused on musical training that graduates
are underprepared in their teaching experi-
ence and expertise. This problem stems from
the elephantine belief that a music educator
must first and foremost be a good musician
and that such training is sufficient to being
a good teacher. Music professors themselves
teach under those self-serving assumptions.
Thus, too many students conclude that

Copyright © 2014 National Association

Thomas A. Regelski holds the title of Distinguished Professor (Emeritus) of Music at the State University of New York (SUNY)
for Music Education
Fredonia. He is currently a docent at Finland's Helsinki University; he also teaches and lectures at the Sibelius Academy in
DOI: 10.1177/0027432114531798
Helsinki. He can be contacted at tom.regelski@helsinki.fi. http://mej.sagepub.com

www.nafme.org 77

This content downloaded from

147.156.104.5 on Wed, 19 Jul 2023 03:19:14 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
their education courses are a waste of of acceptance or value. But students
identify the contradictions that affect
their lives and thus to become aware
time - just theory and words that distractnonetheless notice when their music (be
from their musical studies. And becausethat rock, rap, reggae, religious, etc.) is
of forces that oppress them. With such
faculty governance is usually weightedignored or denigrated.6 This is especially awareness, students can begin to trans-
against them, music education faculty a problem because the music of school form their lives and thus society.
members have to make do with what music too often has little carryover to Furthermore, instead of reproducing
little program room they are allowed.the music world outside of school. Such culture and society, schools and univer-
The problem arises from assump- a lack of transfer results in a lack of sities are seen as sites for the produc-
tions that rationalize the existence of pragmatic impact on students and soci- tion of culture, places where students
university departments and schools ofety. This leads to the legitimation cri-learn to construct meaning10 rather
music. Among these is the usually sin-sis that necessitates ever-more-political than to receive it as already formed and
gle-minded sacralization of 'classical'advocacy to protect the continued exist- approved. This is the problem faced by
or 'art' music.2 Such programs purpose-ence of school music. freshman music education majors who
fully exclude other musics3 and extol the Conflict theories of schooling stressfind themselves immersed in a world
pursuit of performance excellence as the that what is reproduced in schools are of music that is first overwhelming, but
most worthwhile goal of any music edu-the ideologies and vested interests ofthen is quickly accepted as being what
cation. These conditions dominate key dominant social groups and the result-the "music" of "music education" should
aspects in preparing music teachers,ing class hierarchy and conflicts thatbe. In critical theory, this leads to what
despite important differences betweenensue.7 For school music, the dominantis called a 'false consciousness' - the
(a) training elite music professionals andsocial group - the present 'elephant' -acceptance of the university status quo
(b) preparing teachers to promote musicamounts to university music faculty andas to what music 'really' is; why it exists,
in the general education of all studentsother aesthetes whose ideology,8 per-and what it is 'good for' in life. This false
in comprehensive schooling. Failure to sonal musical interests, and preferencesconsciousness is resisted by students
recognize these vast differences ignores(namely, those of the 'classical' and 'artwho engage in alternative musics. Yet
key philosophical, pedagogical, and cur-music' world), are mainly transmitted even they too often fall in line like good
ricular issues. and reproduced in school music pro-conscripts when it comes to teaching the
At any level, music teaching draws grams. Conflict theorists thus usefully'good music' of academe.
on many skills, traits, and understand-remind us of how schools reproduce a We should no longer remain silent
ings. In fact, many fine musicians wholong list of social and cultural inequali-and accepting of the hegemony this first
have easily found their perch on theties, especially those associated with'elephant' has over our teacher educa-
performance pedestal have little idea of'high culture' and the resulting classtion programs and of its domination
what is needed to teach students who hierarchy status quo. of school music. In our politics, in our
don't learn as easily, and they are not Critical theories of sociology seek,research, and in our classrooms, we
necessarily the best teachers for such instead, to reveal and deconstruct the need to confront its contradictions and
many hidden assumptions behind theinequalities boldly with honesty and
students. Sometimes they're the worst.4
reproduction and transmission functionsvigor. This may take courage (and ten-
This filtering down of university models
of schools.
also runs afoul of sociological accounts ure helps). For example, Julia Koza has
of schooling. critiqued the classical music bias of the
Critical pedagogy is concerned . . . with a audition criteria and policies of her own
critique of the society, particularly aroundinstitution.11
Sociology of Schooling
issues of power, and . . . with develop- We ask at least need to bring such
ing students' critical abilities in order to equally
critical perspectives to our
For example, functionalist theory - as
work toward the transformation of soci-
accepted by the public and politicians - own classrooms. Critical pedagogy
ety. This pedagogy involves a language
stresses that schools have the pragmatic asks, "Whose interests are served?"12
of critique' as well as a language of pos-
function of meeting agreed upon social, Thus, future music teachers need to be
sibilities'. Teachers using this approach
cultural, and economic needs. In thisengage students in critical questioning encouraged to question and challenge
theory, schools are central agencies for of their own beliefs and assumptions,the paradigms and power dynamics
the transmission of accepted knowl- as well as the assumptions in their textaffecting their lives as music majors and
edge and values and as essential to the materials. . . . The deconstruction of tex- future teachers if they are to promote a
reproduction of the socioeconomic sta- tual language is especially important forsimilarly critical and empowering per-
tus quo.5 What curriculum includes hascritical pedagogy.9 spective for their own students. Whose
the endorsement of social acceptance, music is promoted in school? Why, who
whereas what is excluded - the "hid- Thus, instead of reproducing society as benefits, to what end, and what about
is, critical pedagogues help students to the musics that are excluded? Why do
den curriculum" - tacitly signifies lack

78 Music Educators Journal June 2014

This content downloaded from

147.156.104.5 on Wed, 19 Jul 2023 03:19:14 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
they exist at all, and why are the values goal is to involve the maximum number Thus, instead of slavishly emulating uni-
they came into being to serve denied versity models (that slavishly emulate
of people in some performance role." 15
or denigrated? What is to be lost from Furthermore, for Turino the inclu-professional models), it is in the best
celebrating many musics - from musics sion of "people with a wide range ofinterests of school music , its graduates,
education? musical investment and abilities within
and society to provide an alternative
We should also transform programs the same performance creates a uniquerange of participatory musics - particu-
by using points of leverage that arise dynamic [where! the success of a per- larly those most available locally and
from external sources. For example, formance is more importantly judged that can serve students not otherwise
the 1980 requirements for competency- by the degree and intensity of partici-attracted to, or who join in addition to,
based certification (CBTE) in New York pation than by some abstracted assess- presentational ensembles. Such results
State allowed making major changes ment of the musical sound quality."16 would address functionalist criteria of
to graduation and certification require- Thus "music making as social inter-schooling and help overcome some of
ments that expanded music education course and activity among face-to-facethe problems that concern conflict and
studies. Various accreditation reviews participants" with "emphasis on thecritical theorists.
often present similar opportunities. In
doing among all present" characterizes To at least counterbalance the
their own departments, colleagues haveparticipatory musics.17 Accordingly,hegemony of presentational perfor-
generated innovations, for example,participatory musics prioritize soci- mance, time for participatory musics
where secondary instrument require- ality : "the music" is thus not merely needs to be found in university methods
ments include instruments common to an accompaniment to but, as Turinoclasses. Various forms of participatory
various traditional and participatory puts it, "at the center of social life."18musicing are described in my 2004 book
musics (see the following discussion). Hence, these musics are the most fre- Teaching General Music in Grades 4-8:
Music education majors at the Sibel-quent means by which ordinary citi-A Musicianship Approach.20 But new
ius Academy in Finland13 study guitar, zens derive the musical and social room in our programs can be created;
bass, drumming, and Latin percussion benefits of performing, and thefor lackexample, ensemble participation
as freshmen and as sophomores have of such musics in schools ignores credits their for participatory performance
two semesters of a studio music class potential for the life well-lived in(e.g.,
part recorder ensemble, Celtic music,
assembled into groups of various genresthrough music. traditional dance musics of Appalachia,
of their choice. Each term, they perform But Turino also reports that exclu- etc.). Given the natural appeal of partici-
their studio-composed pieces with eachsive curricular reliance on presenta- patory performance, opportunities can
student playing a different instrumenttional performance in schools is actually even be created outside formal require-
for each piece! counterproductive: ments that music education majors (and
Moreover, if the musics addressed others) will avail themselves of freely -
by "music" education are to be more [Participation in school music programs which is in the best spirit of the genre.
fully representative of the wider world falls off as students progress to higherThus, the 'elephant' of presentational
of music, we need to resist the hegem- grades and as the pressure to reach a
performance of sacralized, esoteric
specialist standard becomes more pro-
ony of presentational performance musics bequeathed by the university
nounced. School music programs at all
promoted by university music models. paradigm, with all of its associated (and
levels are geared toward presentational
According to the ethnomusicologist often antiquated, museum-like) prac-
performances and do not involve col-
Thomas Turino, " Presentational perfor- lective music making among all ages tices,
as
would benefit at all levels by a bal-
mance . . . refers to situations where ancing infusion of participatory, exoteric
a normal part of valued social occasions
one group, the artists, prepare and pro- a normal part of being social. Withmusics.
the This advice is recommended by
vide [sic] music for another group, the exception of singing in Church, manythe sociology of music and ethnomusi-
audience, who do not participate in cology - disciplines too often ignored in
middle-class North Americans stop mak-
the music."14 We support that paradigm ing music altogether as they approach
music education training and circles.
when we go along with the enormous adulthood and it is common to hear
time given to studio lessons, recitals, people in the United States say, "I don't
Alternativism and Relativism
ensemble requirements, conducting know anything about music," or "I am
not musical." Such statements would be
classes, and concert attendance require- The second 'elephant' in question - there
surprising to people in societies where
ments. In contrast, Turino writes, "par-
participatory music is common. Theseare many - may be far more controver-
ticipatory performance is a special type attitudes among North Americans aresial: the state of inconsistency bordering
of artistic practice in which there are particularly self-fulfilling descriptions,on anarchy that exists in music educa-
no artist-audience distinctions, only par- since they hinder musical participationtion methods courses and the dominat-
ticipants and potential participants per- and the continuous musical learning that ing influence of this training on school
forming different roles, and the primary results.19 music. This condition is largely due to

www.nafme.org 79

This content downloaded from

147.156.104.5 on Wed, 19 Jul 2023 03:19:14 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Iwww.musicandthebrain.org! BRAINMUSIC@AOL.COM 212-695-4242 I

the music,acceptance
uncritical one 'methods series') is taught
of 'what
assumption works
that teacher-proof 'best prac-
methods' that I have dubbed "meth- to the exclusion of all others - indeed,
tices'26 can be adopted anywhere - these
odolatry."21 Methodolatry amounts sometimes
to with explicit criticism that
all contradict many criteria for the clas-
conditions where the techniques and excluded methods are wrongl This sical sociological traits of a profession.27
strategies of one particular 'method'leadsor to a thoroughgoing relativismThe at 'elephant,' then, is the proliferation
'approach' are the singular and strict the university level that is magnifiedofbymany 'baby elephants,' each compet-
focus of attention,22 with little or no fur-
the even wider-ranging forms takening in for 'position' - for respect, authority,
ther regard for what is to be built in schools.
the The resulting chaos or anarchyprestige, power, even money28 - in our
way of curricular outcomes. Successful of approaches is due to the absence "field"
of (the herd).
teaching is taken to be well-planned any
and semblance of a true professional Rather than a fund of different prac-
smoothly delivered lessons,23 but what
core of commonly agreed to pragmatictices that address common ideals and
outcomes
the students can actually do musically - for music education.24 shared purposes - as in the helping
professions - at stake is a plethora of
As a result, music education functions
newly, better, more enthusiastically, or
with long-term carryover into life -more what amount to self-contained belief
too as a field of activity than as a true
typically goes unaddressed. systems and their derived habits and
profession. Here, "field" is understood
One reason for this condition is, as
as a "field of play" (as in sports) where
paradigms. And many teacher educa-
mentioned earlier, that music educa-individuals and groups 'contest' for tors and teachers feel comfortable, even
tion resources, including specialist fac-
dominant 'positions.'25 Thus, the sheer
righteous, in following only one with a
ulty, are often limited by economicsprofusion
or of methods, the 'what works'
single-minded, often dogmatic zeal. As a
politics. Thus, it is common that often
and 'how to' methodolatry, the attention
result, university students become famil-
only one method (or for instrumental anything labeled as new attracts, andiar
theand comfortable with the only model

80 Music Educators Journal June 2014

This content downloaded from

147.156.104.5 on Wed, 19 Jul 2023 03:19:14 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
to which they are exposed in methods, the professions themselves as special is, the ideology that promotes limitless
conducting, and theory classes, even interest groups,31 not just as specializedalternatives and 'anything goes' relativ-
studio pedagogy and ensembles, and occupations.32 In music education, such ism - may seem uncomfortable to admit
they pursue it as exclusively as do those special interest groups include not only to and difficult to rationalize away,
who adopt the one religion to which competing methods but also the special nonetheless, communicative rationality
they are exposed in the home. Some (and sometimes conflicting) interests of can facilitate agreement about shared
eventually reach the Ivory Tower and the "fields" of general music, chorus,curricular purposes. Thus, rather than
preach their preferred practice to the band, and orchestra (etc.). All claim different practices strategically 'posi-
exclusion of all others.29 Others undergo to serve music education but are often tioning' themselves against others, or
conversions where they discover and like container ships passing in view proceeding as though other methods
rigorously follow the tenets of a particu- of each other while carrying differentdo not (or should not) exist or are not
lar practice, often as the result of attend- cargoes, on different routes, to sepa-of at least potentially equal value, the
ing a workshop where they came away rate destinations - sometimes colliding different approaches in our field should
feeling revitalized by false promises of (e.g., ensemble directors disputing overbe regarded as different possible 'tools'
'what works.' Still others (often begin- students and schedules) - and where by which the agreed to purposes of
ning teachers) simply follow the lead of the teachers are as often 'contained' music education can be accomplished.
significant others (usually their elders, by the autopilot paradigms and default The more such 'tools' teachers have, the
and cooperating teachers in student better the results can be.
settings of their specialties as are their
teaching) and accept the local status students. However, we lack explicit agree-
quo as 'the way things are done.' Thus, ment on the kind of shared ideals and
Critical pedagogy is concerned to
they are unaware, even unconcerned, expose and deconstruct such self-
shared functions that guide the other
that such 'things' are often done other- serving tendencies; for example, by
helping professions. In other words,
wise and to better effect elsewhere. Ecu- using the sociology of curriculum 33 we
to lack mutual agreement on what, in
menism between approaches is often identify hierarchies of knowledge andpragmatic terms, school music promises
disparaged as eclecticism - a term that hidden curriculums, thus revealing the
to contribute pragmatically in the long
usually infers choosing the best from power politics of socially dominant term to the musical lives of its gradu-
many sources. But 'true believers' in a groups and the social inequalities that ates and to society. Needed, then, are
particular method - their own, or one result. Such hierarchies exist in uni-
guiding or action ideals to serve as the
they share in name with others - instead versity music departments (e.g., the mutually agreed-upon pragmatic pur-
reject eclecticism as being inferior to 'elephant' discussed earlier), in music poses and results of music education.
systematic uniformity and conformity to education programs themselves (e.g., To the degree we can reach greater
a kind of fundamentalist methodologi- the 'elephant' of methodolatry), and mutual agreement on such results, our
cal purity.30 both are typically reflected in school different 'tool boxes' can be put to
Conflict theory regards this prolifera- music. In fact, critical pedagogy goes work in pursuit of these shared visions
tion of methods, and the 'positioning' of well beyond music education to the of what music education should be
each in the "field" of music education most basic structures of formal school- contributing to the general education
for ascendancy, as matters of power anding, such as teacher certification, of students. This should be a goal of
repression, as a matter of the transmis- unions, grading, grouping policies, the NAfME, not 'what works' or 'best prac-
sion and reproduction of one method politics of curriculum, and far more.34 tices' (more follows in this).
or approach that relegates others to In speaking candidly about this sec- Just as in carpentry, our 'tools' run
unacceptable status. Sometimes conflict
ond 'elephant' some may worry that I the range from traditional to modernized
erupts, for example, when devotees ofhave opened a can of worms involving versions to inventions totally unknown
one method refuse to cooperate withirreconcilable differences. However, generations ago. Sometimes traditional
followers of another or where teach- the critical theory of Jürgen Habermas 'tools' may still be effective; sometimes
ers impose their preference by votingstresses "communicative rationality": the modernized or new 'tools' may pro-
to adopt a uniform method, despite theuse of reason to progressively promote duce results that are equally effective
discomfort or pedagogical dissent of amutual understanding and to foster more but more efficient, or that meet new
minority of colleagues. agreement; not the "strategic rationality" contemporary needs. Of course, some
Critical theory focuses on the socio-of special interest groups 'positioning' 'tools' are better suited to certain out-
themselves to their own advantage, comes than others, while others have
political 'positioning' of special interest
groups of all kinds - including special thereby worsening already dysfunc- limited usefulness. And whatever 'tools'
interest groups within a profession tional
- differences in the "field."35 So, are chosen must be used efficiently and
that advances their vested interests as while the sociological condition called effectively in meeting our agreed upon
against others and that even advancealternativism that I am critiquing - that curricular action ideals.

www.nafme.org 81

This content downloaded from

147.156.104.5 on Wed, 19 Jul 2023 03:19:14 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Here, effectiveness also implies open, Elsewhere I have argued for promot-Toward a Helping Profession
transparent, acknowledgement of inef- ing amateurism and small (chamber)
fective results. Only when weaknesses ensembles of various kinds and, thus, forSome time ago, I wrote a position
are recognized and admitted can practi- the independent musicianship that con-paper urging the professionaliza-
tioners reflectively improve their teach- tributes to lifelong relevance and that tion of music education.40 As argued
ing practice. Thus, "practice" has the promotes my models of "action learn- earlier, music education tends to be
same connotation and role in teaching ing"37 and praxialism.38 Working toward sociologically more of a specialized
music as it does in performing music: agreement about such proposed action "field" or occupation than a profession.
overcoming mistakes and improving ideals should be our primary actionBy "professionalize," then, I meant the
results. ideal. The lack of shared ideals has action ideal of aspiring to the conditions
Neither is a matter of "practice makes meant that pragmatic and lasting ben-of the helping professions (medicine,
perfect," however. Action ideals are not efits have not been promoted by school
therapy, ministry, etc.). An important
Utopian images of perfection, nor can music, thus putting it in an increasingly
condition of a helping profession is the
they be reached at any particular point weak 'position' in the larger "field"ethics
of that guide practice and recognize
in time and then replicated.36 Perform- schooling that is more attentive to func-
mal-practice. Thus, the action ideal of
ing artists seek ever-more ideal perfor- tionalist criteria. professionalization requires agreement
mances, and successful teachers profit about applied ethics - about the ethi-
Instead, can we agree about whether
from similar aspirations. Action ideals are or not we should be teaching students
cal to
criteria that should guide curricu-
thus not idealistically impractical goals; read music and play by ear for the prag-
lar choices, pedagogical and curricular
they are positive visions that guide prac- matic 'functions' of amateur39 and theorizing,
par- decisions about methods,
tical actions in desirable directions. For ticipatory performance? In Japan, every
and the reflective practices - as focused
example, "good health," being a "good child learns to read music by studying on identifying mistakes and shortcom-
parent," "good friend," and "good (or the recorder. If we were to agree to- by which we can progress in our
ings
ethical) person" are action ideals. Each this ideal, it can be realized in different
effectiveness, rather than just profess our
is conditioned by particular constraints ways and to different degrees (e.g., in
importance in never-ending advocacy
and circumstances, and each is governed general music classes versus in ensem- apologia.41
by individually situated and ever-shifting bles). Teachers can then choose whichTo begin with, overall I urge an
criteria. Because circumstances always of the available 'tools' are best suited ethic of resistance to 'elephants' -
change, nothing we do in life or teach- to their circumstances. If we were to default settings, paradigms, and taken
ing, then, is ever 'good enough'. And reach agreement about the action ideals for granted traditions, assumptions,
just as being a good person cannot be of fostering amateurism and participa- and practices - of all kinds. We should
reduced to a stock of habitual behaviors, tory musics, to use another example, the
resist any strategic thinking that focuses
good teaching is not a matter of habitu- 'tools' we choose would be governed more on the social 'positioning' of indi-
ally employing stock lesson plans or by differences in teaching specializa- viduals or special interest groups (i.e.,
materials, or one-size-fits-all routinized tions, schools and communities, and methodolatrists) than on the long-term
methods that are defined as 'good' or within student populations, while stillmusical welfare of students. And we
'best practices' in advance of their use , fostering a greater degree and diversity
should resist the many social injustices
and thus without regard for solid evi- of music-making in society. That result that are too often promoted by school
dence of their long-term pragmatic musi- alone would progressively overcome the music.42 We should seek professional
cal benefits in particular situations. need for political advocacy. empowerment that frees us from ideo-
Music education does have an abun- I urge that teachers deliberate logical hegemony, including not just of
dance of teaching 'tools,' but it lacksabout - especially in particular schools,the university performance model of
agreement about what practition-but also professionwide - action ide-music education but also, for example,
ers should be endeavoring to 'build.'als using communicative rationality toof the music industry, teacher unions,
Thus, it lacks criteria for judging the foster more mutual agreement on theand associations that actually dimin-
efficacy and efficiency of results. Withcurricular action ideals most likely to ish professionalism by advancing what
such agreed upon action ideals firmly make a pragmatic and lasting difference sociologists of education have called the
in mind, the use of different theories,in the musical lives of graduates. These "deskilling" of teaching - the promotion
approaches, and 'tools' is not only pos-would be our "common core." Foster- of 'what works,' 'teacher-proof methods
sible but often desirable - just as it is ining such agreement should also be of a 'delivering' instruction.43 Therefore,
the other helping professions. we also need to empower music edu-
focus of research, and curriculum theory
As an example of an action ideal, ear-should be revived in music education cation majors to 'critically' understand
lier I proposed the benefits of a strongto the role it has played in other school these dynamics and their ethical impli-
component of participatory musics.subjects. cations and to inspire and equip them

82 Music Educators Journal June 2014

This content downloaded from

147.156.104.5 on Wed, 19 Jul 2023 03:19:14 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
to someday also empower their own as critical pedagogues, start to iden-
ethical encounter, a matter of "response-
students. tify the many and virulent 'elephants'
ability."49 And, where teaching music is
In pursuit of this agenda of an applied conducted as praxis, it is qualified by that plague us. Functionalist, conflict,
ethic of resistance and empowerment and critical theories help identify and
the need to, first of all, be prudent and
we should enlist criteria from the tradi- care-full [sic] in diagnosing and meet-confront such elephantine impediments
tional ethical theories. From duty ethics ing students' needs. It avoids dictat-
to helping meet students' needs. Duty
we gain guidance concerning the con- ing needs or imposing one-size-fits-allethics point out our basic responsibili-
cept of rights44 - in our case, students' methods, as though students' needs are ties, and consequentialist ethics focus
rights to music education that is relevant on promoting useful and significant
uniform, thus treating them as thing-like
to their lives. Among such rights is the products on the factory-like assemblyresults. However, it remains to virtue
right to fair, just, and equal treatment lines of school music programs. Sec- ethics, the mainstay of all helping pro-
and, most important, the right to a music ondly, virtue ethics stresses an "ethicfessions, to stress the virtuous charac-
education that makes a lasting difference ter traits needed to motivate actions for
of care":50 caring for students more than
in the musical lives of all graduates. To effective praxis (for example, courage,
for protecting music from students, for
the many concerns about justice in music a teacher's own needs, or those of thepatience, and stamina) and the intel-
education discourse, then, I would add program.51 lectual virtues that promote the diag-
that of distributive justice.45 This entails However, for Aristotle, practical nostic and pedagogical resourcefulness
that all students have equal access to a virtue depends on theoretical virtuel In needed to ensure that teaching actions
music education. Thus, musics that can other words, praxis is undertaken in are effective. Instead of 'what works'
interest and engage all of them need to view of 'goods' - the action ideals men- and 'best practices' we should instead
be included in local programs, not just tioned earlier- first decided on by rea- look to clearly successful models and
the usual presentational fare of school son. Good teaching, then, is not simply the professional virtue ethics that sus-
music based on university models. a matter of using 'good methods' but tain them.54
The preceding theme of "making a of starting from 'right reasons' that pro- Music education will approach the
difference"46 gains support from conse- vide a warranted philosophical vision of conditions of the other helping profes-
quentialist ethics. Consequentialism is 'good' or 'right results.' 'Right reasons' sions to the degree, then, that we can act
derived from utilitarianism and focuses are those that clearly advance and sus- in our diversely chosen ways according
on the clearly useful consequences of tain the 'good life,' in our case through to mutual agreement about 'right rea-
actions. It is a corrective to circumstances music.52 We start with such curricular sons' and 'right results': in other words,
where actions done dutifully nonethe- action ideals in mind as our 'right rea- according to our agreed-upon profes-
less produce negative results. Conse- sons,' then methods and materials are sional action ideals, and by making a
quences are 'good' and ethical when, in chosen and employed with care. Thus, consequential difference for students
our case, they are musically useful and the criterion of 'right results' that vir- and society through actually helping. In
beneficial to students. Instruction that tue ethics shares with consequentialism particular, this requires regarding teach-
produces no consequential, useful, and determines the helping and ethical status ing as praxis, not just as a technicism
lasting musical benefits47 for students of instruction. Negative (or non-helpful) of specialized methods and materials.
thus fails to qualify as either ethical or results are symptoms of mal-praxis: Stu- Thus it involves constant vigilance con-
as a helping profession. dents are in effect harmed by not hav- cerning, and an ethic of resistance to
Most important, the applied ethics of ing their musical needs met. They have elephantine hegemonic forces that put
all the helping professions draw from not been musically helped in lasting their interests before those of the stu-
virtue ethics , the Aristotelian tradition ways. Thus, avoiding and acknowledg- dents we serve.
that distinguishes praxis (ethical action) ing mistakes and ineffective results is a
from theoria, and techne (or technical central criterion of virtue. "Virtue" for
skill). Guided by virtue ethics, teaching Aristotle meant "excellence,"53 so where Notes
music is not a matter of habits, routines, all teaching is only 'good enough' - as
and practices undertaken as techne (in with 'anything goes' alternativism and 1. See, for example, the writings of Paulo
other words, not a technical or 'how relativism - there is no virtue and no Freire, Michael Apple, Henri Giroux,
to' matter of 'methods' and methodola- professionalism. Antonio Gramsci, and Ira Shor, just to

try) but as an ethical praxis: "praxis," An applied ethics for music edu- name several leading critical theorists.

because students are not 'things' and cation, then, should fully take into For a summary, see Joe L. Kincheloe,
Critical Pedagogy, 2nd ed. (New York:
"ethical" because their welfare is always account the many 'elephants' that influ-
at stake.48 Peter Lang, 2009).
ence teaching in negative directions.
Moreover, as Wayne Bowman And there are many more than can be 2. Laurence S. Levine, Highbrow/
has stressed, music itself is an detailed here. Music educators should, Middlebrow: The Emergence of Cultural

www.nafme.org 83

This content downloaded from

147.156.104.5 on Wed, 19 Jul 2023 03:19:14 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Hierarchy in America (Cambridge
MA: Harvard University Press, 1988),
85-168.
3. Jazz being an exception since it now
seems to be increasingly regarded and
are meaningful to them, thus insuring
approached as 'art' music, often with the
that learning is useful and lasting.
same 'distancing' effect from much of
the musical public and especially from
11. Julia Eklund Koza, "Aesthetic Music
its original roots.
4. Consider the young student who
burst from her piano lesson crying,
"Mr. Blackman is more interested in
the notes than in music." He owned the
local music store and was an aesthete
and an aesthetic bully.
5. Kathleen Bennett de Marrais and
Margaret LeCompte, The Way Schools
Work (New York: Longman, 1998), 12. See de Marrais and LeCompte, The Way
5-11.
6. The hidden curriculum "consists of
implicit messages given to students
about socially legitimated or 'proper'
behavior, differential power, social evalu-
ation, what kinds of knowledge exist,
which kinds are valued by whom and
how students are valued in their own
right. These messages are learned infor-
mally as students go about their daily life
in schools. . . . [T]he hidden curriculum
conveys messages both through the
'form and content of school knowledge'
and through the 'silences' or what is left
out"; de Marrais and LeCompte, The
Way Schools Work , 242, quoting Henry
Giroux, source not cited.
7. See de Marrais and LeCompte, The Way
Schools Work, 11-20.
8. This ideology is accepted uncritically due 21. Thomas A. Regelski, "On 'Methodology'
to its aura of sounding profound. But if
aesthetic theory were all that important
to musical success, why it is not required
in most programs that prepare musicians
for various musical professions, includ-
ing being music professors?
9. From de Marrais and LeCompte, The
Way Schools Work , 249-50, emphasis
added. See also pages 27-34, and for
comparison to other leading sociological
theories of schooling, see pages 39-41.
See Kincheloe, Critical Pedagogy , for the
foundations of critical pedagogy and its
role in schooling, as a research theme or
focus, and in relation to a critical psy-
chology of cognition.
84 Music Educators
147.156.104.5 on Wed, 19 Jul 2023 03:19:14 +00:00
10. In keeping with constructivist/construc-
tionist psychology, students not only
'construct' knowledge (rather than 'repro-
duce' it as 'handed' down or 'transmit-
ted' by authority), but do so in terms that
Education Revisited: Discourses of
Exclusion and Oppression," Philosophy
of Music Education Review 2, no. 2 (Fall
1994): 75-91; and Julie Eklund Koza,
"Listening for Whiteness: Hearing Racial
Politics in Undergraduate School Music," the results of scientific studies. However,
in Music Education for Changing Times ,
eds. T. Regelski and J. T. Gates (New
York: Springer, 2009), 85-96.
School Works , 250.
13. Hardly a lightweight when it comes to its
credentials for music education.
14. Thomas Turino, Music as Social Life:
The Politics of Participation (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 2008), 26,
italics in the original.
15. Ibid., 26, italics in the original.
16. Ibid., 30.
17. Ibid., 90, italics in the original.
18. Ibid., 35.
19. Ibid., 98.
20. Thomas A. Regelski, Teaching General
Music in Grades 4-8: A Musicianship
Approach (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2004), 190-234.
and Music Teaching as Critical and
Reflective Praxis," Philosophy of Music
Education Review 10, no. 2 (2002):
102-24.
31. David Carr, in his book Professionalism
22. Asked about curriculum, the reply is
and Ethics in Teaching (New York:
often "I teach the 'X' method."
23. For the controversial "deliverology"
approach. See Pasi Sahlberg, Finnish
Lessons (New York: Teachers College
Press, 2010), 148n5 for chapter 5.
24. Such a central core is characteristic
of the major helping professions but
does not exist in music education, to
our discredit and disability as a helping
profession.
Journal
This content downloaded from
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
25. Pierre Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural
Production (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1993).
26. Boss: "We will be adopting best practices
. . . just like everybody else." Worker: "If
everyone is doing it, best practices is the
same as mediocre." Exasperated boss:
"STOP MAKING MEDIOCRITY SOUND
BAD!"; Dilbert [cartoon], International
Herald Tribune, September 3, 2008, 19.
'Best practices' is a loaded term bor-
rowed from "evidence-based medicine"
where clinical practice is premised on
such scientific rigor is lacking when 'best
practices' are identified by fiat in educa-
tion despite the absence of indisputable
scientific evidence, and "different groups
of experts can disagree significantly
about what is 'best practice,"' even
in medicine; Jerome Groopman, and
Pamela Hartzband, Your Medical Mind
(New York: The Penguin Press, 2011),
62; see pages 61-66 for an extended
critique of the concept in medicine!
27. See de Marrais and LeCompte, The Way
School Works, 149-54.
28. For example, methodololtrists paid for
the many workshops offered to teachers
who are in search of 'what works.'
29. Some music education professors who
also conduct ensembles engage in prac-
tices at the collegiate level that are not
always the best models for the different
purposes of public school conductor-
teachers, but that earn the approval of
other music faculty and that thus secure
their tenure and promotion.
30. Lois Choksy, Robert M. Abramson, Avon
E. Gillespie, and David Woods, Teaching
Music in the Twenty-First Century (New
York: Prentice Hall, 2000).
Routledge, 2000), writes that "the so-
called professions are to be distinguished
from other occupations almost exclu-
sively in status seeking and self-serving
terms" (p. 22).
32. In sociology, a 'classical' trait of a pro-
fession is control over membership and,
thus, of decisions concerning malprac-
tice. However positive this may seem,
the 'professionalizing' of expertise is
June 2014
 all too susceptible to abuse. To date,
teacher unions and a profession-like
ethos in state education bureaucracies
keep noncertified teachers out of schools
(except when certified teachers are not
available). The earlier mentioned partici-
patory music, however, could well profit
from local musicians who are expertly
engaged in such musics and can teach
them in schools if certified teachers are
unqualified (or too busy).
33. Dave Hill, Peter L. McLaren, Mike
Cole, and Glenn Rikowski, eds.,
Postmodernism in Educational Theory:
Education and the Politics of Human
Resistance (London: The Tuf nel I Press,
1999).
34. For example, grading practices; attend-
ance policies, and the economics of
schooling; replication of social class
(ethnicity, cultural capital, socioeco-
nomic status, etc.); authority of teachers
granted by certification as opposed to
earned through the respect of students;
certification and tenure of unqualified
teachers; exclusion from teaching of peo-
ple who possess expert knowledge; dress
codes, single-sex classes or schools;
ability grouping and tracking (e.g., in
music education, select ensembles); sex
education (e.g., "just say no" mandated
programs) - any and all issues of author-
ity and power. A particular teacher com-
mitted to critical pedagogy will be keenly
aware of such issues and will to address
those over which exerting 'critical'
effort will be most productive given local
conditions and the subject matter in
question. For details, see the Activist
Teacher website (http-.//activist
teacher.blogspot.com/), featuring a
range of issues of concern to critical
pedagogy and, thus, the range of activ-
ism that is possible- activism that,
many critical theorists would argue,
is ethically required of teachers; see
Eve Hague, "Critical Pedagogy in
English for Academic Purposes and the
Possibility for 'Tactics' of Resistance,"
Pedagogy, Culture & Society 15, no.
1 (March 2007): 83-106, for a sum-
mary of critical theory and pedagogy,
a sample of some "tactics of resist-
ance," and an abundance of resources
about critical theory and pedagogy;
see Andrew H. Churchill, Rocking Your
www.nafme.org
147.156.104.5 on Wed, 19 Jul 2023 03:19:14 +00:00
World: The Emotional Journey into 40. Thomas A. Regelski, "Critical Theory
Critical Discourses (Rotterdam, the and Praxis: Professionalizing Music
Netherlands: Sense Publishing, 2008) Education," MayDay Group, April 15,
for an introduction to the challenges; 1998, http://maydaygroup.org/
and Peter McLaren, "Radical Negativity: 1998/04/critical-theory-and-praxis-
Music Education for Social Justice," prof essiona I izi ng-m usic-ed ucation/.
Action , Criticism, and Theory for Music
41. For details of the relationship between
Education 10, no. 1 (August 2011):
professionalism and applied ethics,
131-47, http://act.maydaygroup.org/arti-
see Carr, Professionalism and Ethics in
cles/McLaren 10_l.pdf, for challenges to
music educators. Teaching, Thomas A. Regelski, "Ethical
Dimensions of School-Based Music
35. Jürgen Habermas, The Theory of Education," in The Oxford Handbook
Communicative Action, 2 vols., trans. T. of Philosophy in Music Education,
McCarthy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984). ed. W. Bowman and A. L. Frega (New
York: Oxford University Press, 2012),
36. The same is true of teaching methods and
284-304; and Thomas A. Regelski,
approaches. These arise at a particular
"The Ethics of Teaching as Profession
time and place, and are often tied to their
and Praxis," in Kunskapens Konst:
originating conditions. Use in other times
Vänbok till Börje Stâlhammar [Art of
and places, under often vastly different
Knowledge: A Book from Friends to Börje
conditions (society, schools, students,
Stâlhammar], ed. Eva Georgi i-Hemm i ng
music have all changed dramatically in
(örebro, Sweden: School of Music, örebro
recent years), requires at the very least
University, 2007; repr. in Visions of
considerable adaptation. Over time, then,
Research in Music Education 13 [January
methods and approaches need to evolve
2009], http://rider.edu~vrme/). Traditional
if they are to remain effective. These vari-
apologias are, in the current age, notably
ables account for the considerable differ-
failing, as music education programs are
ences between teachers of a particular
sacrificed, weakened, or otherwise made
method - differences that individual prac-
dysfunctional. As is said, the definition of
titioners are often unaware of, mistakenly
insanity is doing something the same way
assuming that all who follow "the" pre-
despite negative results. The status quo of
ferred method or approach are teaching
adhering to the long-term traditional mod-
the same things in the same ways. Such
els (i.e., large ensembles and marching
differences between teachers of a par-
bands, etc., competing for prizes; prolifer-
ticular named method are common, thus
ating methodolatries; some claiming faux
worsening the problems of alternativism
scientific credentials) is leading to a state
where all teaching is 'good enough.'
where the 'elephants' will no longer even
37. Regelski, Teaching General Music 4-8 ; have a room in which to roam. Maybe the
Regelski, "Action Learning," Music garage or outhouse?
Educators Journal 69, no. 6 (1983):
46-50; and Regelski, "Action Learning 42. McLaren, "Radical Negativity."
versus the Pied Piper Approach," Music
43. For example, deMarrais and LeCompte,
Educators Journal 69, no. 8 (1983):
The Way School Works, 178-80.
55-57.
44. "[I]t is significant that the kind of ser-
38. E.g., Regelski, "Praxialism and
vices that professionals are in business
'Aesthetic This, Aesthetic That, Aesthetic
to provide have increasingly come to be
Whatever,"' Action, Criticism, and Theory
regarded as human rights. . . . Indeed,
for Music Education 10 no. 2 (2011):
. . . , perhaps the best philosophical
61-99, http://act.maydaygroup.org/
handle we are likely to secure on the
articles/Regelski 10_2.pdf.
righthood [sic] of health care, education
39. Thomas A. Regelski, "Amateuring in and legal redress is in terms of a notion
Music and Its Rivals," Action, Criticism, of what is necessarily or indispensably
and Theory for Music Education 6 no. 3 conducive to overall human flourishing;
(2007): 22-50, http://act.maydaygroup. . . Carr, Professionalism and Ethics in
org/articles/Regelski6_3.pdf. I Teaching, 27-28, italics in the original.
85
This content downloaded from
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
45. See, for example, Ronald Dworkin,
Justice for Hedgehogs (Cambridge,
MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press,
2011). While Dworkin is writing about
government, his two principles also apply
to a school music program: "First, it
must show equal concern for the fate of
very person over whom it claims domin-
ion. Second, it must respect fully the
responsibility and right of each person
to decide for himself how to make some-
thing valuable of his life" (p. 2); see
2-4, passim.
46. Thomas A. Regelski, "Music and
Music Education - Theory and Praxis
for 'Making a Difference,' Educational
Philosophy and Theory 37, no. 1 (2005):
7-27; journal republished as Music
Education for the New Millennium:
Theory and Practice Futures for Music
Teaching and Learning { London:
Blackwell, 2005), with same pagination.
47. Overall well-being is also an important
criterion. It ensures that musical ben-
efits are not promoted by means that
otherwise have a negative effect on
students in other realms of their lives;
for example, the use of psychological
manipulation (e.g., embarrassment) and
competitive strategies (e.g., one "win-
ner" but many "losers") that, despite
the musical benefits claimed, often have
seriously negative personal side effects.
Issues of physical well-being also are
relevant (e.g., vocal damage, repetitive
stress disorders, poor biomechanics, and
injurious acoustics). Personal benefits
other than musical are important too, but 52. Aristotle's eudaimonia , the goal of the
these are the concern of all teachers and
86 Music Educators
147.156.104.5 on Wed, 19 Jul 2023 03:19:14 +00:00
do not themselves fully legitimate music "well-being," though decidedly not in
education. the sense of states of mind such as
happiness or pleasure, but of active
48. Technically, "ethical praxis" is redun-
dant: "In the strict sense of the word, "flourishing" or "thriving" of all kinds:
the life well-lived; see Aristotle,
... all action [praxis] is moral; it
The Nicomachean Ethics , rev. ed.,
involves deeds for which we may be
trans. D. Ross, ed., J. D. Ackrill and
praised or blamed . . ."; Aristotle's
J. 0. Urmson (London, UK: Oxford
Nicomachean Ethics , trans. R. C.
University Press, 1998), xxvii; transla-
Bartlett and S. D. Collins (Chicago:
tor's notes.
University of Chicago Press, 2011), 305;
from the translator's glossary. 53. Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics , 316.
49. Wayne Bowman, "Music as Ethical 54. In January 2014, the National
Encounter," Bulletin of the Council Academy of Recording Arts and
for Research in Music Education 151 Science initiated its first Grammy
(Winter 2001): 11-20. Music Educator of the Year award.
50. See Nell Noddings, The Challenge to There were 10 finalists from among
Care in School, 2nd ed. (New York: 32,000 nominations. The winning
Teachers College Press, 2005). teacher, Kent Knappenberger, teaches
at Westfield (New York) Academy and
51. For both consequentialism and virtue eth-
Central School, a rural school of 720
ics, we are allowed to meet our personal
students that has 500 involved in
needs and those of our music programs,
music classes and various ensembles,
but only to the degree that in doing so
offers four years of music electives,
we clearly meet the musical needs of the
has four full-time music teachers and
individual students who are our programs
more boys in the music program than
and who are the sources of our employ-
in sports. Knappenberger is a model of
ment and any other rewards we gain
the action learning, praxial, participa-
from teaching. As regards a "program,"
tory, and distributive justice premises
to be guarded against is when a program
discussed here. For the details and
becomes a one-size-fits-all production
action ideals of the winner and other
line or mold into which students must
finalists, see the NAfME website,
'fit' or be left by the wayside. Or where
2014, keyword "Grammy Award."
the "music program" selectively focuses
Nothing these great teachers can say
only on school music and ignores the
amounts to 'what works.' Everything
musics available at large in a community.
they have to say goes to an ethos of
This is where distributive justice comes
professional dedication to benefitting
into the picture.
their students - a praxial and ethical
criterion, not some vague cláim for
"good life," has been translated as "aesthetic education."
Journal June 2014
This content downloaded from
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms