Farming Systems and Sustainable Agriculture PDF

FARMING SYSTEMS AND
SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FARMING SYSTEMS AND

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
FARM AND FARMING SYSTEM AND ITS CLASSIFICATION
 Farm: It is organized economic unit in which crop and animal production is carried out with
purpose of producing economic net returns.
 Farming System: It is a part of farm system which crop production, animal production and
combination of both i.e Mixed Farming.
 Farm Area: Productive land- cropped area/ fields pastures, plantations, fishponds, forest etc.
+ indirectly productive land- farm building, ditches, roads etc. + fallow land + unproductive
land. Rocks, deserts within farm boundaries.
In the system theory, the terms input and output linked with farming system.
These are Classified as:
1. Economic Input and Output: Are those which usually registered a farm management sheet
and comprise all items which are gathering brought or sold which have a value in terms of
opportunity cost.
 Inputs: Land, labour and means of production.
 Outputs: Goods sold and consumed in the farm household.
2. Non-economic Input and Output: Are the free goods from the point of view of farmers.
 Inputs: Solar energy, Rainfall etc.
 Out Puts: Salts leaving through drainage, O2 etc
FARMING SYSTEM
Farming is defined as the way in which the farm resources are allocated to the needs and priorities of
the farmers in his local circumstances which include-
 Agro climatic condition such as the quantity, distribution and reliability of rainfall. Soil type
and topography temperature etc and
 Economic and institutional circumstances like market opportunities, prices, institutional and
infrastructure facilities and technology.
Definition:
 Farming system is a decision making unit comprising the farm household, cropping and
livestock system that transform land, capital and labour into useful products that can be
consumed or sold.
 Farming system is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustained
production to meet diverse requirement to farm household while presenting resources base
and maintaining a high level environmental quality
MIXED FARMING AND ITS RELATED TERMS
 Mixed Farming:Mixed farming is defined as a system of farming on a particular farm which

includes crop production, raising live stock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping etc. to sustain and
satisfy as many needs of the farmer as possible. Subsistence is important objective of mixed
farming. While higher profitability without altering ecological balance is important in farming
system.
 Organic Farming: Organic farming is a special type of farming in mixed farming. Organic
farming is a method of farming mainly depends on organic recycling. Industrial agricultural
chemicals like fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides etc. are not used or the minimum extent
REVIEW FOR LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURIST 2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
necessary. However, organic farming cannot replace the chemicals production technology
since there is need for higher and higher production with ever growing population on limited
land.
 Cropping System: Cropping system is an important component of farming system: It
represents cropping pattern used on a form and their interaction with resources, other farm
enterprises and available technology, which determine their makeup.
 Cropping Pattern:Cropping pattern means the proportion of area under various at a point of
time in a unit area. Or it indicates the yearly sequences and spatial arrangement of crops and
fallow in an area.Crop sequence and crop rotation are generally used synonymously.
 Crop Rotation:Crop rotation refers to recurrent succession of crops are so chosen that soil
health is not impaired.
 Cropping Scheme:Cropping scheme is the plan according to which crops are grown on
individual plots of a farm with an object of getting maximum return form each crop without
impairing the fertility of soil is known as cropping scheme.
CLASSIFICATION OF FARMING SYSTEMS
A) According to the Size of the Farm:

a. Collective farming.
b. Cultivation farming i) small scale farming ii) large scale farming.
B) According to the Proportion of Land, Labour and Capital Investment:

a. Intensive cultivation.
b. Extensive cultivation.
C) According to the Value of Products or Income or on the basis of Comparative

Advantages:
a. Specialized farming d. Ranching
b. Diversified farming. E. Dry Farming
c. Mixed farming.
D) According to the Water Supply:

a. Rained farming.
b. Irrigated farming.
E) According to:
I) Type of Rotation:
a. lay system:i)) unregulated lay farming
ii)) regulated lay system.
b. Field system.
c. Perennial crop system.
II) Intensity of the Rotation:

a. Shifting cultivation.
b. Lay or fallow farming.
c. Permanent cultivation.
d. Multiple cropping.
F) Classification According to Degree of Commercialization:

a. Commercialized farming.
b. Partly commercialized farming.
c. Subsistence farming.
G) Classification According to Degree of Nomadic:

a. Total nomadic.
b. Semi nomadic.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c. Partial nomadic.
d. Transhumant.
e. Stationary animal husbandry.
H) Classification According to Cropping and Animal Activities
I) Classification According to Implements Used for Cultivation:

a. Spade farming.
b. Hoe farming.
c. Mechanized or tractor farming
SCOPE OF FARMING SYSTEM:
Farming enterprises include crop, livestock, poultry, fish, tree, sericulture etc. A combination of one or
more enterprises with cropping when carefully chosen planned and executed gives greater dividends
than a single enterprise, especially for small and marginal farmers. Farm as a unit is to be considered
and planned for effective integration of the enterprises to be combined with crop production activity.
Integration of Farm Enterprises Depends on Any Factors Such as:
1. Soil and climatic features of the selected area.

2. Availability of the resources, land, labor & Capital.
3. Present level of utilization of resources.
4. Economics of proposed integrated farming system.
5. Managerial skill of farmer.
Classification of farming systems- according to size of farm
According to the size of the farm:
1. Collective Farming: It includes the direct collection of plant products from non-arable lands.
It may include either regular or irregular harvesting of uncultivated plants; honeying and
fishing usually go hand in hand with collection. Actual cultivation is not needed. The natural
products like honey, gum, flower etc are collected. Such plant product may be collected from
forestry area.
2. Cultivation Farming:In this system, farming community cultivates the land for growing crops
for obtaining maximum production per unit area.
Small Scale Farming: In this type, the farming is done on small size of holding and other factors of
production are small in quantity and scale of production is also small.
Advantages:
 Intensive cultivation is possible

 Labour problem do not affect the production.
 It is easy to manage the farm
 There is less loss due to natural calamities like frost, heavy rainfall, and diseases.
 Per unit output increases
Disadvantages:
 Cost of production per unit is more

 Mechanization of agriculture is not possible.
 Farmer does not get employment round the year.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Large scale farming: when farming is done on large size holding with large amount of capital, large
labour force, large organization and large risk are called large- scale farming. In other words when the
factors of production are large in quantity, the small of farming is said to be large.
Advantages:
1. Production of large scale farming is more economical. The cost of production per unit is less.
2. Per unit production is increased.
3. Better marketing of agricultural products is possible. Processing, transportation, storage,
packaging of produce is economical.
4. Costly machine like tractor, combined harvester can be maintained on the farm.
5. Subsidiary occupation such as dairy, poultry, bee keeping based on maintained on the farm.
6. Proper utilization of factors of production is possible.
7. Research work is possible.
8. It increases bargaining power of people.
Disadvantages:
1. If demand of produce decreases and production exceeds the market demand there will be
more loss to the large farm.
2. In case of labour strike there will be more loss on the farm.
3. Due to natural calamities like drought, flood, insects and diseases the large farm will suffer a
lot.
4. It will be difficult to manage large scale farm
Classification of Farming Systems- According to Production of Land
According to Production of Land, Labour and Capital Investment:
The farmer on given plot of land obtains more or less definite quantity of yield of any particular time.
If he wants to increases his output he can either
 Bring more land under cultivation

 Apply more labour and capital to the same piece of land.
 Intensive Cultivation: In intensive cultivation more labour and capital used in the same
piece of land. In other words land remains fixed in quantity while other factors are increased.
If the same land is rare due to population pressure, while labour and capital are comparatively
cheap, intensive cultivation is preferred than extensive cultivation. The application of intensive
cultivation method depends mainly upon-
o Increasing population and
o Technical improvement.
In the earlier stages of development population was small and technical knowledge of agriculture was
also limited hence extensive method was adopted but, as population increases intensive cultivation
become necessary and improvement in technique make its adoption is possible.
 Extensive Cultivation: When more area is brought under cultivation to increases the output
it is termed as extensive cultivation. In extensive cultivation land is chiefly available but
availability of other factors increases less proportionately. A cultivator wishing to increases his
output may follow either intensive method or extensive method but the selection of these two
methods is based on cost. If following extensive cultivation than by following intensive
cultivation can raise the additional output more cheaply, extensive method of cultivation will
be useful. If on the other hand intensive cultivation seems to be the cheaper method he will
naturally adopt it. If land is cheaper and it can be had at a normal cost while labour and
capital are comparatively costlier, extensive cultivation will be cheaper method of obtaining
increased output. In early times when land was plentiful extensive cultivation was followed.
The extensive and intensive cultivation go side by side in a country for a certain period of time

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
and afterwards intensive cultivation may become more important method. In most of the
countries extensive and intensive methods of cultivation generally go hand in hand.
According to the Value of Products or Income or on the basis of Comparative Advantages
Specialized Farming: The farm in which 50% or more income of total crop production is derived
from a single crop is called specialized farming or The farm in which only single crop is cultivated for
selling in the market and the income of the farm depends mainly on that crop is called specialized
farming.
According to the definition if 50% income is derived from paddy from any farm this is called paddy
farm similarly sugarcane farm wheat farm, vegetable farm, orchard farm etc.
Advantages
1. Better use of land: More profitable to grow crops on land best suited to it.
2. Better marketing: it allows grading, processing, storing, transporting and financing the
produce.
3. Less equipment and labour.
4. Costly and efficient machinery can be kept:
5. The efficiency and skill of the labor increased: Specialization allows a man to be more efficient
and expert at doing a few things.
6. Farm records can be maintained easily.
7. Intensity of production leads to relatively large amount of output.
8. Better management: fewer enterprises on the farm are liable to be less neglected and sources
of wastage can easily be detected.
Disadvantage:
1. There is greater risk: When failure of crop and decreasing market price of the product,
demand in market of product.
2. It is not possible to maintain soil fertility-lack of crop rotation.
3. The productive resources i.e. land; labor and capital are not fully utilized.
4. Irregular income of the farm as they get income only once or twice in a year.
5. Proper Utilization of resources is not possible.
6. By product of crop are not property utilized, as numbers of livestock’s are less in number.
7. Due to specialization of a single enterprise, the knowledge about other enterprises vainness.
8. Does not help in supplying all the food needs of the family members of the farmer
Diversified Farming: A diversified farm is one that has several production enterprises or sources of
income but no source of income equal as much as 50% of the total income from that source on such
farm farmers depends on several sources of incomes. It is also called as general farming.
Advantages:
1. Better use of land, labour and capital: Better area land through adoption of crop rotations,
steady employment of farm and family labour and more profitable use of equipment are
obtained in diversified farming.
2. The farmer and labour engaged all the year round in different activities.
3. Less risk to crop failure and market price of the product.
4. The by products of this farm can utilize properly as cattle, poultry, birds, etc. are reared with
crop production.
5. Regular and quicker return is obtained from various enterprises.
6. Soil erosion can be checked as land kept under cultivated throughout the year
7. Soil fertility can be checked as land kept under cultivated throughout the year.
8. Diversified farming is less risky than specialized farming.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9. Best use of all equipments.
Disadvantages
1. Do not fetch desirable profit so long as co-operative marketing facility is not there.
2. Proper inspection of different enterprises is difficult.
3. It is not possible to farmer to maintain all types of machinery required for different crops.
4. The wastage of farm in any farm is difficult to detect.
Mixed farming: Mixed farming is one which crop production is combined with the rearing of livestock.
The livestock enterprises are complementary to crop production; so as to provide a balance and
productive system of farming. In mixed farming at least 10% of its gross income must be contributed
by livestock activity. So the farm on which at least 10 to 49% income is found from livestock is called
mixed farm. In mixed farming cow and buffaloes are included with crop production. If farmers are
rearing cows, buffaloes, sheep goat, and fisheries with crop cultivation this type of farming is called
diversified farming.
Advantages:
1. It offers highest return on farm business, as the by products of farm are properly utilized.
2. It provides work throughout year.
3. Efficient utilization of land, labour, equipment and other resources.
4. The crop by products such as straw, fodder etc. is used for feeding of livestock and in return
they provide milk.
5. Manures available from livestock maintain soil fertility.
6. It helps in supplying all the food needs of the family members.
7. Intensive cultivation is possible.
8. If one source of income is lost he can maintain his family from other source of income.
9. Milk cattle’s provide draft animals for crop production and rural transport.
10. Mixed farming increases social status of the farmer.
Disadvantages:
1. Indigenous method of cultivation is used till now.

2. Draft and meat animals should be sold when they fail in production.
3. Healthy calf should be reared to replace age old animals.
Required of Mixed Farming:
 Complicated management practices.

 Sound cropping scheme.
 Good cattle in suitable number.
 Transport facility.
 Marketing facilities.
Ranching and Dry Farming
Ranching: A ranch differs from other type of crop and livestock farming in that in that the livestock
graze the natural vegetation. Ranch land is not utilized for tilling or raising crops. The ranches have no
land of their own and make use of the public grazing land. A ranch occupies most of the time of one or
more operators.
Dry Farming: Farmers in dry land, which receives 750 mm rainfall or even less than that struggle for
livelihood. The major farm management problem in these tracts, where crops, which are entirely
dependent upon rainfall and the conservation of, soil moisture is needed.
Dry Farming Involves the Adoption of the Following Practices:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
a. Timely preparation of the land to a condition in which it is best able to receive and conserve
the available moisture.
b. Time and proper inter culturing during growth of the crop.
c. Improving the water holding capacity of the soil by the profitable application of organic
manure.
d. Use of such implements as is capable or rapidly breaking of the surface of the soil.
e. Building of fields.
f. Use of optimum seed rates.
g. Thinning of excess plant populations.
h. Mixed cropping.
Environmentally sustainable dry land farming systems emphasis conservation and utilization of natural
resources. Agronomic practices of conservation, tillage and mulch farming, rotational cropping, use of
legumes and cover crops for improving soil fertility and suppressing weeds and efficient uses of cattle
manure are some of the components of sustainable farming system
Classification of Farming System-According to Water Supply
According to the Water Supply:
A. Rain Fed Farming: Agriculture mainly depends on the rainfall in most part of the country.
80% of the total cultivated arable land is rain fed. Rain fed farming is very risky system of
farming where the success of the crop depends on the cycle of the monsoon. Timely rainfall is
the pre-requisite of this farming. The uneven rainfall is quite detrimental to crop production.
Characteristics of Rain Fed Farming:

1. Crop and varieties, which can withstand moisture stress should be cultivated.
2. Not possible to adopt improved methods of cultivation only one or two crops are grown.
3. Crops rotation is not followed.
4. Soils of these areas are deficits in nutrient.
5. Mixed cropping should be practiced and adopt deep-rooted crops.
6. Short duration varieties fit well in rain fed areas.
7. The crops that are tolerant to drought should be cultivated.
8. Soil moisture should be preserve by mulching
Principles of relevant components of environmentally sustainable farming systems should include.

 Reduce soil erosion and improving soil conservations.
 Inclusion of legumes and cover crops in crop rotations.
 Agro-forestry as an alternate land use system and
 Judicious use of organic waste.
B. Irrigated Farming: The crop can be grown throughout the year; moisture is not a limited
factor.
Characteristics:
a. The round the year cropping pattern becomes possible.

b. Intensive cropping is possible.
c. Production can be increased by proper utilization of productive resources.
d. Crop rotation can be executed properly due to adequate irrigation facility.
e. Manuring is safely done in irrigated crop.
f. The field experiment is possible, because of timely irrigation facility.
Classification According to Type of Rotation
According to Type of rotations:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Type of Rotation:The world rotation has two meanings according to the time period involved. There
is long term alteration between various retypes of land use such as arable farming, tree farming,
grassland use etc. in this rotation means the sequence of this basic type of land use on a given field.
Within arable farming there is also the term crop rotation which means the short- term sequences of
different arable crops on one field.
A. Lay System:In this system, several years of arable farming are followed by several years of
grassed and legumes utilized for livestock production.
 Unregulated Lay Farming: In this system natural vegetation grasses, bushy growth on
pasture is allowed to grow during the period of fallow. This is an improved managed pasture.
 Regulated Lay System: During the period of fallow, certain types of grasses are grown or
planted. These are the well managed pasture with fencing and adopting rotational grazing
system.
B. Perennial Crop System: The crop which covers the land for many years e.g. Tea, Coffee,
sugarcane. In some cases tree crops (oil palm, rubber) are alternated with fallow in other with
arable farming, grazing etc.
Intensity of the Rotation-It is denoted by” R” simple and appropriate criteria for classification,
which gives the true relationship between crop cultivation and following within the total length of one
cycle of utilization.
R= no of years of cultivation
----------------------------- * 100
Length of the cycle of land utilization
The length of the cycle is the sum of the number of years of arable in farming the number of fallow
years “R” indicates the production of the area under cultivation in relation to a total area available for
arable farming.
a. Shifting cultivation: R< 33%, In the case there is more number of years of fallow than actual
cultivation.
b. Lay or fallow farming: In this case R< 66% and 33%
c. Permanent cultivation; in this large area is cultivated and small area is left fallow. R> 66%.
d. Multiple cropping: where R = > 100%. If R= 150% means 50% area is under two crops in a
year. If R = 300% means three crops in a year are being grow
Classification According to Degree of Commercialization
Depending Upon the Produce Sold in the Market for Earning Money:
a. Commercialized Farming: More than 50% of the produce is for sale.

b. Partly Commercialized Farming: More than 50% of the value of produce is for home
consumption.
c. Subsistence Farming: Virtually there is no sale of crop and animal products, but used for
home consumption. Subsistence farming is a type of farming where the farmers of our country
cultivate the crop in their land for the livings. Hence, the holding is small in size; so improved
method of cultivation is not possible. They fail to meet the total requirement. They reared
cattle, poultry, along with crop cultivation in limited land meet their requirement.
Advantages:
a. Utilizing productive resources profitably.

b. Farmers with their family members engaged though the year as they rearing cattle, poultry
etc.
c. Farmer meet their demand from the income from cattle, poultry etc.
d. By product used properly.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Disadvantages
a. Fails to adopt improved crop cultivation technique do to small holding.

b. Cultivation mainly depends on monsoon rain.
c. Procurement of seed, fertilizer as and when required is difficult.
d. Income of this farm is very low
Classification According to Degree of Nomadic, Cropping pattern and Implements
1. Classification according to degree of nomadic:
Grassland Farming: In this type of farming, it involves the rearing of animal for economic production
and is classified on the basis of nomadic.
a. Total nomadic: In this system, the animal owners do not have permanent place of residence.
They do not practice regular cultivation. Their families move with the herds.
b. Semi nomadic: Animal owners have a permanent place of residence, while Supplementary
cultivation is practiced. However, for long periods of time, they travel their herd to distant
grazing areas.
c. Transhumant: Means seasonal migration of livestock to suitable grazing ground or it is the
situation in which farmer with a permanent residence sends their herd with herdsman for long
period of time to distant grazing areas.
d. Partial nomadic: Farmer has permanent residence and who have herds at their disposal,
which remains in the vicinity.
e. Stationary animal husbandry: Occurs where the animals remain on the holding Or in the
village throughout the entire year.
2. Classification According to Cropping Pattern and Animal Activities:
In this system classification according to the leading crops and livestock activities of the holdings.
3. Classification According to Implements Used for Cultivation:
a. Spade farming: manual labour is used.

b. Moe farming or hoe farming: Bullock power to use for cultivation.
c. Mechanized or tractor farming: Power operated implements are used for cultivation.
E.g. plough, tractor.
OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF FARMING SYSTEM
1) Lowland Farming System- generally refers to crop and or animals (including fish)
production in paddy fields or swampy areas, where there’s a continuous or regular availability
of water. Example-lowland rice
2) Upland Farming System- refers to the growing of crops and / or animals in reltively flat or
plain areas where water is not regularly available except through precipitation (rainfall) or
irrigation
3) Hilly land Farming System- the production of crops and /or animals in areas with slope of
more than 18%. In classification of natural resources, these areas are identified as
Agroforestry. But the definition of Agroforestry today is made simple to cover a wide range of
areas without the reference to their slope
4) Agroforestry- involves the culture of cops and animals in any combination, together with a
woody perennial. This now includes areas whether flat or sloping
5) Highland Farming System- this is oftentimes interchange with hillylands, because of their
similar topographic features, but this is concerned more on the agricultural areas of higher

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
elevation of at least 800-1000 meters above sea levels. These are characterized with relatively
lower temperatures throughout the year
6) Others- dryland, wetland, and others
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Sustainable Agriculture- this is an integrated system of plant and animal production practices
having site-specific application that will cover long term:
a) Satisfy human food and fiber needs
b) Enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base
c) Make the most efficient use of non-renewable resource and on farm resources and integrate,
where appropriate, natural , biological cycles and control
d) Enhance the quality of life of farmers and society as a whole
1. Ecological sound: which means that the quality of natural resources is maintained and the
vitality of then entire agro-ecosystem form humans, crop and animal to soil organism is
enhanced.
2. Economically viable: which means that farmers can produce enough for self- sufficient and or
income is measured not only in terms of direct farm produce ( yield) but also in terms of
function such as conservation resources and minimizes risks.
3. Socially just, which means that resources and power are distributed in such a way that the
basic needs of all the members of society are met and their rights to land use, adequate
capital technical assistant and market opportunities are assured.
4. Humane: Which means that all forms of life (plant, animal, human) are respected.
5. Adaptable: which means that rural communities are capable of adjusting to the constantly
changing condition for farming populating growth, policies, market demand. Etc.
Hardwood (1960)- define sustainable as an agriculture that can evolve indefinetly toward greater
human utility, greater efficiency of resource use, and a balance with the environment that is favorable
both to human and to most other species.
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE-Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals--environmental

health, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. A variety of philosophies, policies and
practices have contributed to these goals. People in many different capacities, from farmers to
consumers, have shared this vision and contributed to it. Despite the diversity of people and
perspectives, the following themes commonly weave through definitions of sustainable agriculture.
Sustainability rests on the principle that we must meet the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Therefore, stewardship of both natural and
human resources is of prime importance. Stewardship of human resources includes consideration of
social responsibilities such as working and living conditions of laborers, the needs of rural
communities, and consumer health and safety both in the present and the future. Stewardship of land
and natural resources involves maintaining or enhancing this vital resource base for the long term.
A systems perspective is essential to understanding sustainability. The system is envisioned in its

broadest sense, from the individual farm, to the local ecosystem, and to communities affected by this
farming system both locally and globally. An emphasis on the system allows a larger and more
thorough view of the consequences of farming practices on both human communities and the
environment. A systems approach gives us the tools to explore the interconnections between farming
and other aspects of our environment.
A systems approach also implies interdisciplinary efforts in research and education. This requires not
only the input of researchers from various disciplines, but also farmers, farmworkers, consumers,
policymakers and others.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Making the transition to sustainable agriculture is a process. For farmers, the transition to sustainable
agriculture normally requires a series of small, realistic steps. Family economics and personal goals
influence how fast or how far participants can go in the transition. It is important to realize that each
small decision can make a difference and contribute to advancing the entire system further on the
"sustainable agriculture continuum." The key to moving forward is the will to take the next step.
Finally, it is important to point out that reaching toward the goal of sustainable agriculture is the
responsibility of all participants in the system, including farmers, laborers, policymakers, researchers,
retailers, and consumers. Each group has its own part to play, its own unique contribution to make to
strengthen the sustainable agriculture community.
Farming and Natural Resources
Water. When the production of food and fiber degrades the natural resource base, the ability of future
generations to produce and flourish decreases. Water is the principal resource that has helped
agriculture and society to prosper, and it has been a major limiting factor when mismanaged.
Water supply and use. 1) improving water conservation and storage measures, 2) providing
incentives for selection of drought-tolerant crop species, 3) using reduced-volume irrigation systems,
4) managing crops to reduce water loss, or 5) not planting at all.
Water quality. The most important issues related to water quality involve salinization and
contamination of ground and surface waters by pesticides, nitrates and selenium. Salinity has become
a problem wherever water of even relatively low salt content is used on shallow soils in arid regions
and/or where the water table is near the root zone of crops. Tile drainage can remove the water and
salts, but the disposal of the salts and other contaminants may negatively affect the environment
depending upon where they are deposited. Temporary solutions include the use of salt-tolerant crops,
low-volume irrigation, and various management techniques to minimize the effects of salts on crops.
In the long-term, some farmland may need to be removed from production or converted to other
uses. Other uses include conversion of row crop land to production of drought-tolerant forages, the
restoration of wildlife habitat or the use of agroforestry to minimize the impacts of salinity and high
water tables. Pesticide and nitrate contamination of water can be reduced using many of the practices
discussed later in the Plant Production Practices and Animal Production Practices sections.
Wildlife. Another way in which agriculture affects water resources is through the destruction of
riparian habitats within watersheds. The conversion of wild habitat to agricultural land reduces fish
and wildlife through erosion and sedimentation, the effects of pesticides, removal of riparian plants,
and the diversion of water. The plant diversity in and around both riparian and agricultural areas
should be maintained in order to support a diversity of wildlife. This diversity will enhance natural
ecosystems and could aid in agricultural pest management.
Energy. Modern agriculture is heavily dependent on non-renewable energy sources, especially

petroleum. The continued use of these energy sources cannot be sustained indefinitely, yet to abruptly
abandon our reliance on them would be economically catastrophic. However, a sudden cutoff in
energy supply would be equally disruptive. In sustainable agricultural systems, there is reduced
reliance on non-renewable energy sources and a substitution of renewable sources or labor to the
extent that is economically feasible.
Air. Many agricultural activities affect air quality. These include smoke from agricultural burning; dust
from tillage, traffic and harvest; pesticide drift from spraying; and nitrous oxide emissions from the
use of nitrogen fertilizer. Options to improve air quality include incorporating crop residue into the soil,
using appropriate levels of tillage, and planting wind breaks, cover crops or strips of native perennial
grasses to reduce dust.
Soil. Soil erosion continues to be a serious threat to our continued ability to produce adequate food.
Numerous practices have been developed to keep soil in place, which include reducing or eliminating
tillage, managing irrigation to reduce runoff, and keeping the soil covered with plants or mulch.
Enhancement of soil quality is discussed in the next section.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Plant Production Practices
Sustainable production practices involve a variety of approaches. Specific strategies must take into
account topography, soil characteristics, climate, pests, local availability of inputs and the individual
grower's goals. Despite the site-specific and individual nature of sustainable agriculture, several
general principles can be applied to help growers select appropriate management practices:
 Selection of species and varieties that are well suited to the site and to conditions on the farm;
 Diversification of crops (including livestock) and cultural practices to enhance the biological
and economic stability of the farm;
 Management of the soil to enhance and protect soil quality;
 Efficient and humane use of inputs; and
 Consideration of farmers' goals and lifestyle choices.
Selection of site, species and variety. Preventive strategies, adopted early, can reduce inputs and
help establish a sustainable production system. When possible, pest-resistant crops should be selected
which are tolerant of existing soil or site conditions. When site selection is an option, factors such as
soil type and depth, previous crop history, and location (e.g. climate, topography) should be taken
into account before planting.
Diversity. Diversified farms are usually more economically and ecologically resilient. While
monoculture farming has advantages in terms of efficiency and ease of management, the loss of the
crop in any one year could put a farm out of business and/or seriously disrupt the stability of a
community dependent on that crop. By growing a variety of crops, farmers spread economic risk and
are less susceptible to the radical price fluctuations associated with changes in supply and demand.
Properly managed, diversity can also buffer a farm in a biological sense. For example, in annual
cropping systems, crop rotation can be used to suppress weeds, pathogens and insect pests. Also,
cover crops can have stabilizing effects on the agroecosystem by holding soil and nutrients in place,
conserving soil moisture with mowed or standing dead mulches, and by increasing the water
infiltration rate and soil water holding capacity. Cover crops in orchards and vineyards can buffer the
system against pest infestations by increasing beneficial arthropod populations and can therefore
reduce the need for chemical inputs. Using a variety of cover crops is also important in order to
protect against the failure of a particular species to grow and to attract and sustain a wide range of
beneficial arthropods.
Optimum diversity may be obtained by integrating both crops and livestock in the same farming
operation. This was the common practice for centuries until the mid-1900s when technology,
government policy and economics compelled farms to become more specialized. Mixed crop and
livestock operations have several advantages. First, growing row crops only on more level land and
pasture or forages on steeper slopes will reduce soil erosion. Second, pasture and forage crops in
rotation enhance soil quality and reduce erosion; livestock manure, in turn, contributes to soil fertility.
Third, livestock can buffer the negative impacts of low rainfall periods by consuming crop residue that
in "plant only" systems would have been considered crop failures. Finally, feeding and marketing are
flexible in animal production systems. This can help cushion farmers against trade and price
fluctuations and, in conjunction with cropping operations, make more efficient use of farm labor.
Soil management. A common philosophy among sustainable agriculture practitioners is that a

"healthy" soil is a key component of sustainability; that is, a healthy soil will produce healthy crop
plants that have optimum vigor and are less susceptible to pests. While many crops have key pests
that attack even the healthiest of plants, proper soil, water and nutrient management can help
prevent some pest problems brought on by crop stress or nutrient imbalance. Furthermore, crop
management systems that impair soil quality often result in greater inputs of water, nutrients,
pesticides, and/or energy for tillage to maintain yields.
In sustainable systems, the soil is viewed as a fragile and living medium that must be protected and
nurtured to ensure its long-term productivity and stability. Methods to protect and enhance the
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
productivity of the soil include using cover crops, compost and/or manures, reducing tillage, avoiding
traffic on wet soils, and maintaining soil cover with plants and/or mulches. Conditions in most
California soils (warm, irrigated, and tilled) do not favor the buildup of organic matter. Regular
additions of organic matter or the use of cover crops can increase soil aggregate stability, soil tilth,
and diversity of soil microbial life.
Efficient use of inputs. Many inputs and practices used by conventional farmers are also used in
sustainable agriculture. Sustainable farmers, however, maximize reliance on natural, renewable, and
on-farm inputs. Equally important are the environmental, social, and economic impacts of a particular
strategy. Converting to sustainable practices does not mean simple input substitution. Frequently, it
substitutes enhanced management and scientific knowledge for conventional inputs, especially
chemical inputs that harm the environment on farms and in rural communities. The goal is to develop
efficient, biological systems which do not need high levels of material inputs.
Growers frequently ask if synthetic chemicals are appropriate in a sustainable farming system.
Sustainable approaches are those that are the least toxic and least energy intensive, and yet maintain
productivity and profitability. Preventive strategies and other alternatives should be employed before
using chemical inputs from any source. However, there may be situations where the use of synthetic
chemicals would be more "sustainable" than a strictly nonchemical approach or an approach using
toxic "organic" chemicals. For example, one grape grower switched from tillage to a few applications
of a broad spectrum contact herbicide in the vine row. This approach may use less energy and may
compact the soil less than numerous passes with a cultivator or mower.
Consideration of farmer goals and lifestyle choices. Management decisions should reflect not
only environmental and broad social considerations, but also individual goals and lifestyle choices. For
example, adoption of some technologies or practices that promise profitability may also require such
intensive management that one's lifestyle actually deteriorates. Management decisions that promote
sustainability, nourish the environment, the community and the individual.
Animal Production Practices-In the early part of this century, most farms integrated both crop and
livestock operations. Indeed, the two were highly complementary both biologically and economically.
The current picture has changed quite drastically since then. Crop and animal producers now are still
dependent on one another to some degree, but the integration now most commonly takes place at a
higher level--between farmers, through intermediaries, rather than within the farm itself. This is the
result of a trend toward separation and specialization of crop and animal production systems.
Even with the growing specialization of livestock and crop producers, many of the principles outlined in
the crop production section apply to both groups. The actual management practices will, of course, be
quite different. Some of the specific points that livestock producers need to address are listed below.
Management Planning. Including livestock in the farming system increases the complexity of
biological and economic relationships. The mobility of the stock, daily feeding, health concerns,
breeding operations, seasonal feed and forage sources, and complex marketing are sources of this
complexity. Therefore, a successful ranch plan should include enterprise calendars of operations, stock
flows, forage flows, labor needs, herd production records and land use plans to give the manager
control and a means of monitoring progress toward goals.
Animal Selection. The animal enterprise must be appropriate for the farm or ranch resources. Farm
capabilities and constraints such as feed and forage sources, landscape, climate and skill of the
manager must be considered in selecting which animals to produce. For example, ruminant animals
can be raised on a variety of feed sources including range and pasture, cultivated forage, cover crops,
shrubs, weeds, and crop residues. There is a wide range of breeds available in each of the major
ruminant species, i.e., cattle, sheep and goats. Hardier breeds that, in general, have lower growth and
milk production potential, are better adapted to less favorable environments with sparse or highly
seasonal forage growth.
Animal nutrition. Feed costs are the largest single variable cost in any livestock operation. While
most of the feed may come from other enterprises on the ranch, some purchased feed is usually
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
imported from off the farm. Feed costs can be kept to a minimum by monitoring animal condition and
performance and understanding seasonal variations in feed and forage quality on the farm.
Determining the optimal use of farm-generated by-products is an important challenge of diversified
farming.
Reproduction. Use of quality germplasm to improve herd performance is another key to

sustainability. In combination with good genetic stock, adapting the reproduction season to fit the
climate and sources of feed and forage reduce health problems and feed costs.
Herd Health. Animal health greatly influences reproductive success and weight gains, two key
aspects of successful livestock production. Unhealthy stock waste feed and require additional labor. A
herd health program is critical to sustainable livestock production.
Grazing Management. Most adverse environmental impacts associated with grazing can be
prevented or mitigated with proper grazing management. First, the number of stock per unit area
(stocking rate) must be correct for the landscape and the forage sources. There will need to be
compromises between the convenience of tilling large, unfenced fields and the fencing needs of
livestock operations. Use of modern, temporary fencing may provide one practical solution to this
dilemma. Second, the long term carrying capacity and the stocking rate must take into account short
and long-term droughts. Finally, the manager must achieve sufficient control to reduce overuse in
some areas while other areas go unused. Prolonged concentration of stock that results in permanent
loss of vegetative cover on uplands or in riparian zones should be avoided. However, small scale loss
of vegetative cover around water or feed troughs may be tolerated if surrounding vegetative cover is
adequate.
Confined Livestock Production. Animal health and waste management are key issues in confined
livestock operations. The moral and ethical debate taking place today regarding animal welfare is
particularly intense for confined livestock production systems. The issues raised in this debate need to
be addressed.
Confinement livestock production is increasingly a source of surface and ground water pollutants,
particularly where there are large numbers of animals per unit area. Expensive waste management
facilities are now a necessary cost of confined production systems. Waste is a problem of almost all
operations and must be managed with respect to both the environment and the quality of life in
nearby communities. Livestock production systems that disperse stock in pastures so the wastes are
not concentrated and do not overwhelm natural nutrient cycling processes have become a subject of
renewed interest.
The Economic, Social & Political Context
In addition to strategies for preserving natural resources and changing production practices,
sustainable agriculture requires a commitment to changing public policies, economic institutions, and
social values. Strategies for change must take into account the complex, reciprocal and ever-changing
relationship between agricultural production and the broader society.
The "food system" extends far beyond the farm and involves the interaction of individuals and
institutions with contrasting and often competing goals including farmers, researchers, input suppliers,
farmworkers, unions, farm advisors, processors, retailers, consumers, and policymakers. Relationships
among these actors shift over time as new technologies spawn economic, social and political changes.
A wide diversity of strategies and approaches are necessary to create a more sustainable food system.
These will range from specific and concentrated efforts to alter specific policies or practices, to the
longer-term tasks of reforming key institutions, rethinking economic priorities, and challenging widely-
held social values. Areas of concern where change is most needed include the following:
Food and agricultural policy. Existing national and local government policies often impede the
goals of sustainable agriculture. New policies are needed to simultaneously promote environmental
health, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. For example, commodity and price
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
support programs could be restructured to allow farmers to realize the full benefits of the productivity
gains made possible through alternative practices. Tax and credit policies could be modified to
encourage a diverse and decentralized system of family farms rather than corporate concentration and
absentee ownership. Government and land grant university research policies could be modified to
emphasize the development of sustainable alternatives. Marketing orders and cosmetic standards
could be amended to encourage reduced pesticide use. Coalitions must be created to address these
policy concerns at the local, regional, and national level.
Land use. Conversion of agricultural land to urban uses is a particular concern as rapid growth and
escalating land values threaten farming on prime soils. Existing farmland conversion patterns often
discourage farmers from adopting sustainable practices and a long-term perspective on the value of
land. At the same time, the close proximity of newly developed residential areas to farms is increasing
the public demand for environmentally safe farming practices. Comprehensive new policies to protect
prime soils and regulate development are needed. By helping farmers to adopt practices that reduce
chemical use and conserve scarce resources, sustainable agriculture research and education can play
a key role in building public support for agricultural land preservation. Educating land use planners
and decision-makers about sustainable agriculture is an important priority.
Labor. The conditions of agricultural labor are generally far below accepted social standards and legal
protections in other forms of employment. Policies and programs are needed to address this problem,
working toward socially just and safe employment that provides adequate wages, working conditions,
health benefits, and chances for economic stability. The needs of migrant labor for year-around
employment and adequate housing are a particularly crucial problem needing immediate attention. To
be more sustainable over the long-term, labor must be acknowledged and supported by government
policies, recognized as important constituents of land grant universities, and carefully considered when
assessing the impacts of new technologies and practices.
Rural Community Development. Rural communities in currently characterized by economic and

environmental deterioration. Many are among the poorest locations in the nation. The reasons for the
decline are complex, but changes in farm structure have played a significant role. Sustainable
agriculture presents an opportunity to rethink the importance of family farms and rural communities.
Economic development policies are needed that encourage more diversified agricultural production on
family farms as a foundation for healthy economies in rural communities. In combination with other
strategies, sustainable agriculture practices and policies can help foster community institutions that
meet employment, educational, health, cultural and spiritual needs.
Consumers and the Food System. Consumers can play a critical role in creating a sustainable food
system. Through their purchases, they send strong messages to producers, retailers and others in the
system about what they think is important. Food cost and nutritional quality have always influenced
consumer choices. The challenge now is to find strategies that broaden consumer perspectives, so that
environmental quality, resource use, and social equity issues are also considered in shopping
decisions. At the same time, new policies and institutions must be created to enable producers using
sustainable practices to market their goods to a wider public. Coalitions organized around improving
the food system are one specific method of creating a dialogue among consumers, retailers, producers
and others. These coalitions or other public forums can be important vehicles for clarifying issues,
suggesting new policies, increasing mutual trust, and encouraging a long-term view of food
production, distribution and consumption.
TERMS RELATED TO SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
AGRARIANISM-"A social or political movement designed to bring about land reforms or to improve
the economic status of the farmer”
AGROECOLOGY-Agroecology can be defined broadly or narrowly. "Loosely defined, agroecology often

incorporates ideas about a more environmentally and socially sensitive approach to agriculture, one
that focuses not only on production, but also on the ecological sustainability of the productive system.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
"At its most narrow, agroecology refers to the study of purely ecological phenomena within the crop
field, such as predator/prey relations, or crop/weed competition."
ALTERNATIVE FARMING/ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE-These are essentially synonymous terms

encompassing a vast array of practices and enterprises, all of which are considered different from
prevailing or conventional agricultural activities. "They include:nontraditional crops, livestock, and
other farm products; service, recreation, tourism, food processing, forest/woodlot, and other
enterprises based on farm and natural resources (ancillary enterprises); unconventional production
systems such as organic farming or aquaculture; or
direct marketing and other entrepreneurial marketing strategies." [Alternative has also come to imply
the use of environmentally-friendly farming practices in general, and the benefits of farm
diversification
BIODIVERSITY-"At its simplest level, biodiversity is the sum total of all the plants, animals, fungi
and microorganisms in the world, or in a particular area; all of their individual variation; and all the
interactions between them
AGROBIODIVERSITY "is a fundamental feature of farming systems around the world. It

encompasses many types of biological resources tied to agriculture, including:
genetic resources - the essential living materials of plants and animals; edible plants and crops,
including traditional varieties, cultivars, hybrids, and other genetic material developed by breeders;
and livestock (small and large, lineal breeds or thoroughbreds) and freshwater fish; soil organisms
vital to soil fertility, structure, quality, and soil health; naturally occurring insects, bacteria, and fungi
that control insect pests and diseases of domesticated plants and animals; agroecosystem
components and types (polycultural/monocultural, small/large scale, rainfed/irrigated, etc.)
indispensable for nutrient cycling, stability, and productivity; and 'wild' resources (species and
elements) of natural habitats and landscapes that can provide services (for example, pest control and
ecosystem stability) to agriculture. "Agrobiodiversity therefore includes not only a wide variety of
species, but also the many ways in which farmers can exploit biological diversity to produce and
manage crops, land, water, insects, and biota
BIODYNAMIC AGRICULTURE/BIODYNAMIC FARMING:-Both a concept and a practice,

biodynamics "owes its origin to the spiritual insights and perceptions of Dr. Rudolf Steiner, an Austrian
philosopher and scientist who lived at the turn of the century." Dr. Steiner emphasized many of the
forces within living nature, identifying many of these factors and describing specific practices and
preparations that enable the farmer or gardener to work in concert with these parameters. "Central to
the biodynamic method... are certain herbal preparations that guide the decomposition processes in
manures and compost
BIOINTENSIVE GARDENING/MINI-FARMING:-John Jeavons and Ecology Action have refined a

production system that makes it possible for one person to grow all of his or her family's food using
truly sustainable methods that maintain the fertility of the soil without relying on nonrenewable
resources like petrochemicals or imported organic matter. The concepts and practices of biointensive
gardening were synthesized and introduced to the U.S. by the English master horticulturalist, Alan
Chadwick. Important components include double-dug, raised beds; intensive planting; composting;
companion planting; and whole system synergy.
BIOLOGICAL FARMING/ECOLOGICAL FARMING-Biological and Ecological Farming are terms

commonly used in Europe and developing countries. Although sometimes strictly defined, e.g.,
"Biological farming is a system of crop production in which the producer tries to minimize the use of
'chemicals' for control of crop pests," both biological farming and ecological farming are terms used in
the broader sense, encompassing various and more specific practices and techniques of farming
sustainability, e.g., organic, biodynamic, holistic, natural.
Norman et al. point to some differentiation between the two terms: "In Europe (e.g., the
Netherlands), the term biological often refers to organic farming, whereas the term ecological refers to
organic plus environmental considerations such as on-farm wildlife management

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BIOTECHNOLOGY-Although farmers have been practicing biotechnology in the broadest sense (i.e.
plant and animal breeding to achieve certain traits) for thousands of years, it is the recent breaking of
the genetic code that has pushed this science into a new era altogether. Genetic engineering differs
significantly from traditional biotechnological techniques in that DNA from different species can be
combined to create completely new organisms
Potential risks related to GMOs include those to human health--new allergens in the food supply,
antibiotic resistance, production of new toxins, concentration of toxic metals, enhancement of the
environment for toxic fungi; and those to the environment--gene transfer to wild or weedy relatives
and increased weediness, change in herbicide use patterns, squandering of valuable pest susceptibility
genes, poisoned wildlife, creation of new or worse viruses, and other, so far, unknown harms.
CONSERVATION TILLAGE-Conservation Tillage is a term that covers a broad range of soil tillage
systems that leave residue cover on the soil surface, substantially reducing the effects of soil erosion
from wind and water. These practices minimize nutrient loss, decreased water storage capacity, crop
damage, and decreased farmability.
GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES (GAP)-"Broadly defined, a GAP approach aims at applying

available knowledge to addressing environmental, economic and social sustainability dimensions for
on-farm production and post-production processes, resulting in safe and quality food and non-food
agricultural products.
INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS (IFS)/INTEGRATED FOOD AND FARMING SYSTEMS (IFFS)-

Farming research and policy programs have begun to recognize that by viewing farms and the food
production system as an integrated whole, more efficient use can be made of natural, economic, and
social resources. Included in this concept are the goals of finding and adopting "integrated and
resource-efficient crop and livestock systems that maintain productivity, that are profitable, and that
protect the environment and the personal health of farmers and their families," as well as "overcoming
the barriers to adoption of more sustainable agricultural systems so these systems can serve as a
foundation upon which rural American communities will be revitalized
LOW INPUT AGRICULTURE-Low input farming systems "seek to optimize the management and use
of internal production inputs (i.e. on-farm resources)... and to minimize the use of production inputs
(i.e. off-farm resources), such as purchased fertilizers and pesticides, wherever and whenever feasible
and practicable, to lower production costs, to avoid pollution of surface and groundwater, to reduce
pesticide residues in food, to reduce a farmer's overall risk, and to increase both short- and long-term
farm profitability
NATURAL FARMING-Natural Farming reflects the experiences and philosophy of Japanese farmer
Masanobu Fukuoka. "His farming method involves no tillage, no fertilizer, no pesticides, no weeding,
no pruning, and remarkably little labor! He accomplishes all this (and high yields) by careful timing of
his seeding and careful combinations of plants (polyculture).
NATURE FARMING-Nature farming grew out of the philosophy and methodology of Japanese
philosophist, Mokicho Okada in the mid-1940s. "The theory of Nature Farming, as Okada expounded
it, rests on a belief in the universal life-giving powers that the elements of fire, water, and earth
confer on the soil... The planet's soil, created over a span of eons, has acquired life-sustaining
properties, in accordance with the principle of the indivisibility of the spiritual and the physical realms,
which in turn provide the life-force that enables plants to grow.
ORGANIC FARMING-The term 'organic farming' was first used by Lord Northbourne in the book,
Look to the Land Lord Northbourne, who embraced the teachings of Rudolph Steiner and biodynamic
farming, had a "vision of the farm as a sustainable, ecologically stable, self-contained unit, biologically
complete and balanced--a dynamic living organic whole...The term thus did not refer solely to the use
of living materials (organic manures, etc) in agriculture although obviously it included them, but with
its emphasis on 'wholeness' is encompassed best by the definition 'of, pertaining to, or characterized
by systematic connexion or coordination of parts of the one whole

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PERMACULTURE-A contraction of "permanent agriculture," the word "permaculture" was coined by

Australian Bill Mollison in the late 1970s. One of the many alternative agriculture systems described as
sustainable, permaculture is "unique in its emphasis on design; that is, the location of each element in
a landscape, and the evolution of landscape over time. The goal of permaculture is to produce an
efficient, low-maintenance integration of plants, animals, people and structure... applied at the scale
of a home garden, all the way through to a large farm
PRECISION FARMING/AGRICULTURE-Precision agriculture is a "management strategy that

employs detailed, site-specific information to precisely manage production inputs. This concept is
sometimes called Precision Agriculture, Prescription Farming, Site-specific Management. The idea is to
know the soil and crop characteristics unique to each part of the field, and to optimize the production
inputs within small portions of the field. The philosophy behind precision agriculture is that production
inputs (seed, fertilizer, chemicals, etc.) should be applied only as needed and where needed for the
most economic production."
This system requires the utilization of sophisticated technology including personal computers,
telecommunications, global positioning systems (GPS), geographic information systems (GIS),
variable rate controllers, and infield and remote sensing. Although precision agriculture promises
reduced use of chemical inputs, there are several factors that make it controversial in the sustainable
agriculture community, including the requirements of large capital outlay and advanced technical
expertise.
REGENERATIVE AGRICULTURE-Robert Rodale coined this term, and it subsequently was expanded
to "regenerative/sustainable agriculture" by the Rodale Institute and Rodale Research Center. Two
reasons given for the emphasis on "regenerative" are (1) "enhanced regeneration of renewable
resources is essential to the achievement of a sustainable form of agriculture," and (2) "the concept of
regeneration would be relevant to many economic sectors and social concerns
CROPPING SYSTEM
Terms
 Cropping System- refers to the pattern or arrangement of crops in time and space, as well
as the process of growing them
 Polyculture Farming System- this involves the mixture of annual crops with other annuals,
annuals with perennials, or perennials with perennials or perennials with perennials planted in
spatial pattern
 Cropping Pattern- the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or of crops and
fallows on a given area
 Monocropping- a method of crop production in which only one crop is grown annually in the
same parcel of land (Perennial monoculture and Annual Crop Monoculture )
 Multiple Cropping- growing more than one crop on the same land in one year
 Monoculture - Only one crop is grown in a given area throughout the year.
 Intercropping -growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field such that the
period of overlap is long enough to include the vegetative stage. Intercropping is denoted by a
(+) sign between any two crops grown simultaneously
 Sequential cropping - growing of two or more crops in sequence on the same field within a
12 month period, with the succeeding crop planted only after the preceding crop has been
harvested, such that a farmer managed only one crop at any one time in the same field. A
sequential cropping is denoted by hyphen(-) between two succeeding crops.
 Relay Intercropping (relay cropping)- growing two more crops together, but seedling or
transplanting the succeeding one after flowering and before the harvest of the former crop. If
the planting of the second crop is done before the flowering stage of the first crop, the
cropping pattern is intercropping. Relay cropping is denoted with a slash (/) between crops.
 Strip cropping - the growing of two or more crops simultaneously in separate plots arranged
in strips that can be independently cultivated
 Sorjan cultivation - system of crop cultivation in parallel beds and sinks wherein lowland
crops are planted in the sinks and upland crops are grown in beds. Two successive upland
crops can be grown in beds during the year and the rice crops in the sinks
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Alley cropping -the system follows an alternate succession of the strip or hedgerow
croppings of perennial crops established along the contour of the slope and an open space or
ally which is devoted to annual agricultural crops. There are two types of alley croppings ; the
unterrraced and the terraced
 Crop Rotation - Crop rotation is the growing of different crops in a definite order of
succession on the same land.
 Integrated rice farming refers to a system of growing rice in combination with other crops
and other components of production outside the crop such as fish culture and livestock raising.
The various components of production that are integrated into the system are those that
complement or inter support each other so as to maximize total productivity.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF CROPPING SYSTEM
 Mono-cropping or Single Cropping: Mono-cropping refers to growing only one crop on a

particular land year after year. Or Practice of growing only one crop in a piece of land year
after year.
 Monoculture: Practice of repetitive growing only crop irrespective of its intensity.
 Sole Cropping: One crop variety grown alone in pure stand at normal density.
 Multiple Cropping or Polycropping: It is a cropping system where two or three crops are
gown annually on the same piece of land using high input without affecting basic fertility of the
soil.
 Polyculture: Cultivation of more than two types of crops grown together on a piece of land in
a crop season.
 Relay Cropping: Growing the succeeding crop when previous crop attend its maturity stage-
or-sowing of the next crop immediately after the harvest of the standing crops. Or it is a
system of cropping where one crop hands over land to the crop in quick succession.
 Overlapping Cropping: In this system, the succeeding crop is sown in the standing crop
before harvesting. Thus, in this system, one crop is sown before the harvesting of preceding
crops.
Advantages:
a. Minimum tillage is needed for relay cropping and primary cost of cultivation is less.
b. Weed infestation is less, as land is engaged with crops year round.
c. Crop residues are added in the soil and thus more organic matter.
d. Residual fertilizer of previous crops benefits succeeding crops.
Inter cropping and Its Objectives
Inter Cropping: Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land with a
definite row pattern .Thus, cropping intensity in space dimension is achieved. Multiple cropping in the
form of intercropping is predominant in the regions of dry, humid and semi-arid tropics.
The objectives of Intercropping Systems are:

 Insurance against total crop failure under aberrant weather conditions or pest epidemics.
 Increase in total productivity per unit land area.
 Judicious utilization of resources such as land labour and inputs.
Intercropping was originally practiced as an insurance against crop failure under rainfall conditions. At
present the main objective of intercropping is higher productivity per unit area in addition to stability
in production. Intercropping systems utilizes resources sufficiently and their productivity is increased.
When two crops are to be grown together, they are chosen in such away that there is variation in their
growth duration. The peak periods of growth of the two crops species should not coincide. In such
arrangements, a quick maturing crop completes its life cycle before the other crop starts. Willey
(1979) described the concept as temporal complementary. Greater differences in maturity and growth
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
demands of the crop components, more opportunity is provided for greater exploitation of growth
factors and over yielding. This will be achieved either by generic difference in crop species or
manipulation of planting dates. Normally short and long duration crops are grown together.
Based on the per cent of plat population used for each crop in intercropping system, It is divided in to
two viz; additive series and replacement series.
 Additive Series: one crop is sown with 100% of its recommended population in pure stand,
which is known as the base crops. Another crop known as intercrop is introduced into the base
crop by adjusting or changing geometry. The population of intercrop is less than its
recommended population in pure stand LER of additive series is greater than replacement
series. Additive series is more efficient than replacement series in intercropping system.
In replacement series both the crops are called component crops. By scarifying certain proportion of
population of none component, another component is introduced. This type of intercropping is
practiced in western countries.
 Component Crop: is used to refer to either individual crops making up the intercropping
situation. Intercrop yield is the yield of a component crop when grown in intercropping and
expressed over the total intercropped area. (I.e. area occupied by both the crops). A simple
addition of both the intercrop yields a combined intercrop yield.
 Base Crop: is the one which is plated as its optimum sole crop population in an intercropping
situation and second crop is planted in between rows of base crop for obtaining bonus yield
from intercrop without affecting base crop yield.
For successful intercropping, there are certain important requirements:
1. The time of peak nutrient demands of component crops should not overlap
2. Competition for light should be minimum among the component crops.
3. Complementary should exist between the component crops.
4. The differences in maturity of component crops should be at least 30 days.
Advantage of Intercropping
a. Intercropping gives additional yield income/unit area than sole cropping.

b. It acts as an insurance against failure of crops in abnormal year.
c. Inter-crops maintain the soil fertility as the nutrient uptake is made from both layers of soil.
d. Reduction in soil runoff and controls weeds.
e. Intercrops provide shade and support to the other crop.
f. Inter cropping system utilizes resources efficiently and their productivity is increased (Reddy
and Redid, 1992).
g. Intercropping with cash crops is higher profitable.
h. It helps to avoid inter-crop competition and thus a higher number of crop plants are grown per
unit area.
Disadvantages of intercropping:
a. Yield decreases as the crops differ in their competitive abilities.
b. Management of I/c having different cultural practices seems to be difficult task.
c. Improved implements cannot be used efficiently.
d. Higher amount of fertilizer or irrigation water cannot be utilized properly as the component
crops vary in their response of these resources.
e. Harvesting is difficult
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Types of Inter-Cropping
1. Mixed intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row
arrangement.
2. Row intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops are
planted in rows.
3. Strip Inter-cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously in different strips wide
enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for the crops to interact
ergonomically.
4. Relay inter-cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously during part of the life cycle
of each. A second crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive stage but
before it is ready for harvest.
Inter-cropping may be divided into the following four groups (Singh 1990).
a. Parallel Cropping: Under this cropping two crops are selected which have different growth
habits and have a zero competition between each other and both of them express their full
yield potential.
b. Companion Cropping: In companion cropping the yield of one crop is not affected by other,
In other words, the yield of both the crops is equal to their pure crops. That the standard plant
population of both crops is maintained.
c. Multistoried Cropping: or Multi-tire cropping: Growing plants of different height in the same
field at the same time is termed as multistoried cropping. It is mostly practiced in orchards
and plantation crops for maximum use of solar energy even under high planting density.
Synergetic Cropping and Alley Cropping
Synergetic Cropping: Here the yields of both crops, grown together are found to be higher than
yield of their pure crops on unit area basis.
Alley Cropping: Alley cropping is an agroforestry system in which fast growing N-fixing shrubs are
planted as hedgerows. Food crops are grown in alley formed by hedge of trees and shrubs. This
system is most suitable for marginal and sub-marginal lands. The essential feature of this system is
that hedge rows are cut back at about one meter height at planting and kept pruning during cropping
to prevent shading and reduce competition with field crops. In semiarid regions, alley cropping provide
fodder during dry period since mulching the crop with hedge row pruning usually do not contribute to
increase crop production.
Advantages of this System are as Follows:
a. Provision of green fodder during lean period of the year.

b. Higher biomass production per unit area than arable crops.
c. Efficient use off season rainfall in the absences of the crop.
d. Additional employment during off-season.
e. It serves as a barrier to surface runoff leading to soil and water.
f. Conservation based on objectives following three types of alley.
g. It improves soil fertility and is more remunerative under rain fed conditions.
Recognized systems:
a. Forage alley cropping: In this system both yield of crop and forage assume importance.
Luciana (Squabble), Sesbania are recommended for hedgerow. Pigeon pea or caster crops are
suitable for growing in the allies. Crop yields decreases with decrease in the row width.
b. Forage cum mulch system: in these systems hedgerows are used for both forage and
mulch. Lapping is used for mulching during the crop season.
c. Forage cum pole systems: Luciana alleys are established at 5-meter interval along the
contours. Hedge rows are established by direct seeding and topped every two months at 1.0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
m height during crop season and every four months during the off season. A Luciana plant at
every 2-meter is allowed to grow in to a pole. Crop yields are usually reduced due to
competition from hedgerow.
Sequential Multiple Cropping
Sequence Cropping: Defined as growing of two or more crops in sequence on the same piece of land
in a farming year. Crop intensification is only in time dimension and there is no intercrop competition.
Depending on the number of crops grown in a year. It is called as double, triple and quadruple
cropping involving two, three, and four crops, respectively.
Crop Rotation: Refers to recurrent succession of crop on the same piece of land either in a year or
over a longer period of time. Component crops are so chosen so that soil health is not impaired. Or it
means growing a set of crop in a regular succession on a piece of land in a specific period of time, with
an object to get maximum profit least investment without impairing soil fertility.
Characteristics of Good Crop Rotation
1. It should be adaptable to the existing soil, climatic and economic factors.

2. The sequence cropping adopted for any specific area should be based on proper land
utilization or it should be so arranged in relation to fields that crop yields can be maintained
and also build up organic matter content of the soil.
3. Rotation should contain sufficient area under soil improving crops (legumes) to maintain and
also build up organic matter content of the soil.
4. In areas where legumes can be grown successfully, the rotation should provide sufficient
average of legumes to maintain “N” supply of the soil.
5. It should provide food grains, pulses, etc. to family and roughages, fodder to cattle.
6. It should help in control of pests, diseases, and weeds.
7. It should provide maximum area under the most profitable crops adapted to the area.
8. It should be so arranged to make for economy in production and labour utilization.
Advantages of an ideal Crop Rotation
1. There is over all increase in yield of crops mainly due to maintaining physical- chemical
properties of soil. Soil fertility is restored by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, encouraging
microbial activity (more organic matter) and protecting soil from erosion, salinity and acidity.
2. It helps in controlling insects, pests and soil borne diseases. It also controls weeds.
3. Prevent or limit periods of peak requirements of irrigation water. Crops requiring high
irrigation if followed by light irrigation, this will not affect or deteriorate the soil physical
condition.
4. It facilitates even distribution of labour. Following crop make proper utilization of all resources
and inputs. Family and farm labour, power, equipment and machines are well employed
thought the year.
5. Farmers get a better price for his produce due to higher demand in local market. So there is
regular flow of income over year.
6. Inclusion of crops of different feeding zones (root system) and nutrient requirement could
maintain the better balance of nutrient in soil. Growing crops of different root depths avoids
continuous depletion of nutrients form same depth. E.g. deep rooted crops take nutrients from
deeper zone and during that period upper zone get enriched. Similarly, surface feeding roots
take nutrients from upper zone when lower zone get enriched. So growing same crop without
rotation results in loss of soil productivity utilized the nutrients from entire soil mass and cost
of cultivation is reduced.
7. Diversification of crops reduces risk of financial loss due unfavorable conditions. Diversification
of crops means variety of crops can be grown for meeting the domestic needs of farmers and
livestock, to reduce risk of market fluctuations, mechanism of farming, growing expensive
crops. So all variety of crops are grown in rotation for more benefit.
8. It improves soil structure, percolation and reduces changes of creation of hard- pan in sub soil
and also reduces soil erosion.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9. Some crop plants are found to produce phytoalexins when they get infected by diseases.
Repeated cultivation of such crops results in harmful effects over crop plants and lower crop
yield is obtained.
10. The family needs of feed, food, fuel, fiber, etc. are fulfilled and also fulfill needs of livestock.
11. Advantages of raising short duration crops (catch crop/ vegetables) when long season crops
cannot be raised due to some reasons.Factors to be considered while planning a crop rotation:
growing different crop is very beneficial, but sometimes the desired crops cannot be grown
because of certain governing factors (soil and climate), irrigation, availability bullock and other
powers, market facilities and type of farming
The Factors of Crop Rotation
1. Net profit per hectare

2. Growth habit and nutrient requirement of different crops.
3. Soil type and slope.
4. Infestation of weeds, pests and diseases.
5. Irrigation facilities.
6. Climatic conditions.
7. Land, labour, power and other resources.
8. Food habit and requirements.
9. Market facilities.
Mechanics of Crop Rotation
1. The crops with taproot should be followed by those, which have a fibrous root system. This
helps in proper and uniform use of nutrients from the soil and root do not compliant with each
other for uptake of nutrients.
2. A shallow rooted grain crop, deep rooted cash crop and restorative crop (legume crop) should
be included in the rotation for providing food, fodder, cash and maintaining the fertility and
productivity of soil.
3. The leguminous crops should be grown after non-leguminous crops because leguminous fix
atmospheric “N” into soil and more organic matter to soil, while non- leguminous are fertility
crops. Apart form this, legumes need more phosphate and less nitrogen while non- legumes
need more of nitrogen and relatively low phosphorus. So nutrient requirements of these crops
are different and such combination helps farmers in reducing cost of cultivation.
4. Selection of the crops should be based on soil, climate season and market demand.
5. More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops because crops like potato,
sugarcane, maize, etc. need more inputs such as better tillage, more fertilizer higher number
of irrigations, more insecticides, better care than crops like oil seeds, pulses, etc. which need
little less care or little less inputs.
6. As per availability of irrigation water, two or three crops are taken in a year on same land
under irrigated conditions. However a dry crop should be included in the rotation to avoid
damage to the soil due to continuous irrigation.
7. In case of rain fed farming (assured rainfall) on moisture retentive soils after harvest of crop
some minor crop requiring less moisture like pulses or cereals may be grown.
8. The selection of crops should be problem based e.g. on sloppy lands which are prone to soil
erosion, an alternate cropping of erosion promoting ( erect growing crops) and erosion
resisting crops like legumes, should be adopted. Selection of crops should suit the farmer’s
financial conditions.
9. Both wide spaced crop and thickly planted crops should be included in rotation for control of
weeds.
10. Crops with different botanical relationship should be altered for control of weeds, pests and
diseases.
11. Effect of previous crop on succeeding crop should be considered for obtaining maximum yield
and harvest quality of produce.
12. Enough elasticity may be kept in rotation so that if pest or diseases destroys a crop, another
crop can be substituted
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13. Fertile and well-drained land should be utilized for important good rotation, less fertile land for
soil improving crops (legumes) and salt tolerant crops on acidic, saline or alkali soils.
14. The ideal crop rotation should be built up around a hub crop for which the greatest
comparative advantages exist. E.g. In areas of dairy industry pulses will supply cattle feed
(roughages) or in irrigated areas near cities, growing of vegetables or floriculture will be
profitable.
15. Selection of crops should be demand based, i.e. the crops, which are needed by the people or
area. So that produce can be sold at a higher price. The area devoted to each crop should be
constant from year to year.
Cropping System Under Low Land/ Irrigated Upland/ Rain Fed Up Lands:
Multiple cropped lands can be broadly grouped into low lands, irrigated uplands and rain fed uplands.
1. Low Lands: Rice based cropping systems predominate in low lands, number of crops per year
and the crops that follow or precede rice depends on the periods of water availability and
degree of control of water.
2. Irrigated uplands
3. Rain Fed uplands: Cropping system in rained uplands predominantly takes form of
intercropping during rainy season.
Plant Interactions and Its Types
Plant Interactions: The interaction between different components crops: In intensive cropping, when
crops are grown in association (intercropping) or sequence (sequential cropping) interaction between
different component crop species occurs, which is essentially a response of one species to the
environment as modified by the presence of another species (commonly referred to as interference or
interaction).
Interference can be divided into two
a. Removal Reactions of One Plant on its Environment and

b. Additive Reactions when Something is Added.
When some factor is removed from the environment, the resulting response of neighboring species
can be negative, positive or neutral. Competition among plants is one example for removal
interactions. Some such additive interactions are allelopathic and symbiosis. When crops are grown in
sequence, residual effect of the preceding crop influences the succeeding crop this may be harmful or
helpful. The toxic chemicals (allelopathic chemicals) left in the soil by the roots of sunflower crop
inhabit germination of the succeeding crop. The stubbles of sorghum with high C: N ration causes
immobility of nitrogen, thus causing nitrogen deficiency in early stages of the succeeding crops. The
roots of legume crops and their residues add nitrogen to soil.
The interaction may be:
a. Competitive Interaction: - One species may have greater ability to use the limiting factor
and will gain at the expense of the other and this is called as competitive interaction or
interference. Or when one or more growth factors are limiting, the species that is better
equipped to use the limiting factors(s) will gain at the expense of the other and this is called
as competitive interaction. In mixed crop communities, if the associated species are to share
their growth from a limited pool of recourses such as light water or nutrients, then it is non-
competitive interaction or interference.
b. Non-competitive:- If the crops are grown in association and the growth of either of the
concerned species is not affected, such type of interaction is called non-competitive interaction
or interference. Or if these resources (growth factors) are present in adequate quantities as a
result of which the growth of either of the concerned species is not affected, then it is non-
competitive interaction or interference.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c. Complementary: - If one species is able to help the other it is known as complementary

interaction. Or if the component species are able to exploit to supply of growth factors in
different ways (temporal or spatial) or if one species is able to help the other in supply of
factor (like legumes supplying part of N fixed by symbiosis to non-legumes), it is
complementary interaction or interference. This also referred to as Annidations.
Integrated Components of Farming Systems
In the integrated farming system, it is always emphasized to combine cropping with other enterprises/
activities, many enterprises are available and these includes cattle maintenance sheep or goat rearing,
poultry, piggery, rabbit rearing, bee keeping etc. Any one or more can be combined with the cropping.
1. Buffaloes- Cattle feed generally contains fibrous coarse low nutrient straw material.
Roughage is basic for cattle ration and includes legumes non- legume hays, straw and silage
of legume and grasses.
2. Sheep Rearing: Sheep are well adapted to many areas. They are excellent gleaners and
make use of much of waste feed. Consume roughage, converting a relative cheap food into a
good cash product. Housing not expensive.
3. Goat Rearing: Goat is mainly reared for meat, milk hide and meat
4. Poultry: poultry is one of the fastest growing food industries in the world.
5. Duck rearing-These can rear in marshy riverside Westland. Duck farming can be a better
alternative.Feeding: Eating fallen grains in harvested paddy fields, small fishes and other
aquatic materials. A variety of crop residues and insects in the farm.
6. Turkey rearing: Turkey is a robust bird and can be reared in humid tropics. It actively feed
on a variety of crop residues and insects in the farm.
7. Piggery: pigs are maintained for production of pork.
8. Bee Keeping: Bee keeping is one of the most important agro- based industries which do not
required any raw material like other industries. Nectar and pollen from flower are the raw
material, which available in plenty in nature. Bee keeping can be started with a single colony.
9. Aquaculture: Ponds serve as domestic requirement of water, supplementary irrigation to crop
and pisciculture with the traditional management.
10. Sericulture: Definition: the keeping of silk moths and their larvae for the production of silk
11. Mushroom Cultivation: Mushroom is an edible fungi great diversity in shape, size and
colour. Essentially mushroom is a vegetable that is a cultivated that is cultivated in protected
farms in a highly sanitized atmosphere; mushroom contains 90 % moisture with in quality
protein, fairly good source of vitamin C and B complex. It is rich source of mineral like ca, P, K
& Cu. They contain less of fat and CHO and are considered good for diabetic and blood
pressure patients.
12. Biogas Plant: Biogas is a clean, unpolluted and cheap source of energy, which can be
obtained by a simple mechanism and little investment. The gas is generated from the cow
dung during anaerobic decomposition. Biogas generation is a complex bio- chemical process,
celluloytic material are broken down in methane and Co2 by different group of micro-
organism. IT can be used for cooking purpose, buring lamps, etc. Biogas near to kitchen &
cattle shed to reduce cost of gas transfer and cow dung transport, sunlight is important for
temperature.
Organic Farming
Is defined as the production system in which avoids or largely exclude the use of synthetically
compounded fertilizers, pesticide, growth regulator and livestock feed additives. To the maximum
extent feasible organic farming system realy upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures,
legumes, green manure, off- farm organic wastes and aspects of biological pest control insets, pest
weeds etc. Organic farming methods are widely used in underdeveloped and developing countries,
largely because of ecomics and a lack of chemicals. However, they are becoming more widely
accepted in developed countries as a reaction or factory conditions.
Problems of Present Day Agriculture:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Soil degradation.
2. Decreasing soil fertility.
3. Water and environmental pollution.
4. Water management problems like: problem of brackish ground water ,Runoff and flooding,
Salinization Problem,Low irrigation efficiency.
Why Organic Farming Not Adapted on a Large Scale
1. Chemical are easy to use and less costly.

2. The benefit of organic practices is not seen immediately.
3. Large quintiles of organic inputs are required.
4. Difficult to get organic fertilizer.
5. Unorganized market for organically grown produce.
6. Preference to consume organic food is yet not established.
7. Economic loss to transition (from traditional agriculture to organic agriculture).
8. No experimental evidence on the cost benefit ratio of organic farming.
9. Government effort to propagate is lacking.
10. Scientific research is also scarce.
Recycling Of Organic Wastes
 Recycling of organic wastes such as crop residues, dung and urine from domesticated animals
and wastage from slaughter house, human excreta and sewage, bio mass of weeds, organic
wastes from fruit and vegetables production and household wastes, sugarcane trash, oilcakes,
press mud and fly ash from thermal power plants. Material not suitable for direct application
can better apply by composting and vermicompost.
 The ultimate goal of sustainable agriculture is to develop farming system that are production
and profitable, conserve the natural resources base, protect the environment and enhance
health and safety, and to do so over the long term.
Low Input Sustainable Agriculture (LISA):In this system minimal use of external production
inputs is made. The production costs are obviously lower. The over all risk of the farmer is
considerably reduced. Besides, the above advantages, pollution of surface and ground water is
avoided and healthy food with very little or no pesticide residues are ensured. These systems held
promise for both short and long term profitability. However, the system suffers from one serious
drawback – continuation of low external input agriculture will perpetuate to the vicious circle of low
inputs low yields which the third world countries with ever increasing population pressure can ill
offered.
Organic Farming and Waste Recycling:

Organic farming is the backbone of sustainable agriculture. Organic farming mainly depend son
Organic recycling: Industrial agriculture chemicals like fertilizer, pesticide, herbicide etc are not used
or used to minimum extent necessary in this kind of farming. Organic farming may result in
compatable performance as conventional agriculture and crops growth with high organic manure
application could tolerate the pest and disease attack better. It is is sound and sustainable way of
growing more food.
Organic recyclable waste include – crop residues, waste, farm industrial waste, multiple and sewage
wastes. They are valuable sources of plant nutrient and humans in tropical and subtropical soils found
in India, there is general deficiency of organic carbon and plant nutrients due to rapid loss of this
component by bio- degradation. To make u for these losses, extensive utilization of organic residues in
agriculture is essential. In addition they also protect the soil from erosion.
Examples of Recyclable waste products
1. Sugarcane Trash Compost:Fresh sugarcane trash contains 0.36% N with a wide C:N ratio of
122:1.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Bio- gas Slurry:Organic manures from animal wastes are very important nutrient sources in
building up soil fertility.
3. Vermicompost:The average nutrient content of vermicompost is much higher than that of
F.Y.M. vermicompost contains 1.60 % N, 5.04% p205 and 0.80% k2o. The C:N ratio of
vermicompost is much lower ( 1.6) than the FYM (1.30). Application of essential plant nutrient
to crops.
4. Industrial Wastes: Among the industrial by products, spent wash from distilleries and
molasses and press mud from sugar factories have good manorial value.
5. Municipal and Sewage Wastes:This is one of the important components of organic wastes.
6. Crop residues:Residues left out after the harvest of the economic portion are called crop
residues /straw. Cereal straw and residues contains abort 0.5% N, 0.6% Pand 1.5 %. The crop
residues can be recycled by way of incorporation compost making or mulch material.
7. Rice Husk: It is major byproduct of the rice milling industries. It is poor source of manure
and nutrient 0.3 % N, 0.2 % P and 0.3 K. Rice husk should be incorporated into the wet soil
and can be used in saline and alkaline soils to improve the physical condition. It can also be
used as a bedding material for animals.
8. Biocultures: - Bacillus, pseudomonas, Aspergillus, Penicillium, mycorrhiza etc.
9. Green Manuring Crops: Glyricidia, Sesbania
Advantages of Organic Farming
1. Organic manures produce optimal condition in the soil for high yields and good quality crops.
2. They supply the entire nutrient required by the plant (NPK, secondary and micronutrients).
3. They improve plant growth and physiological activities of plants.
4. They improve the soil physical properties such as granulation and good tilt, good giving good
aeration easy rot penetration and improved water holding capacity.
5. They improve the soil chemical properties such as supply and retention of soil nutrient and
promote favorable chemical reaction.
6. They reduce the need for purchased inputs.
7. Most of the organic manures are wastes of byproduct which accumulated load to pollution.
8. Organic fertilizer are considered as complete plant food.
9. Organically grown crop are believed to provide more healthy and nationally superior food for
man and animals that those grown with commercial fertilizers.
10. Organically grown plants are more resistant to disease and insect and hence only a few
chemical sprays or other protective treatment are required.
11. There is an increasing consumer are willing to pay more for organic foods.
12. Organic farming helps to avoid chain reaction in the environment for chemical spray and
dusts.
13. Organic farming helps to prevent environment degradation and can be used to regenerate
degraded areas.
14. Since the basic aim is diversification of crops, much more secure income can be obtained that
when they reply on only one crop or enterprise.
AGROFORESTRY AND TREE FARMING
 Agroforestry is a land-use system in which agricultural crops and /or livestock and forest trees
are raised on the same land either sequentially through rational use or simultaneously. The
forest trees are grown for use as pulp, timber, fiber-board and electric posts. In the hedge-
row alley system, the hedgrows may be fully occupied by fast-growing trees which are left to
grow until they are harvested at the right age. The trees provide the barrier to soil erosion and
the alleys are utilized for food crop production. The disadvantage of the use of forest trees as
hedgerows is the shading effect on the alley crops.
 Example of tree species
o Falcata ( Albizzia falcataria)
o “Kaatongan bangkal”(Anthocephalus chinensis)
o Mahogany (Sweitenia macrophylla)
o Yemane (Gmelina arborea)
o Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
o “gubas” (Endospernum peltatum)

o “banlag” (Xylopia ferruginnea)
Choice of Species for Agro and Farm Forestry
Following considerations mainly motivate the selection of species in social forestry.
1. Rapid growth
2. No competition with field crop.
3. Fixation of Nitrogen
4. Easy decomposition of litter or leaves
5. Fast growth and easy establishment
6. Ability to regenerate
7. High yield of wood and fodder
8. Multiple use of wood
9. Plant with deep tap root system
10. Plant yielding small timber
11. Easy in establishment and ability to coppice
12. Capacity to grow under wide range of environment, soil types, rainfall etc.
13. For recreation and shade plants with quick growing and give shade and pleasing colour
Benefits from Agro-forestry
Combining trees with food crops on cropped farms yield certain environmental benefits such as,
a. Reduction of pressure on Forrest.

b. More efficient recycling of nutrients by deep rooted trees on the site.
c. Better protection of ecological systems.
d. Reduction of surface run-off, nutrient leaching and soil erosion.
e. Improvement of microclimate, such as lowering of soils surface temperature and reduction of
evaporation of soil moisture due to mulching and shading.
f. Increment in soil fertility through addition and decomposition of litter fall.
Economical Benefits
Agro-forestry brings significant economic benefits to the farmers, the community, the region and the
nation such as:
1. Increment in outputs of food, fodder, fuel wood, timber and organic matter.
2. Reduction in incidence of total crop failure.
3. Increase in levels of farm incomes due to improved and sustained productivity.
Social Benefits
a. Improvement in rural living standards from sustained employment and higher income.
b. Improvement in nutrition and health due to increased quality and diversity of food.
c. Provides stability to rural people.
d. Ecological balance.
e. Pollution reduction.
Limitations of Agro-forestry
1. Possible competition of trees with food crops for space, sunlight, moisture and nutrient which
may reduce crop yield.
2. Damage to food crops during harvesting of trees.
3. Potential of trees is serving as hosts to insects and birds.
4. Rapid regeneration of profile trees may displace food crops and take over entire fields.
Importance of Agro- forestry:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Meeting the Needs of the Farmer: Agro – forestry is primarily aimed at running the basic
needs of food, fuel, fodder and timber besides, helping the farmer in increasing productivity
and sustainability of production, particularly from marginal agricultural land. There are global
crisis for energy and agro forestry provides and alternate sources of energy. Trees supply
cheap sources of fuel wood. Fruits and timber yielding trees would help in enriching the diet of
rural people and in meeting the demand for timber.
2. Conserving Soil and Water-Agro – forestry is an answer to the problem of soil and water
conservation. Trees species act as barrier of cover and check run off water and suspended
sediments. Species composition of grasses play and important role in controlling run off, soil
loss and water infiltration. Integrating trees species with grasses, thus, reduce soil and water
loss. Deep- rooted trees planted along the contours and hedge with cover help in soil
stabilization and reduction of land slide problems.
3. Maintainance of Soil Fertility:Maintaining soil organic matter, augment N fix nation and
promote efficient nutrient cycling green leaf manure etc. Leucaena is help in improving soil
fertility. Agro forestry can also be used to break the impermeable layer in certain soils.
4. Controlling Stalinization and Water Logging: Deep rooted tree species assist in
reclamation of alkaline, shading effect retards evaporation. Flooded soils by penetrating
improve the soil layers.
5. Positive Environmental Impact: Moderation of microclimate in the vicinity of trees. Planting
rows of tress on the field boundaries has beneficial influence as wind breaks in protecting the
crops. Also maintain balance in Oxygen – co2, atmosphere temperature and relative humidity.
6. Alternate Land use for Marginal andLand- Trees and grasses use the off- season
precipitation and also protect land from erosion.
FEATURES OF AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES
Agroforestry system in the Philippines can be classified according to their dominant component, that
is, agricultural crops, forest trees, and animals. These systems are classified as agricisilvicultural,
silvipastoral, agripastoral or agrisilvipastoral system (The Technical Committee on Agroforestry 1995).
1. Agrisilvicultural System-Agrisilvicultural system is the comibination of agricultural crops

with woody perennials. This system includes: alley cropping, multistorey, boundary planting,
windbreaks, improved fallow, and the taungya.
 Alley Cropping-Alley cropping is one of the simplest and most widespread agroforestry
practices in sloping lands. It involves planting of hedgerows along the contours and growing
agricultural crops in the "alleys" formed between hedgerows. The hedgerows are planted to
one or more rows of woody perennials and are regularly pruned to prevent shading. Prunings
are used as green manure or mulch, which contributes to the soil nutrients when decomposed,
thereby promoting efficient nutrient cycle. Planting hedgerows is done to minimize soil erosion
by trapping sediments at the base of the hedgerows and reducing surface runoff velocity. After
a few years, terraces are formed. Alley cropping is applicable in stabilizing and promoting the
sustainabilitty of upland (hilly land) farms devoted to annual crops such as corn, rice, and
vegetables. Without hedgerows, these farms are most ecologically vulnerable to erosion with
rates of up to 200 t/ha as against the maximum acceptable level of 12 t/ha
 Multistorey-This system is characterized by randomly mixing various species that create at
least two layers of canopy. It mimics the structure of a tropical rainforest with its attendant
advantages. The upper canopy is composed of light-demanding species, while the understorey
is made up of shade-tolerant species. Multistorey system can be developed where there is
existing monoculture (only one species) plantation, such as coconut and forest tree
plantations. Planting configuration of the main tree crop is planted with wide spacing to allow
enough light for layers of shade-tolerant crops.
 Boundary Planting-Planting of multipurpose trees and shrubs (MPTS) around the farm is a
very common practice. They provide protection, privacy, and valuable products to the farmers.
Trees are planted within property line as fence, or as demarcation of farm lots.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Windbreaks-Windbreaks are strips of vegetation composed of trees, shrubs, and vines to

protect croplands from strong winds. They can provide protection to crops over a distance
equivalent to 15-20 times the height of the trees in the windbreak. They can also help
minimize wind erosion and reduce moisture loss.
 Improved Fallow-The improved fallow system is an attempt to improve traditional shifting
cultivation. This is done by supplementing the fallow vegetation to hasten the rejuvenation of
soil during fallow period. Instead of waiting for nature to revegetate, leguminous nitrogen-
fixing MPTS are planted on the field.
 Taungya-The taungya involves the planting of cash or food crops between newly planted
forest seedlings in a reforestation project. Farmers raise crops while the forest trees are still
young. After 2-3 years, depending on the tree spacing and tree species, the canopy closes,
and light-demanding annual crops can no longer be planted. The culminating vegetation is a
pure tree plantation. Farmers then transfer to other open areas to repeat the process. This can
be applied by using different reforestation species
2. Silvipastoral System-Silvipastoral system is the combination of woody perennials with

livestock production. This system includes: livestock production. This system includes:
livestock-under-tree, protein bank (fodder bank), live fence, and hedgerow planting of
improved pasture grasses and/or other fodder trees or shrubs.
 Livestock-Under-Tree-Animals (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) are allowed to graze freely
underneath the relatively mature tree plantations. These plantations are for wood or fruit
production. An example is the silvipasture scheme of Nasipit Lumber Company in Agusan. The
cattle are allowed to graze under the 'lumbang' (Aleurites moluccanna) trees where improved
forage grasses are grown. With this scheme nuts for linseed oil and meat from grazing cattle
are simultaneously produced. The cattle keep the grasses trimmed down, saving labor costs in
cleaning the plantation, and making it easy to collect the fallen lumbang nuts. The cattle dung
scattered over the plantation area serves as an excellent organic fertilizer.
 Protein Bank-Leguminous fodder trees or shrubs (e.g., 'ipil-ipil' [Leucaena leucocephala],
'kakawate' [Gliricidia sepium], desmodium [Desmodium rensonii], etc.) are established as
small stands on certain portions of the farm or pasture area serving as a supplementary
source of protein-rich fodder for livestock. They also serve as fence. They are regularly pruned
and the top and branch prunings are then fed to animals
 Live Fence-Trees or shrubs with foliage which are palatable to livestock are grown around a
certain grassland area to enclose the grazing animals. Aside from the trees' role as live fence,
they can be managed (e.g., regular top pruning to encourage more lateral branching) such
that the enclosed animals can browse on the low-lying branches for fodder supplement.
 Hedgerow Planting of Improved Pasture Grasses and/or other Fodder Trees or
Shrubs-Hedgerows of fodder trees or shrubs (e.g., D. rensonii, L. leucocephala, G. sepium,
Flemingia congesta, Sesbania sp., etc.) are planted along contours at certain intervals. The
strips between the hedgerows are grown with improved pasture grasses and/or other fodder
shrubs. Prunings from the hedgerows, grasses, and fodder trees/shrubs are fed to confined
animals. An example is the Simple Agrolivestock Technology (SALT 2) developed by the
Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center (MBRLC) at Bansalan, Davao del Sur.
3. Agrisilvipastoral System -Agrisilvipastoral system is the combination of agricultural crops,

woody perennials, and livestock. This system includes: silvipastoral, multistorey + animals,
and alleycropping with pasture grasses and agricultural crops.
 Agricultural System Transformed to Silvipastoral-In this system, the initial cropping

combinations include tree seedlings and annual agricultural crops as in the taungya system. As
the trees grow and close their canopies, it will no longer be possible to grow annual
agricultural crops. Instead, shade-tolerant grasses and vines will take over the forest floor
where animals are allowed to graze freely as in livestock-under-tree system

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Multistorey + Animals-This is similar to the multistorey under agrisilvicultural system,

except that in this case, grazing animals are an added component. A good example is the
coconut-lanzones mixture, with horses (or cattle) grazing under them as observed in Laguna
and Quezon provinces
 Alleycropping with Pasture Grasses and Agricultural Crops-This is similar to hedgerow
cropping with pasture grasses. However, instead of all alleys planted to agricultural crops,
some alleys in between the hedgerows are grown with improved pasture grasses and/or
fodder trees or shrubs which are regularly cut and fed to livestock
COMPONENT AGROFORESTRY TECHNOLOGIES
Soil and Water Conservation Measures

Among the priority areas to consider in the practice of agroforestry is the harmonious balance
between food production and environmental protection. Soil and water conservation is an important
strategy for sustainable crop production and environmental conservation. The following technologies
for soil and water conservation are recommended for any agroforestry system.
Vegetative Measures
 Hedgerows. This is a collective name for strips of vegetation planted along the contours or
across the hill- or mountainside in order to slow down the flow of surface runoff and the
movement of detached soil particles. Construction and layout of the hedgerows are discussed
under the alley cropping system of previous sections.
 Fascines. These are simply bundles of long and dense brushwood. For soil/slope stabilization,
the fascines can have a diameter of 25-30 cm and a length of 1-1.5 m. They can weigh as
much as 14 kg which can be quite handy to transport.
 Wattling. This consists of stems/rods of sprouting species like sunflower, 'lantana' (Lantana
camara), and 'binatang hambog' (Hibiscus schizopetalus) interwoven together.
Mechanical/Structural Measures-In cases where vegetation cannot be immediately established,

mechanical/structural measures are recommended to control soil movement or erosion. There are
different types of such measures, but the following are recommended in agroforestry farms: bench
terracing, contour levee, contour canals/trenches, and small farm reservoir. These are on-farm soil
and water conservation measures.
 Bench terracing. This consists of building level or nearly level strips along contours at
appropriate intervals. This terracing technology is suitable for steep slopes up to 55% to
reduce surface flow and soils erosion, as well as to increase the soil infiltration rate.
 Contour levee. This is an embankment made either of grasses, stones or hard soil mass, or a
combination of these materials.
 Contour canal/ditch. The canal/ditch is dug along the contour line and connected to a
natural waterway to carry away excess water.
 Small farm reservoir. This involves the construction of small dams to collect water from
rainfall and runoff from the watershed. Small farm reservoir (SFR) can then be used as source
of water for annual crops and animals. This small dam can also be used for aquaculture
Soil Fertility Maintenance/Improvement-The ultimate objective of soil conservation is to maintain

the soil's ability to support plant growth for crop production purposes and to enable it to sustain high
yields. Thus, the effectivity of any soil conservation practice should be measured in terms of its ability
to maintain soil fertility and productivity.
Fertilizers can either be in organic or inorganic form. Both have been used quite extensively and
intensively in agriculture to the point that fertilizer in any form has become almost a necessary
production input. Chemical fertilizers are prohibitively expensive and some negative effects on the
chemical characteristics of the soil have been reported. Thus, use of organic materials and integrated
nutrient management (INM) strategies are recommended

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cultural Management for Perennials (Fruits and Plantation Crops)- Plants can be propagated
either by crop rotation, relay cropping, mulching, and cover cropping by seeds (sexual), or by cuttings
(asexual). Seed propagation is generally cheap and simple. One can have several seeds as planting
materials especially during harvesting season. When the recommended variety of the crop is a hybrid,
seeds are used as planting materials. Examples are hybrids of coconut and cacao. In some crops,
commercial propagation can only be done by using seeds as in papaya. However, reproduction from
seeds results in plants that are not true-to-type, especially those coming from cross-pollinated crops
like robusta coffee and coconut, among other things.
HILLY LAND FARMING
 Hilly land or sloping uplands are of rugged terrain with 18% slope or greater and in elevations
ranging from near sea level to about 1000m. these are prone to excessive soil erosion and
productivity is limited unless conservation measures are observed and practiced
Systems of hillyland farming
 Contour hegdrows and alley cropping system

 Contour bunding with hedgrows
 Hedgerows planting on terraced sloped
 Grass strips as contour vegetative barriers for soil erosions.
Cropping Systems for Hilly Areas
Harold R. Watson and Warlito A. Laquihon of the Baptists Rural life Center at Bansalan Davao del Sur
developed a cropping system for hilly areas. They termed it SALT ( Sloping Agricultural Land
Technology ) which won a 1985 TOYM award for Watson. The system can prevent soil erosion,
improves soil fertility and provides a continuous income from diverse crops planted on the hilly land
Basically, the SALT method involves planting field crops and perennial crops in bands 3-5 m wide
between double rows of nitrogen fixing shrubs and trees planted along the contour. These minimizes
soil erosion and maintain the fertility of the soil. Field crops include legumes, cereals and vegetables,
while the main perennial crops are cacao, coffee, banana, citrus and fruit trees
SALT help considerably in the establishment of a stable ecosystem. The double hedgerows of
leguminous shrubs or trees prevent soil erosions. Their branches are cut very 30-45 days and
incorporated back into the soil to improve its fertility
The crop provides permanent vegetative cover which aids the conservation of both water and soil. The
legumes and the perennials crops maintain soil and air temperatures at levels favorable for enhanced
growth of the different agricultural crops.
In the Philippines, the reccommded hedgerow species used in SALT are Flemingia macrophylla,
Desmodium rensonii, Gliciridia sepium, Leucaena diversifola, and Callindra calothyrsus
The ten steps of SALT are as follows
1) Making the A-frame

2) Determining the contour line
3) Cultivating the contour line
4) Planting seeds of different nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs
5) Cultivating alternate strips
6) Planting permanent crops
7) Planting short-term crops
8) Trimming of nitrogen-fixing trees
9) Practicing crop rotation
10) Building green terraces
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The SALT 2 technology was developed for small-scale low-income farmers on slopeland in tropical
Asia, combines crop production with the raising of small livestock, in this case dairy goat. A farm of
only one half hectare is divided into two parts, one for forage crops, and the other for food and cash
crops. Livestock are fed on the forage crops, mainly leguminous shrubs, which are planted in
hedgerows along the contour and around the boundary of the farm. Twelve does raised under this
system for dairy provided an annual net farm income of more then $1,000
THE SALT SYSTEM
SALT is a package technology on soil conservation and food production, integrating different soil
conservation measures in just one setting. Basically, SALT is a method of growing field and permanent
crops in 3-m to 5-m-wide bands between contoured rows of nitrogen fixing trees. The nitrogen fixing
trees are thickly planted in double rows to make hedgerows. When a hedge is 1.5 to 2 m tall, it is cut
down to about 75 cm and the cuttings (tops) are placed in alley-ways to serve as organic fertilizers.
SALT: An Agroforestry Scheme
SALT is a diversified farming system which can be considered agroforestry since rows of permanent
shrubs like coffee, cacao, citrus and other fruit trees are dispersed throughout the farm plot. The
strips not occupied by permanent crops, however, are planted alternately to cereals (corn, upland rice,
sorghum, etc.) or other crops (sweet potato, melon, pineapple, castor bean, etc.) and legumes
(soybean, mung bean, peanut, etc.). This cyclical cropping provides the farmer some harvest
throughout the year. SALT also includes planting of trees for timber and firewood on surrounding
boundaries. Examples of tree species for "boundary forestry" in SALT are mahoganies, casuarinas,
sesbanias, cashew nuts, pili nuts, etc.
History of SALT
SALT was developed on a marginal site in Kinuskusan, Bansalan, Davao del Sur by the Mindanao
Baptist Rural Life Center (MBRLC). In 1971, MBRLC started to employ contour terraces in its sloping
areas. Dialogues with local upland farmers acquainted the Center with farm problems and needs which
gave the Center the impetus to work out a relevant and appropriate upland farming system.
From testing different intercropping schemes and observing ipil-ipil-based farming systems in Hawaii
and at the Center, the SALT was finally verified and completed in 1978. While it was still in the
developing stage, the following guidelines were considered essential. The system must:
 adequately control soil erosion,

 help restore soil structure and fertility,
 be efficient in food crop production,
 be applicable to at least 50 percent of hillside farms,
 be easily duplicated by upland farmers with the use of local resources and preferably without
making loans,
 be culturally acceptable,
 have the small farmer as the focus and food production as the top priority,
 be workable in a relatively short time,
 require minimal labor, and
 be economically feasible.
In 1978 a hectare of land was selected as a test site at the Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center. It was
typical of the surrounding farms: slope steeper than 15 degrees, had been farmed for five years or
more, and had soils similar to those of most farms in the area. Contour lines were established
carefully with the aid of an A-frame and planting of hedgerows and permanent crops was begun.
Advantages of SALT
The advantages of SALT are that it is a simple, applicable, low-cost, and timely method of farming
uplands. It is a technology developed for Asian farmers with few tools, little capital, and little learning
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROP SCIENCE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
in agriculture. Contour lines are run by using an A-frame transit that any farmer can learn to make
and use. A farmer can grow varieties of crops he is familiar with and old farming patterns can be
utilized in the SALT system.
If farmers leave the SALT farm, like some tribal groups do, the nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs
(NFTS) will continue to grow and overshadow the crop area. By the time the land is reverted to
cultivation, the soil has been enriched already by the large amount of NFTS leaves and there is no
erosion to contend with. In addition, the trees may be harvested for firewood or charcoal.
Various Forms of SALT
There are several forms of SALT, and a farmer may wish to use the SALT system in several variations.
Simple Agro-Livestock Land Technology (SALT 2), Sustainable Agroforest Land Technology (SALT 3)
and Small Agrofruit Livelihood Technology (SALT 4) are three variations of SALT that have been
developed at the Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center.
SALT 2 (Simple Agro-Livestock Land Technology) is a small livestock-based agroforestry

preferably dairy goats with a land use of 40% for agriculture, 20% for forestry and 40% for livestock.
As in a conventional SALT project, hedgerows of different nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs are
established on the contour lines. The manure from the animals is utilized as fertilizer both for
agricultural crops and the forage crops.
SALT 3 (Sustainable Agroforest Land Technology) is a cropping system in which a farmer can
incorporate food production, fruit production, and forest trees that can be marketed. The farmer first
develops a conventional SALT project to produce food for his family and possibly food for livestock. On
another area of land he can plant fruit trees such as rambutan, durian, and lanzones between the
contour lines. The plants in the hedgerows will be cut and piled around the fruit trees for fertilizer and
soil conservation purposes. A small forest of about one hectare will be developed in which trees of
different species may be grown for firewood and charcoal for short-range production. Other species
that would produce wood and building materials may be grown for medium and long-range
production. Other species that would produce wood and building materials may be grown for medium
and long-range production. In some areas where the soil is too steep for row crops, contour lines may
be established two or three meters apart and planted with flemingia or some other hedgerow species,
and in between the hedgerows coffee, cacao, calamansi or other permanent crops could be planted.
SALT 4 (Small Agrofruit Livelihood Technology) is based on half-a-hectare of sloping land with
2/3 devoted to fruit trees and 1/3 intended for food crops. Hedgerows of different nitrogen-fixing trees
and shrubs (Flemingia macrophylla, Desmodium rensonii, and Gliricidia sepium, etc.) are planted
along the contours of the farm.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
PCARRD 2003. Agroforestry and multipurpose trees and shrubs R&D team, 2003. R&D Status and
Directions (2000 and beyond): Agroforestry and multipurpose trees and shrubs, PCARRD, Los Baños,
Laguna, 45p.
LANTICAN R. 2001. The Science and Practice of Crop Production. SEAMEA SEARCA, UPLB.
END OF REVIEW MATERIAL IN FARMING SYSTEM AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Farming Systems and Sustainable Agriculture PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Farming Systems and Sustainable Agriculture PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FARMING SYSTEMS AND

FARMING SYSTEMS AND

FARM AND FARMING SYSTEM AND ITS CLASSIFICATION

These are Classified as:

MIXED FARMING AND ITS RELATED TERMS

 Mixed Farming:Mixed farming is defined as a system of farming on a particular farm which

CLASSIFICATION OF FARMING SYSTEMS

A) According to the Size of the Farm:

B) According to the Proportion of Land, Labour and Capital Investment:

C) According to the Value of Products or Income or on the basis of Comparative

D) According to the Water Supply:

II) Intensity of the Rotation:

F) Classification According to Degree of Commercialization:

G) Classification According to Degree of Nomadic:

H) Classification According to Cropping and Animal Activities

I) Classification According to Implements Used for Cultivation:

SCOPE OF FARMING SYSTEM:

Integration of Farm Enterprises Depends on Any Factors Such as:

1. Soil and climatic features of the selected area.

Classification of farming systems- according to size of farm

According to the size of the farm:

 Intensive cultivation is possible

 Cost of production per unit is more

REVIEW FOR LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURIST 4

Classification of Farming Systems- According to Production of Land

According to Production of Land, Labour and Capital Investment:

 Bring more land under cultivation

REVIEW FOR LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURIST 5

According to the Value of Products or Income or on the basis of Comparative Advantages

9. Best use of all equipments.

1. Indigenous method of cultivation is used till now.

Required of Mixed Farming:

 Complicated management practices.

Ranching and Dry Farming

Dry Farming Involves the Adoption of the Following Practices:

Classification of Farming System-According to Water Supply

According to the Water Supply:

Characteristics of Rain Fed Farming:

Principles of relevant components of environmentally sustainable farming systems should include.

a. The round the year cropping pattern becomes possible.

Classification According to Type of Rotation

According to Type of rotations:

REVIEW FOR LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURIST 8

Classification According to Degree of Commercialization

a. Commercialized Farming: More than 50% of the produce is for sale.

a. Utilizing productive resources profitably.

a. Fails to adopt improved crop cultivation technique do to small holding.

Classification According to Degree of Nomadic, Cropping pattern and Implements

1. Classification according to degree of nomadic:

2. Classification According to Cropping Pattern and Animal Activities:

3. Classification According to Implements Used for Cultivation:

a. Spade farming: manual labour is used.

OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF FARMING SYSTEM

REVIEW FOR LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURIST 10

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE-Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals--environmental

A systems perspective is essential to understanding sustainability. The system is envisioned in its

REVIEW FOR LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURIST 11

Farming and Natural Resources

Energy. Modern agriculture is heavily dependent on non-renewable energy sources, especially

Plant Production Practices

Soil management. A common philosophy among sustainable agriculture practitioners is that a

Reproduction. Use of quality germplasm to improve herd performance is another key to