PERSONALITY &

PERSONALITY THEORIES
 WHAT IS PERSONALITY?
• Comes from the Latin work “per” and “sonare” which means
to sound through.

• Is sometimes defined as person’s public self, what s/he selects

to display to the world (Jung’s concept of persona)

• Most personality theories agree that personality can be

described in terms of consistent behavior patterns. The
tendency to respond consistently to various situations is what
gives a person identity.
PERSONALITY Psychic qualities:
temperament, traits, mode
of reaction and character
Totality of
individual.

Stable and enduring

organization of a
Unique
person’s character,
constellation of
temperament,
consistent
intellect, physique –
behavioral traits
determines his/her
unique adjustment to
his/her env’t.
 ERRONEOUS METHODS OF
ASSESSING PERSONALITY/BEHAVIOR
First impression – it gives people a clue to the pattern of the observed
individual. They then brand that person as a certain “personality type”
and ascribe to him/her supposed characteristics of that type.

Maybe used on physical appearance, facial features or expressions,

mannerisms, style of dressing, name, nationality, race, what a person
says and how it is said, what one does and how it is done, or some
other physical or physiological characteristics which is identified in the
mind of the observer with a certain kind of personality type or
stereotype (ex: “I can see your voice”)
 ERRONEOUS METHODS OF
ASSESSING PERSONALITY/BEHAVIOR
Pseudo-scientific methods

Physiognomy – method of
judging personality through
the measurement and
study of person’s physical
features – facial features
 ERRONEOUS METHODS OF
ASSESSING PERSONALITY/BEHAVIOR
Pseudo-scientific
methods

b. Phrenology –
personality is judged by
the size and shape of
the skull
 ERRONEOUS METHODS OF
ASSESSING PERSONALITY/BEHAVIOR
Pseudo-scientific methods

c. Graphology – uses a
person’s handwriting to know
his or her personality. General
penmanship and the way a
letter is formed have a
corresponding personality
characteristic
STAGES OF PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
Each individual is born into this complex world

The newborn child depends upon the adults for protection

and survival.

As years go on this individual is transformed from a biological

infant into a bio-psycho-social adult.

S/he becomes an integral part of a world which s/he cannot

understand and is forced to establish and maintain balance of
equilibrium between this social environment
Growth and development are not synonymous
but are closely interrelated process directed by
both:

GENETIC

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Sometimes changes in growth and development

are more obvious in some periods than in others
 LIFE IN THE UTERUS
The relationship between the mother and the unborn
child is made possible and mediated through the semi-
permeable membranes of the placenta, where there is a
continuous interchange of chemical substances and gases
day and night

“intrauterine development also depends upon countless

biological interactions within the embryo and fetus itself ”
Cameron
 LIFE IN THE UTERUS
Anxiety, tension and feelings of rejection during
pregnancy (esp with unwed mothers) is attributed to
be one of the causes of unhealthy psychological
development of the child.

These children are noted to be “cry babies”, shy

toddlers, insecure adolescent and immature adults.
 BIRTH
Birth expels the unborn child from the warm, dark water of the uterus
into a wide space

He is exposed to light and cold, breathes in air, lies in hard surface, is

carried and put down, handled and moved in unfamiliar ways

He experiences hunger, and learns to fill himself.

He learns that in order to get food, he must grasp a nipple in his lips, learn
the art of sucking and swallowing while he breathes.

To the child, this means work, discomfort, emptiness, pain.

 INFANCY
Infancy is the beginning of the individual’s existence in this world.

Infancy is the time when the fetus adjust to life outside the
uterine walls of the mother where it has lived approximately 9
months

The adjustment of the fetus is completed when the fall of the

umbilical cord from the navel (medical experts); it is completed
when the infant begins to show signs of developmental progress
in behavior (psychological experts
 INFANCY -SUBDIVIDED IN 2
1. Period of Partunate (from birth to 30 minutes after
birth)

This is the period when the fetal body has emerged

from the mother’s body and last until the umbilical cord
has been cut and tied.

Before this the infant is parasite and cannot adjust to the

new environment outside the mother’s body.
 INFANCY -SUBDIVIDED IN 2
Period of the Neonate (time from cutting and tying
of the umbilical cord to approximately the end of
the second week of postnatal life)

The infant is not separate, independent

 BABYHOOD
First 2 years of life after infancy

• Gradual but pronounced decrease in helplessness

• Individual becomes independent

• Age of increased individuality, beginning of socialization and of

creativity.

• Foundations upon which the adult personality structure will be

built is laid.
 CHILDHOOD
Child still helpless

Marked physical and psychological changes start at the age of 2

Parents call this problem age, troublesome age, pre-school age

Children are inquisitive – questioning age

Imitation and creativity

Physical development of the child – muscles, teeth and molars erupt

 ADOLESCENCE
Age when the individual becomes integrated into the
society of adults

Developmental task is focused on the development of

independence as a preparation for adulthood.

Establishment of identify

Time of experimentation and testing of lifestyles and roles

 ADOLESCENCE
• Age of maturing

• Appearance

• Sex appropriateness

• Names, nicknames

• Peers

• Creativity

• Family relationship

• Academic competence
 ADULTHOOD
Commitment and sense of identity made and
established

Moves from period of exploration to stabilization

Problem of obesity, it is a health risk related to heart

disease, diabetes, arthritis , stroke
 ADULTHOOD
A normal development process that occurs
throughout the lifespan causing a progressive
decrease in functional capabilities.
HUMAN BEHAVIOR THEORIES
 Over 250 theories of human behavior
and therapy compete for attention in the
marketplace of ideas and practice

Ivey, Ivey & Downing, 1987

 MAJOR THEORETICAL
APPROCHES/SCHOOLS
1. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES

2. COGNITIVE-BEHAVIOR THEORIES

3. HUMANISTIC - EXISTENTIAL THEORIES

 THE IMPORTANCE OF THEORY

• THEORY IS IMPORTANT, in social work and social

work education for a number of reasons:
• THEORY IS THE MARK OF A PROFESSION;
• THEORY CAN ENSURE ACCOUNTABILITY;
• THEORY CAN HELP AVOID DISCRIMINATION;
• THEORY PROVIDES A WAY OF MAKING
SENSE OF COMPLEXITY AND UNCERTAINTY

26
 HOW THEORIES - 3 DIFFERENT
POSSIBILITIES
CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK

Theories OF Theories FOR

Social Work Social work

Orienting Practice
theories Frameworks

Practice Practice Practice

Perspectives Theories Models

27
Theories of social work
Focus on the profession and explain its purpose, domain, and character within the
society. They describe what the profession is all about and why it functions as it
does.
Theories for social work
Focus on clients and helping activities. They explain human behaviors, the social
environment, how change occurs and how change can be facilitated by the social
worker in order to benefit

28
 Orienting Theories
Orienting theories describe
and explain behavior and
how and why certain
problems develop. They
provide important
background knowledge and
are usually borrowed from
other disciplines such as
biology, psychology,
sociology, economics,
cultural anthropology and
the like. Examples include
the various theories related
to human development,
personality, family systems,
socialization, organizational
functioning, and political
power, as well as theories
related to specific types of
problems as such poverty,
family violence, mental
illness, teen pregnancy,
crime and racial
discrimination
Practice Perspectives Practice Frameworks
This is a particular way of
viewing and thinking about Practice Theory
practice. It is a conceptual lens If offers both an explanation of
through which one views social certain behaviors or situations
functioning and if offers very and guidance on how they can
broad guidance on what maybe be changed. A practice theory
important considerations in a serves as a road map for bringing
practice situation. Like a about a certain type of change.
camera lens, a perspective serves Most practice theories are rooted
to focus on or magnify a in one or more orienting
particular feature. Two theories. An example is
perspectives, the general systems psychosocial therapy, which is
perspective and the ecosystems based primarily on
perspective, are commonly used psychodynamic theory and ego
psychology. Another is behavior
in assessing relationships
therapy, which is derived from
between people and their
the psychology of learning
environment.
Practice Model
Practice Model is a set of concepts and principles used to guide
intervention activities. The term model is also used when referring
to a conceptual framework that is borrowed from one field and
applied in another, for example, the medical model (study, diagnose,
treat) and the legal model (an approach to social action and client
advocacy involving competition and conflict among adversaries
29
4 5 10
Ecological System Family Life Cycle Object Relations Theory
Theory Theory Margaret Mahlen, Otto Kemberg
Urie Bronfenbrenner
11
6 Socio-Cultural Theory
3 Crisis Psychodynamic Theory
Sigmund Freud Eric Erickson Lev Vygotsky
Theory Thomas Scheff
B. Gililand & R.James
L.G. & H.J. Parad 7 12
Family Systems
Situation Focused
Strategic Therapy
Therapy (model)
2 Cognitive (Model)
Theories 13
8
Alfred Adler Empowerment Structural Family
Jean Piaget
Theory Therapy
1 E. Cox & L. Gutierrez Murray Bowen, Virginia Satir
P. Chatterjee & S. P. Robbins
Behavioral
Theories 9
B.F. Skinner Humanistic (Existential/ Social Work
Ivan Pavlov Transpersonal)
Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,
Carl Jung
Theories
30
PERSONALITY THEORIES
PSYCHOANALYTIC /PSYCHODYNAMIC
THEORY
SIGMUND FREUD
 PSYCHOANALYSIS
Developed by Sigmund Freud through his clinical work with
patients suffering from mental illness

Freud came to believe that childhood experiences and

UNCONSCIOUS desires influenced behavior.

- “conflicts that occur during each of these stages can have a

lifelong influence on personality and behavior

The Past: Current problems stem from unresolved issues that

occurred in early childhood.
 PSYCHOANALYSIS
Freud proposed one of the best-known grand theories
of child development

1. PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY - child development

occurs in a series of stages focused on different
pleasure areas of the body.

2. During each stage, the child encounters conflicts that

play a significant role in the course of development
 PSYCHOANALYSIS
3. energy of the libido was focused on different erogenous `ones at specific stage.

4. Failure to progress through a stage can result in a fixation at that point in

development, which could have an influence on adult behavior.

5. Successfully completing each stage leads to the development of a healthy adult

personality

6. Failing to resolve the conflicts of a particular stage can result in FIXATIONS that
can then have an influence on adult behavior

7. Through free associations, dreams or fantasies, clients can learn how to interpret
deeply buried memories or experiences that may be causing them distress
 PSYCHOANALYSIS
1. A school of psychology

2. A form of psychotherapy – psychoanalysis through free association

transference

3. Stages of psychosexual development

4. Structure of the mind – id, ego, superego

5. Dynamics of personality – tension reduction model

6. Instincts
 THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND
A reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that
are outside of our conscious awareness.

Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable

or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.

According to Freud, the unconscious continues to

influence our behavior and experience, even though we
are unaware of these underlying influences.
STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
ID
Consists of everything that
is psychological, including
instincts – in close touch
with bodily processes
Follows the pleasure
principle
To obtain pleasure/reduce
pain, it operates through
reflex action and primary
process – mental image;
when desired image is
present, it is a wish
fulfillment
Only knows Subjective
reality; interested only
whether experiences
painful or pleasurable
EGO SUPEREGO
-Comes to exist due to Developed by
need to negotiate needs of interpretation/enforcement
organism and objective of traditional values of
world of reality ideals of society by
parents
Adheres to reality principle Adheres to moral
standards
Operates on secondary As moral arbiter – uses
process by suspending punishment/rewards/
temporary pleasure until introjection – conscience
an appropriate object is (guilt); ego-ideal (rewards)
found/means to secure it.
Realistic thinking
Asks whether an external Its formation brings about
existence is present of not. self-control
Asks whether experience
is true of false
 STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
ID
Functions as the reservoir
of instincts – inborn forces
with characteristics that
are both physical (bodily
needs) & psychological
(wishes)
EGO SUPEREGO
Ego-perceives, mediates, Inhibits impulses of id
integrates, and executes (aggressive/sexual)
through reality-testing
Psychological component Substitutes with moralistic
goals
Strives for perfection
 DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY
• A Tension-reduction model – biologically based
th
• Freud guided by strongly deterministic/positivistic philosophy of 19 century regarded the
human organism as a complex energy system which therefore used physical laws by
transposing psychological activity as psychic energy.

• He advanced that the dynamics of personality is based in instincts (sum total of energy
available to personality). It consists of the way psychic energy is distributed by the id, ego,
superego.

• Four characteristics features of an instinct: SOURCE, AIM, OBJECT, IMPETUS

• ID is the reservoir of instincts (an inborn psychological representation of a bodily source of

excitation) – regressive (return to prior state); conservative (aims to conserve equilibrium)
 EGO
A coherent organization of mental processes that develops out of id energy

Has access to consciousness

Devoted to contacting reality for the purpose of satisfying id need

Strives to adapt personality to the world outside itself

Has the task of satisfying ID needs in manner that promotes self-preservation

Operates according to reality principle – has the capacity to delay satisfaction

of id’s demands until an appropriate object is found that will allow gratification
without harmful side effects.
 EGO
To maximize anxiety, ego calls upon various
defense mechanisms – these are internal,
unconscious and automatic psychological strategies
for coping with or regaining control over
threatening urges or ideas from reaching conscious
awareness.
 SUPEREGO
The representation of society in personality that
incorporates the norms and standards of the
surrounding culture

Operates according to a morality principle – a code

that concerns society’s values regarding right and wrong
 SUPEREGO
• Subsystem of superego

• Conscience – an aspect of function of the superego – acts as the internal

agent that punishes people when they do wrong

• Results from experience of punishment for improper behavior

• Guilt – function of conscience

• Ego ideal – experience with reward for proper behavior; inferiority feelings
stems from ego-ideal

• Feelings of inferiority arise when the ego is unable to meet superego’s

standard of perfection
COMPARISON OF FREUD’S 3 SYSTEMS OF
PERSONALITY
COMPARISONS OF FREUD’S 3 SYSTEMS OF
PERSONALITY
id Ego Superego

Nature Represents biological Represents Represents societal

aspect psychological aspect aspect

Contribution instinct Self conscience

Time orientation Immediate present present Past

Level unconscious Conscious & Conscious &

unconscious unconscious
Principle pleasure Reality morality
Purpose Seek pleasure avoid Adapt to reality Represent right and
pain Know true and false wrong

Aim Immediate Safety & compromise Perfection

EROS

THANATOS
What happens when the ego cannot deal with the
demands of our desires, the constraints of reality, and
our own moral standards?

According to Freud, we develop ANXIETY

Anxiety acts as signal to the ego that things are not

going right.
 TYPES OF ANXIETY
Threatened person is a ‘fearful person; excessive stimulation produces anxiety which are of 3 types:

1. REALITY ANXIETY – fear of real danger in the real world. From it are derived 2 other types:

2. NEUROTIC ANXIETY – fear that the instincts will get out of control, for which the personal will
get punished for his/her instinct gratifications;

3. MORAL ANXIETY – fear of conscience; a feeling of guilt for having done something contrary to
the moral code.

Function of anxiety – a state of tension to arouse the ego to do something through appropriate/
effective measures.

IDENTIFICATION and DISPLACEMENT are 2 methods by which the individual learns to resolve
frustrations, conflicts, and anxieties.
 EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS
In order to deal with anxiety, Freud believed that
DEFENSE MECHANISMS helped shield the ego
from the conflicts created by the id, superego and
reality

Anna Freud, Sigmund Freud’s daughter, described 10

different defense mechanisms used by the ego.
 EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS
One of the ego’s biggest tasks is to avoid or reduce anxiety. The Ego Defense Mechanisms
to battle against anxiety

• Unconscious

• They falsify or distort reality

• Functions:

• To protect the ego

• To minimize anxiety and distress

Outright refusal to admit or recognize that something has occurred or is currently

occurring.
 putting something into a different light or offering a
different explanation for one’s perceptions or behaviors
in the face of a changing reality.

Ex: a person who is turned down for a date might

rationalize the situation by saying they were not
attracted to the other person, anyway, or a student might
blame a poor exam score on the instructor rather than
his/her lack of preparation
 RATIONALIZATION
A defense mechanism that involves
explaining unacceptable behavior or
feeling in a rational or logical manner,
avoiding the true reasons for the
behavior
the attempt to take back an
unconscious behavior or thought that is
unacceptable or hurtful.
UNDOING
Consciously holding back unwanted
urges
SUPPRESSION
overemphasis on thinking when confronted with an
unacceptable impulse, situation or behavior without
employing any emotions whatsoever to help mediate and
place the thoughts into an emotional, human context.

Ex: a person who has just been diagnosed with a

terminal illness might focus on learning everything about
the disease in order to avoid distress and remain distant
from the reality of the situation
 INTELLECTUALIZATION
Works to reduce anxiety by thinking about
events in a cold, clinical way

This defense mechanism allows us to avoid

thinking about the stressful, emotional
aspect of the situation and instead focus
only on the intellectual component.
simply the channeling of
unacceptable impulses, thoughts
and emotions into more
acceptable ones.
SUBLIMATION
the redirecting of thoughts feelings and
impulses directed at one person or object,
but taken out upon another person or object.
People often use displacement when they
cannot express their feelings in a safe manner
to the person they are directed at.
 DISPLACEMENT
Involves taking out our frustrations, feelings and
impulses on people or objects that are less threatening

Rather than express our anger in ways that could lead

to negative consequences (like arguing with our boss),
we instead express our anger towards a person or
object that poses no threat (such as our spouses,
children or pets)
not coping - giving in to the pressure to
misbehave. 'Acting out' means literally
means acting out the desires that are
forbidden by the Super ego and yet desired
by the Id.
ACTING OUT
a process of psychologically counterbalancing
perceived weaknesses by emphasizing
strength in other arenas. By emphasizing and
focusing on one’s strengths, a person is
recognizing they cannot be strong at all
things and in all areas in their lives.
 COMPENSATION

Overachieving in one area to

compensate for failures in
another
mentally or physically avoiding
something that causes distress.
AVOIDANCE
refusing to acknowledge that an
event has occurred.
 DENIAL
Probably one of the best known DM, used often to describe
situations in which people seem unable to face reality or
admit ad obvious truth (i.e. “He’s in denial”.)

An outright refusal to admit or recognize that something has

occurred or is currently occurring

Drug addicts or alcoholics often deny that they have a

problem, while victims of traumatic events may deny that the
event ever occurred.
copying others to take on their
characteristics.
IDENTIFICATION
seeing your own unwanted feelings
in other people.

You have a strong dislike for

someone, you might instead believe
that he or she does not like you
 PROJECTION
A defense mechanism that involves
taking our own unacceptable
qualities or feelings and ascribing
them to other people
avoiding something by taking a polar
opposite position.

Treating someone you strongly dislike

in an excessively friendly manner in
order to hide your true feelings.
 REACTION FORMATION
Reduces anxiety by taking up the
opposite feeling, impulse or
behavior.
returning to a child state to avoid problems.

Ex: an individual fixated at an earlier developmental stage

might cry or sulk upon hearing unpleasant news

An individual fixated at the oral stage, might begin eating or

smoking excessively, or might become very verbally aggressive

A fixation at the anal stage might result in excessive tidiness

or missiness
 REGRESSION
when confronted by stressful events,
people sometimes abandon coping
strategies and revert to patterns of
behavior used earlier in development.
subconsciously hiding uncomfortable
thoughts.
 REPRESSION
Acts to keep information out of conscious awareness. However,
these memories don’t just disappear, they continue to influence
our behavior. For ex. a person who has repressed memories of
abuse suffered as a child may later have difficulty forming
relationships

Sometimes we do this consciously by forcing the unwanted

information out of our awareness, which is known as
SUPPRESSION, but it is usually believed to occur unconsciously
a person experiencing extreme anger
might take up kick-boxing as a means
of venting frustration.
 SUBLIMATION
Is a defense mechanism that allows us to act
out unacceptable impulses by converting
these behaviors into a more acceptable form

Freud believed that sublimation was a sign of

maturity that allows people to function
normally in socially acceptable ways.
 OTHER DEFENSE
MECHANISMS
AFFILIATION - involves turning to
other people for support.

ALTRUISM - Satisfying internal needs

through helping others
 OTHER DEFENSE
MECHANISMS
HUMOR - pointing out the funny or
ironic aspects of a situation
While all defense mechanisms can be
unhealthy, they can also be adaptive
and allow us to function normally

The greatest problems arise when

defense mechanisms are overused in
order to avoid dealing with problems
 STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL
DEVELOPMENT
Freud underscored the importance of the first 5-6 years of life as crucial to
adult personality formation.

Freud believed every child goes through a sequence of developmental stages

Child’s experiences during these stages determine adult personality

characteristics

Person’ personality is established – age 5

To make smooth transition from one stage to the next, the child must not be
over gratified or under gratified – can lead to either fixation or regression
 STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL
DEVELOPMENT
Stage Characteristics

1 Oral Stage Birth to

Mouth is the principal source of pleasure – lips/inner cavity
Complete dependence on mother for nutrition/protection,
sucking, biting are 2 phases
Gullibility, dependency, oral aggressiveness may result if
the stage is not properly gratified

2 Anal Stage Urether/Anus become erogenous zone.

Child meets external regulation of instinctual relief of
pleasure. May hold back (retentive) – obstinate, stingy. May
expel inappropriately – messy, disorderly, destructive. If
praised for producing feces, may be basis for creativity/
productivity.
3 Phallic Stage 3-5 years
Family triangle
Oedipal/Electra complex occurs
(boy) castration fear;
(girl) penis envy
Unconscious incestuous feelings are felt toward parent of
the opposite sex.
Masturbation or genital organs/fantasy life occurs
Sexual identification/conscious appear.
4 Latency 6 – 12 latency
Directed to same sex, school, work, hobbies
Genital Stage 12 years old - adulthood
Narcissistic pleasure from stimulation/manipulation of own
body are transferred to a love of others (to the same sex/
different sex.
Becomes reality-oriented, a socialized adult,; seeks out
object relations, generally acceding to societal expectations
of heterosexual relationships and marriage.
FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Stages Ages Zones Activities Tasks

Oral 0-1 Mouth Sucking/bitin Weaning

g
Anal 2-3 Anus Expelling/ret Toilet training
aining

Phallic 4-5 Penis/ Masturbating Identifying with adult role

clitoris models; coping with oedipal
crisis

Latency 6-12 (sexual Repressing Transforming; expanding

ly social contacts
repres
 when fixated
•  ORAL – PASSIVE CHARACTER –
describes as dependent to others. They
often retain even to excessive eating,
drinking and smoking. They are seeking
the pleasure they missed in infancy.
•  ORAL- AGGRESSIVE PERSONALITY
– when we begin teething, one satisfying
thing to do when you are teething is to
bite on something like mommy’s nipple.
If this precipitates an early weaning, one
may develop this verbally aggressive,
argumentative, sarcastic personality.
ANAL- EXPULSIVE PERSONALITY – some
parents put themselves at the child’s mercy in
the process of toilet training. They beg, they
cajole, they show great joy when one does it
right, they act as though their hearts were
broken when the child does it right. The child is
the king of the house. These people maybe
cruel, destructive and given to vandalism.

ANAL RETENTIVE PERSONALITY – when

parents are strict. They maybe competing with
their neighbors and relatives as to whom can
potty train their child first (early potty training
being associated with great minds).These
people are turned out to be clean, perfectionist,
dictatorial and stubborn.
 PSYCHOANALYTIC
TECHNIQUES
•  Free Association (Talking therapy)
•  Individual reports immediately without censoring
any feelings or thoughts
•  Interpretation
•  Counselor points out, explains, and teaches the
meanings of whatever is revealed
•  Dream Analysis
•  Dreams are the “royal road to the unconscious”
•  Dreams can be productively worked with in a
group setting
•  Client can share and explore dreams during the
counseling session
•  Influence of the past
•  Experiences of first 6 years of life are critical
•  The Unconscious
•  Thoughts, feelings, experience kept out of
awareness
•  Anxiety and ego defenses
•  Dynamics of anxiety are related to concept of
defense
•  Resistance
•  Unique meaning of resistance as a key defense
•  Transference and countertransference
•  How these operate in a counseling relationship.
FREUDIAN SLIPS (SLIP OF THE
TONGUE
 EVALUATION OF PSYCHOANALYTIC
APPROACH
Contributions and strengths of the
approach

• Important to understand how past contribute to

present problem

• Provides a conceptual framework to understand

anxiety and defense
 EVALUATION OF PSYCHOANALYTIC
APPROACH
Limitations of the approach

• Limitations based on long-term approach for many

clients

• Critique from feminist perspective - too masculine!

• The approach has not given full attention to social

and cultural factors
 EGO PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
ERIK HOMBURGER ERIKSON
 ERIK H. ERIKSON

1. Erikson is one of the net-freudians - those inspired and influenced by Freud

who went on to expand upon Freud’s ideas and develop theories on their
own

2. 8-stage theory of psychosocial development describes the growth and

change throughout life, focusing on social interaction and conflicts that arise
during different stages of development

3. While it shared some similarities with Freud, it is dramatically different in

many ways. Rather than focusing on sexual interests as a driving force in
development, Erikson believed that social interaction and experience payed
decisive roles.
 ERIK H. ERIKSON

4. his 8-stage theory of human development described this

process from infancy through death. During each stage, people
are faced with a developmental conflict that impacts later
functioning and further growth.

5. PSYCHOSOCIAL theory focuses on development across the

entire lifespan. At each stage, children and adults face a
development crisis that serves as a major turning point.
Successfully managing the challenges of each stage leads to the
emergence of lifelong psychological virtue.
 8 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Ego psychology or contemporary psychoanalytic emphasizes
the influence of the ego in healthy growth and adjustment and
as the source of self-awareness and identity

Each of the stages is marked by different tasks

They are patterned sequence of stages encompassing

appropriate physical, emotional and cognitive tasks that the
individual must master in a struggle to adjust to the demands of
the social environment
 8 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Each stage should be viewed as a psychosocial crisis
or conflict and whether the conflict of a particular
stage is successfully resolved or not, the individual is
pushed by both biological maturation and social
demands into the next stage.

The conflict in each stage involve bipolar tasks such

as trust vs. mistrust
 8 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT

STEPS OF HUMAN GROWTN AND DEVELOPMENT (CORE STAGES/

PSYCHOSOCIAL TAKS OR CRISES

1.  ORAL SENSORY Basic trust vs basic mistrust

(birth – 1 year)
2.  Muscular anal Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
(1-3 years)
3.  Locomotor—genital Initiative vs. guild
(3-6 years)
4. Latency (6-12 years) `Industry vs Inferiority
5. Puberty and adolescence Identity vs role confusion
12-18 years
 8 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT

STEPS OF HUMAN GROWTN AND DEVELOPMENT (CORE STAGES/

PSYCHOSOCIAL TAKS OR CRISES

6. Young adulthood (19-35) Intimacy vs. Isolation

7. Adulthood (36-60) Generativity gs stagnation

8.  Maturity 61 and up Ego integrity vs. despair

Stage Age virtue

Trust vs Mistrust Birth-1 yr old Hope

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt 2-3 years old Will

Initiative vs. Guild 4-5 years old Purpose

Industry vs. Inferiority 6-11 years old Competence

Identity vs. role confusion 12-20 years old Fidelity

Intimacy vs. Isolation 20-24 years old Love

Generativity vs. Stagnation 25-64 years old Care

Ego integrity vs. Despair 65 years – death Wisdom

 CARL JUNG
ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (CARL
JUNG) ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Established his theory on an intuitive base which derives
from his experiences and dreams.
He developed his own theory called Analytical Psychology
for half a century he wrote religiously about personality in
regards to symbolic, mythological and spiritual views.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (CARL
JUNG) ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHE - Total personality. Through the psyche, energy flows
continuously in various directions from consciousness to
unconsciousness and back and from inner to outer reality
and back
LIBIDO – refers to the psychic energy that is invested in a
mental event, regardless of the instinct/s involved, the greater
the amount of libido, the more the event is desired.
From a perspective similar to Freud’s, energy that fuels the
work or personality which he called the psyche.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (CARL
JUNG) ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Structure of Personality
Ego – everything which we are conscious, responsible for the
sense of identity
Personal Unconscious – materials that were once conscious
but was repressed or forgotten or was not vivid enough to
make a conscious impression at first
Collective unconscious – collective experience that humans
had during revolutionary past of the accumulation of
ancestral experience
Person – masks, one’s public self
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (CARL
JUNG) ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Structure of Personality
5. Archetypes –
anima – female component of the male psyche
Animus – masculine component of the female psyche
6. Shadow – darkest and deepest part of the psyche, part of
the collective unconscious that we inherited from our pre-
human ancestors and contains all the anima instincts
7. Self – component of the psyche that attempts to
harmonize all the other components
 BEHAVIORISM
(JOHN B. WATSON, B.F SKINNER)
 BEHAVIORISTC MODEL
Behavior is learned
Significant of the environment
Respondent and operant behaviors
Operant conditioning – refers to learned behavior which
takes place because it operates upon or affects the
environment
“if a behavior is followed by an outcome or response which is
pleasurable to the person it is likely to be repeated”
“If it is followed by an outcome or response that is not
pleasurable it is NOT likely to be repeated
 B.F. SKINNER
Burhuss Frederick Skinner was reared in a warm and
stable home where learning was esteemed, discipline
was apparent and rewards were given when deserved.

Skinner believed that abstract theories were

unnecessary and should be abandoned in favor of an
approach based solely on how the environment affects
the individual behavior.
 2 KINDS OF BEHAVIOR
1. RESPONDENT BEHAVIOR - refers to
specific response that is elicited by a known stimulus,
the latter always preceding the former in time

- respondent behavior is Skinner’s version of Pavlovian

or Classical conditioning (ie dog). Also called S
CONDITIONING to stress the significance of the
stimulus that comes before and elicits the response.
 2 KINDS OF BEHAVIOR
UNCONDITIONAL RESPONSE - an unlearned response
that is automatically elicited by an unconditional stimulus

CONDITIONAL RESPONSE - a learned response similar

to an unconditioned response which is elicited by an previously
presented stimulus

CONDITIONED STIMULUS - a previously natural stimulus

that acquires the capacity to elicit responses through repeated
pairing with another stimulus capable of eliciting such responses
 2 KINDS OF BEHAVIOR
2. OPERANT BEHAVIOR (OPERANT
CONDITIONING is determined by the events
that follow the response.

That is a behavior is followed by a consequence, and

the nature of the consequence modifies the
organisms’ tendency to repeat behavior in the future
 2 KINDS OF BEHAVIOR
Also called R CONDITIONING to emphasize
the affect of the response on the future behavior

If consequences of the responses are favorable to

the organism, then the likelihood of the operant
being emitted again in the future is thereby increased
 SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT
Is a rule stating the contingency /schedules under which
reinforcements will be presented

1. FIXED RATIO - the organism is reinforced following

a predetermined number of appropriate responses

2. FIXED INTERVAL - the organism is reinforced

after a set of “fixed” time interval has elapsed since the
previous reinforcement
 SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT
3. VARIABLE RATIO - the organism is
reinforced on the basis of some predetermined
number of set responses

4. VARIABLE INTERVAL - the organism is

reinforced on this schedule after a variable time
interval has elapsed
 BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
(BEHAVIORISM)
Behavioral therapy focuses on an individual’s learned,
or conditioned behavior and how this can be
changed

The approach assumes that is a behavior can be

learned, then it can be unlearned (or reconditioned)
so is useful for dealing with issues such as phobias or
addictions
 BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
(BEHAVIORISM)
1. Behaviorism came during the first half of the 20th cent.

2. Behaviorists believed that psychology needed to focus only on

observable and quantifiable behaviors in order to become a more
scientific discipline.

3. All human behavior can be described in terms of environmental

influences.

4. Some behaviorists (John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner) insisted that learning

occurs purely through processes of association and reinforcement.
 BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
(BEHAVIORISM)
5. Basic assumption is that maladaptive behaviors are
learned and can be unlearned, and that new, more
adaptive behaviors can be learned

6. Behavioral theories of child development focus on

how environmental interaction influences behavior
and based on the theories of (J.B. Watson, Ivan
Pavlov, & B.F. Skinner)
 BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
(BEHAVIORISM)
7. These theories deal with observable behaviors.
Development is considered a reaction to rewards,
punishments, stimuli and reinforcement.

8. This theory differs considerably from other

theories because it give no consideration to internal
thoughts or feelings. Instead it focuses purely on how
experience shapes who we are
 BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
(BEHAVIORISM)
9. Two important type of learning that emerged from this
approach to development are that CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING and OPERANT CONDITIONING.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING involves learning by pairing a

naturally occurring stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus

OPERANT CONDITIONING utilizes reinforcement and

punishment to modify behaviors.
 BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
(OPERANT CONDITIONING)
A. Reinforcement - leads to an increase in the desirable
behavior preceding the reinforcer

Positive Negative

B. Punishment - used to decrease an undesirable

behavior

Positive Negative
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
(JEAN PIAGET)
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
Piaget build his theory on how children use their intelligence
rather than how their intelligence are measured

Assumed that there are inborn, invariant processes in human

that play a fundamental role in understanding reality (the
processes of adaptation and organization)

According to him, people use schema or cognition structures in

the process of adapting to and organizing their world. A schema
is a unit of information that an individual possesses
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
SENSATION – refers to the processes by which organism
detects internal and external stimulation at its various receptor sites

PERCEPTION – refers to the interpretation of this sensory

input; it involves the use of signals and symbols to understand and
differentiate among sensations

COGNITION – is the process of obtaining, organizing and using

sensory and perceptual information from the environment, from
past
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
ADAPTATION – deals with the individual’s relation to the
external world and the ability to change or adapt to that world.
The process of adaptation involved:

ASSIMILATION –what is perceived in the external world

does not always fit our internal schema or thought structures
and thereby change what we perceive

ACCOMMODATION – we can accommodate our thought

patterns to what we perceive or change what we think
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
ORGANIZATION – is the other invariant
feature of human cognition. It is the tendency for all
members of a species to systematize their processes
into coherent systems, physical or psychological

It is the way we make sense out of what we perceive

 PAGE’S 4 STAGES OF
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT
0-2 YEARS SENSORIMOTOR (reflexes, repetition of acts (OBJECT
PERMANENCE)
2-4 YEARS PRE-OPERATIONAL – (no cause and effect reasoning),
egocentrism, development of language
4-7 YEARS INTUITIVE, PREOPERATIONAL – beginning of causation
7-11 years ONCRETE OPERATIONS – thinking logically about things
and events
11-15 YEARS FORMAL OPERATION – reality, abstract though
(government, justices) issues wareness.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
1. COGNITIVE THEORY is concerned with the development of a
person’s thought processes.

2. Piaget proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped

revolutionize how we think about child development. Children think
differently than adults.

3. It seeks to describe and explain the development of thought

processes and mental states. It also look at how these thought
processes influence the way we understand and interact with the
world.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE:

a period of time between BIRTH to 2 during which

an infant’s knowledge of the world is limited to his/
her sensory perceptions and motor activities.
Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses
caused by sensory stimuli.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
2. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE:

2-6 and during which a child learns to use language.

During this stage, children do not yet understand
concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate
information and are unable to take the point of view
of other people
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE:

7-11 during which children gain a better

understanding of mental operations. Children begin
to think logically about concrete events, but have
difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical
concepts.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE:

12 - adulthood when people develop the ability to

think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical
thought, deductive reasoning and systematic planning
also emerge during this stage
 COGNITIVE THEORY
(AARON BECK)
Psychological problems stem from distorted thinking
based on underlying cognitive schemata

Cognitive Schemata - ways of viewing self, world,

past, future

Cognitive Therapy - therapist challenges client’s

distorted thinking through a process of checking beliefs
against reality-evidence-gathering approach
 COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL
APPROACH
Behaviors are learned

Social Worker try to understand thought patterns

It focuses on problem solving and promoting more

accurate ways of understanding world.
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY
(CBT)
combines cognitive and behavioral therapies

The approach focused on thoughts, emotions, physical

feelings and actions, and teaches clients how each one
can have an affect on the other

COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY (ABC

METHOD) could be described as “as I think, so I feel
(and do”.
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY
(CBT)
In any given situation you have:

1. ACTIVATING EVENT - the actual event and the

client’s immediate interpretations of the event.

2. BELIEFS ABOUT THE EVENT - this evaluation

can be rational or irrational

3. CONSEQUENCES - how you feel and what you do or

other thoughts
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY
(CBT)
In the previous chart and after this slide, you can see
how when a negative event that happens, one can
interpret it positively or negatively

How one interprets it affects how one feels, thinks

and behaves
THE A-B-C-D-E-F THEORY OF
PERSONALITY
ROLE OF THE SOCIAL
WORKER IN CBT
TO CHALLENGE FALSE BELIEFS -

“THE LIES WE TELL

OURSELVES”
 DISTORTIONS IN OUR
THINKING INCLUDE…
1. Black and white - thinking or either/or thinking

2. Making unfair comparisons - usually in the negative

3. Filtering - honing in on the negative, forgetting the positive

4. Personalizing - the Self-Blame Game

5. Mind-Reading - thinking we know what others

think )negatively
 DISTORTIONS IN OUR
THINKING INCLUDE…
6. Catastrophising - imagining the worst case scenario

7. Overgenerating - “i always mess up . . . “

8. Confusing fact with feelings - “if i think or feel this way

then my thoughts/feeling must be correct”

9. Labelling - “I’m a loser vs, I made a mistake

10. Can’t Standitis - being unnecessarily intolerant

 WDEP
W - wants - what do you want to be and do?

D - doing and direction - What are you doing?

E - evaluation - Does your present behavior have a

reasonable chance of getting you what you want?

P - planning - identify ways to fulfill their wants and

needs
 SAMIC
S - simple - easy to understand, specific, and concrete

A - attainable - within the capacities and motivation of the client

M- measurable - are the changes observable and helpful?

I- immediate and involved - What can be done today? What can

you do?

C - controlled - Can you do this by yourself or will you be

dependent on others?
 COGNITIVE THEORY
We define this as any therapy that is based on the belief that our
thoughts are directly connected to how we feel

The cognitive therapies include

• RATIONAL-EMOTIVE

• COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL

• REALITY

• TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
(LAWRENCE KOHLBERG)
Expanded on Piaget’s theory e.g. shifting of moral
judgment from heteronomous (subject to different laws)
morality (based on fixed, unchangeable rules) to
autonomous morality (based on cooperative agreements).

Not to interested in the particular decisions people reach;

interested in the reasoning they used to reach their
decisions.

This concept was incorporated on his theory of the

development of moral judgments in cognitive thinking
Kohlberg’s description of the situation built around
such issues pose moral dilemmas

He is not interested in the actual solution to a

problem, that is the specific attitudes or beliefs
expressed, but in the way the child or adult reasons
and thinks through the solution

The morality of the individual is related to their

decision-making abilities and their ego capabilities
rather than their moral habits or feelings
 HEINZ DILEMMA
In Europe a woman was near death from cancer. One drug might
save her, a form of radium that a pharmacist in the same town had
recently discovered. The pharmacist was charging $2000, ten times
what it cost him to make.

The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to

borrow the money, but he could not get together about half what it
cost. He told the pharmacist that his wife was dying and asked him to
sell it cheaper and let him pay him later. But the pharmacist said “NO.”

The husband got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal
the drug for his wife.
SHOULD THE HUSBAND HAVE DONE THAT? A. YES B. NO, Why
or Why not?
LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
Actions are good if they lead to reward;
Actions are bad if they result in punishment or loss for the self

Who: most children under nine, some teens, many adult criminals

Example:
“if he lets his wife die, he’ll get in trouble”
“it won’t bother him much to serve a little jail time if he still has his
wife when he gets out
“ He shouldn’t steal it. He’ll be caught and sent to jail”
 LEVEL II: CONVENTIONAL
Good actions improve relationships or society
Bad actions harm relationship or society

Who: most teens and adults

Example:
Heinz should steal the drug. You can't blame him for doing
something out of love for his wife; you’d blame him if he didn’t love
his wife enough to save her”
“It’s always wrong to steal. What if everyone stole? Then there
would be no law”
LEVEL III: POST-CONVENTIONAL
Good actions are in accord with universal principles that may conflict
with a society’s laws.
Bad actions violate universal principles.

Who: Majority of adults

Example:
“It’s wrong to violate another person’s rights, in this case, to property.
But . . . the fact that her life’s in danger transcends every other
standard you could use to judge his action. Life is more important
than property. Usually moral and legal standpoints coincide. Here
they conflict
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
(LAWRENCE KOHLBERG)
 HUMANISTIC
(ABRAHAM MASLOW)
 HUMANISTIC THEORIES

Maslow’s theory is based on the not on that experience is the

primary phenomenon in the study of human learning and behavior.

He placed emphasis on choice, creativity, values, realization, all

distinctively human qualities and believed that meaningfulness and
subjectivity were more important than objectivity

Focus on self-development, growth and responsibilities

They seek to help individuals recognize their strengths, creativity and

choice in the ‘here and now’
 HUMANISTIC THEORIES

HUMANISTIC THERAPIES focus on self-

development, growth and responsibilities.

They seek to help individuals recognise their

strengths, creativity and choice in the ‘here and now’
 MOTIVATION

Refers to the process by which organisms are

propelled toward goals; driven by end goals such as
security and self-esteem which motivate people
 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
(MOTIVATION THEORY)
Maslow emphasized the importance of self-
actualization, which is a process of growing and
developing as a person to achieve individual
potential

There are 5 different levels in Maslow’s Hierarchy of

Needs
 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
(MOTIVATION THEORY)
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, including the
need for oxygen, water, air, food and sleep. Maslow believed that
these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy
because all needs become secondary until these physiological needs
are met

They are the strongest needs because if a person were deprived of

all needs, the physiological ones would come first in the person’s
search for satisfaction
 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
(MOTIVATION THEORY)
SAFETY & SECURITY NEEDS

iWhen all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer controlling
thoughts and behaviors, the needs for security can become active.

Adults have little awareness of their security needs except in times of

emergency or periods of disorganization in the social structure

nclude needs for safety and security. Security needs are important for
survival but they are not as demanding as the physiological needs.
Examples: health insurance, safe neighborhood
 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
(MOTIVATION THEORY)
NEEDS OF LOVE, AFFECTION AND
BELONGINGESS (SOCIAL NEEDS)

Maslow states that people seek to overcome feelings

of loneliness and alienation. This involves both giving
and receiving love, affection and the sense of
belonging.
 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
(MOTIVATION THEORY)
NEEDS FOR SELF-ESTEEM

These involve needs for both self-esteem and for the esteem a person gets
from others

Humans have need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self respect, and
respect from others. When these needs are satisfied, the person feels self-
confident and valuable as a person in the world

Maslow states that people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and

alienation. This involves both giving and receiving love, affection and the
sense of belonging.
 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
(MOTIVATION THEORY)
NEED for SELF-ACTUALIZATION

Maslow describes self-actualization as a persons’s need

to be and do that which the person was “born to do”

These needs make themselves felt in signs of restlessness

The person feel on edge, tense, lacking something, in

short restless
 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
(MOTIVATION THEORY)
Maslow proposed other goals of learning, including the following

1. One's vocation or destiny

2. Knowledge of values

3. Realization of life as precious

4. Acquisition of peak experience

5. sense of accomplishment
 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
(MOTIVATION THEORY)
6. Satisfaction of psychological needs

7. Awareness of beauty and wonder of life

8. Impulse control

9. developing choice

10. Wrapping with the critical existential problems of life.

 OTHER NEEDS

AESTHETIC NEEDS

People are motivated by the need for beauty and

aesthetically pleasing experience

COGNITIVE NEEDS

A desire to know, solve mysteries, to understand and to

be curious
CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF-ACTUALIZED
PEOPLE
• Perceives reality efficiently and are able to tolerate uncertainty
• accept themselves and other for what they are
• establish deep, satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few
rather than many people
• resistant to enculturation although not purposely unconventional
• Problem-centered
• capable of deep appreciation of the basic experiences of life
• Concerned for the welfare of humanity
• Highly creative
• Spontaneous in thought and behavior
• good sense of humor
• able to look at life from an objective point of view
PERSON-CENTERED THEORY (ROGERIAN)
SELF THEORY
ORGANISMIC THEORY
(CARL ROGERS - FATHER OF CLIENT-
CENTERED THERAPY 1902-1987)
 HUMANISTIC THEORIES
SELF THEORY
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
Founded by Carl Rogers in 1940’s, like Adlerian therapy, a basic premise is
that we are all “becoming”.

Carl Rogers is the founder of Person-Centered Therapy

“The Quiet Revolutionary” - introduced his revolutionary ideas in the

1940s

Ideas were in start contrast to psychoanalysis and directive approaches

Shifted focus of therapy from an emphasis on technique to that of the

relationship
 HUMANISTIC THEORIES
SELF THEORY
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
People are essentially trustworthy, that they have a
vast potential for understanding themselves and
resolving their own problems without direct
intervention on the therapist’s part, and the they are
capable of self-directed growth if they are involved in
a specific kind of therapeutic relationship
 HUMANISTIC THEORIES

Introduced the term “CLIENT”

Believed in the equality of client and the therapist

We are all moving towards self-actualization

Rogers believed that each of us has the innate ability to reach our
full potential

As infants we are born with it, but because of early experiences, we

may lose our connection to it.
 ROGERS CENTRAL HYPOTHESIS

“If I can provide a certain type of relationship, the other

will discover within himself the capacity to use that
relationship for growth, and change and personal
development will occur.” Carl Rogers

Encouraged clients to reflect on their experience

Believed it was necessary for nonjudgmental listening

and acceptance to promote change
 PERSON-CENTERED (ROGERIAN)

The self concept we develop in response to our early

experiences may tend to alienate us from our true self

In this theory there is no such thing as mental illness. It

is just a matter of being disconnected from
our self-potential

This therapy is often considered the most optimistic

approach to human potential.
 ASSUMPTIONS

People are trustworthy by nature

They have the capacity to understand and resolve

their own problems

They are innately resourceful and capable

Clients can understand what is making them unhappy

 SELF-THEORY

Humanistic Psychology – unique qualities of human, i.e.

potential for growth; hopeful and optimistic

Organismic Theory/Person-centered Theory – individual

motivated by one sovereign drive – SELF-ACTUALIZATION

Unity, coherence, integration or a normal personality

Ideally, all individuals evaluate their experiences using the

organismic valuing process
 SELF-THEORY

This creates a feedback systems that allows the organism to

coordinate its experiences with its tendency towards self actualization

Healthy people use these processes as guides to living their lives. This
means that people can trust their feelings.

Growth occurs when individuals confront problems, struggle to

master them, and through that struggle develop new aspects of their
skills, capacities, views about life. Life, therefore, is an endless process
of creatively moving forward, even if only in small ways
 KEY CONCEPTS

The organism is the locus (point) of all experiences

The phenomenological field – encompasses the experience which includes

everything potentially available to awareness that is going on within the
organism

Phenomenological field constitute

Subjective reality of a person and is made up of conscious (symbolized)

and the

Unconscious (unsymbolized experience)

 KEY CONCEPTS

The self or self concept – is the portion of the

phenomenological field, which gradually become
differentiated. It is composed of organized
perceptions of the characteristics of the “I” or “Me”
of their relationship to others and to various aspects
of self, together with the values attached to these
perceptions (called the self-structure)
 KEY CONCEPTS

A person’s self is a set of perceptions with values attached to these

perceptions about the self; it includes all the individuals evaluation of
his organismic functions and human relationships which s/he use to
order and interpret his/her experiences

The ideal self – is the self a person most values and desires to be. It is
the self-concept, which one would like to possess, upon which he/she
places the highest values for him/herself

Successfully pursuing the ideal is a major preconditioned for feeling of

worth (conditions of worth)
 KEY CONCEPTS

CONGRUENCE

UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD

ACCURAGE EMPATHIC UNDERSTANDING

 KEY CONCEPTS

Congruence or incongruence may exist between the self

as perceived and the actual experience of the organism,
between subjective reality (phenomenological field) and
external reality (the world as it is) and between self and
ideal self

When the symbolized experiences that constitutes the self

faithfully mirror the experiences of the organism, the
person is said to be adjusted, mature and fully functioning.
 KEY CONCEPTS

Need for positive regard (i.e. receiving warmth,

acceptance, etc) from relevant people in one’s life.
Giving positive regard

Need for self-regard – the need to view self

positively – from wanting others to feel good about
self and subsequently wanting to feel good about self
(unconditional positive regard)
BARRIERS TO PSYCHOLOGICAL GROWTH

Conditions of worth and external valuation lead to

vulnerability, anxiety and threat and prevent people
fro experiencing unconditional positive regard

Vulnerable people are not aware of their

incongruence and are likely to become anxious,
threatened and defensive
BARRIERS TO PSYCHOLOGICAL GROWTH

INCONGRUENCE develops when the organismic self and the

perceived self (self-concept) do not match

DEFENSIVENESS is the protection of the self-concept against

anxiety and threat by using denial or distortion, allowing us to
block out experiences that otherwise would cause unpleasant
anxiety of threat

Whenever these defenses fail or are insufficient to block out

incongruence, people become DISORGANIZED
CHARACTERISTICS OF A FULLY
FUNCTIONING PERSON

More adaptable; capable of changing

Live in the
Experience harmonious present
Open to experiences
relationships and thus,
participate
Basic Creative; more
Trust their
More trust of sensitive richly in
organismi
integrated human openness the
c values
nature to the ongoing
world process
 PERSON-CENTERED (ROGERIAN)

In counseling:

the basic premise is that the client is the bet authority on her/
his own experience, and

it asserts that the client is fully capable of changing and

growing into all that the client can and wants to be

However, the client - like all of us - needs favorable conditions

in which to blossom and bloom
 PERSON-CENTERED (ROGERIAN)

The therapist is to provide the conditions necessary

for the client’s growth:

• GENUINENESS

• UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD

• EMPATHIC UNDERSTANDING
 PERSON-CENTERED (ROGERIAN)

To be GENUINE, the therapist must strive to be

TRANSPARENT, OPEN, WILLING TO EXPRESS AT
OPPORTUNE TIMES their own identity in the
relationship

There is no hiding behind expertise or degrees

Therapists must be constantly doing their own inventory

 PERSON-CENTERED (ROGERIAN)

UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD is

synonymous with ACCEPTANCE and
APPRECIATION of the client for who the client is in
the present
 PERSON-CENTERED (ROGERIAN)

EMPATHIC UNDERSTANDING is based on

the therapist’s ability to see the world through the
client’s eyes, to move into the client’s world at the
deepest levels and experience what the client feels.
 PERSON-CENTERED (ROGERIAN)

PERSON-CENTERED COUNSELING focuses on an

individual’s self worth and values

Being valued as a person, without being judged, can help an individual

to accept who they are, and reconnect with themselves

The counselor provides the growth-promoting climate and the client is

then free and able to discover and grow as she/he wants and needs to

`Prevailing characteristics of the session are ACTIVE LISTENING,

EMPATHY, ACCEPTANCE
 THERAPEUTIC GOALS

GREATER DEGREE OF INDEPENDENCE

FOCUS ON THE PERSON, NOT THE

PROBLEM

MUST FIRST GET THROUGH THE

MASKS CLIENTS WEAR TO GET TO
THE GOAL
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THERAPIST AND
CLIENT
Characterized by equality

Therapists are transparent, true to themselves,

authentic
 CAUTIONS TOWARD USING PERSON-
CENTERED TECHNIQUES
Cautions against making assumptions about clients
based on their cultural background

No stereotyping!

A therapist must hold off on judging the client’s

cultural background too quickly
 EFFECTIVE WITH: (COREY)

ANXIETY DISORDER
ALCOHOLISM
PSYCHOSOMATIC PROBLEMS
AGORAPHOBIA
INTERPERSONAL DIFFICULTIES
DEPRESSION
CANCER
MARRIAGE AND FAMILY
 CRISIS INTERVENTION

UNWANTED PREGNANCY
ILLNESS
LOSS OF A LOVED ONE
Many times used by nurses because they are first to interact
with patients
 EXISTENTIAL APPROACH
(VIKTOR FRANKL)
WHY AM I HERE? (also known as MEANING
THERAPY)

“He who knows the ‘WHY’ for his existence will be

able to bear almost any “HOW’ (Viktor Frankl)

Therapy is concerned with creating one’s identity

and establishing meaningful relationships with others.
 EXISTENTIAL APPROACH
(VIKTOR FRANKL)
Human beings create meaning and purpose of life

People are capable of controlling and changing their lives and

are deliberate in their choices

Relationships influence the way we understand and support

client to develop self awareness and assume personal
responsibilities in order to reach self-actualization
 THE CAPACITY FOR SELF-AWARENESS

The greater our awareness, the greater our possibilities for

freedom

AWARENESS is realizing that:

• We are finite - time is limited

• We have the potential, the choice, to act or not to act

• Meaning is not automatic - we must seek it

THE CAPACITY FOR SELF-AWARENESS

• We are subject to loneliness, meaninglessness,

emptiness, guilt and isolation

• Main purpose of an existential therapy is to

increase awareness
 THE SEARCH FOR MEANING

• Like pleasure, MEANING must be pursued indirectly

• Struggle to find sense of significance and purpose

in life is part of human existence

• “The will to meaning” is our primary striving

• Life is not meaningful in itself; the individual must

create and discover meaning
COMMONALITIES AMONG COUNSELING
APPROACHES
All theories state the belief that people can change.

Most theories recognize that behavior is not strictly

caused by past incidents but is also influenced by the
present and hopes for the future.

All theories aim to reduce the suffering of the client.

 DIFFERENCES AMONG SOCIAL WORK
APPROACHES
The Social Work process is often different from
theory to theory.

Some theories are more verbal than others.

Each theory uses different interventions.

 KAREN HORNEY
PYSCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEOR
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (KAREN
HORNEY) PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety
All children need feelings of safety and security, but these can be gained only by LOVE
from parents. Unfortunately, parents often neglect, dominate, reject or overindulge
their children, conditions that lead to the child’s feeling of basic hostility toward parents.
If children repress feelings of basic hostility, they will develop feelings of insecurity and a
pervasive sense of apprehension called BASIC ANXIETY
People can protect themselves from basic anxiety through a number of protective
devices –
Affection
Submissiveness
Power, prestige or possession
Withdrawal
Normal people have the flexibility to use any or all of these approached, but neurotics
are compelled to rely rigidly on only one
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (KAREN
HORNEY) PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
Compulsive Drives
Neurotics are frequently trapped in a vicious circle in which their
compulsive need to reduce basic anxiety leads to a variety of self-
defeating behaviors; these behaviors then produce more basic anxiety,
and the cycle continues
NEUROTIC NEEDS – 10 Categories of neurotic needs that mark
neurotics in their attempt to reduce basic anxiety. These include needs
For affection and approval
For a powerful partner
To restrict one’s life within narrow borders
For power
To exploit others
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (KAREN
HORNEY) PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
NEUROTIC NEEDS – 10 Categories of neurotic needs that mark
neurotics in their attempt to reduce basic anxiety. These include
needs
For social recognition or prestige
For personal admiration
For ambition and personal achievement
For self-sufficiency and independence
For perfection and unassailability
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (KAREN
HORNEY) PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
NEUROTIC TRENDS – later Horney grouped these 10 neurotic
needs into three basic neurotic trends which apply to both normal
and neurotic individuals in their attempt to solve basic conflict
Moving toward people – in which COMPLIANT people protect
themselves against feelings of helplessness by attaching themselves to
other people
Moving against people, in which AGGRESSIVE people protect
themselves against perceived hostility of others by exploiting others;
and
Moving away from people, in which DETACHED people protect
themselves against feelings of isolation by appearing arrogant and aloof.
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (KAREN
HORNEY) PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
NEUROTIC NEEDS. The neurotic has:
desperate need for acceptance and affection. Anxiety will occur without
these. Neurotics see life as if everything is reasonable and suitable to fit
their needs u in reality it is impossible
a need for love when in an intimate relationship and expects their
partners to take over their lives by solving their problems.
Need to make things more simpler by having no routine or rules. Also,
when at the point of stress they want to be unnoticeable and avoid
confrontation that may add to their frustration
Needs to have control and power over others
A need to manipulate others/ They have this need because of their
concern of being used or looking stupid. Practical jokes that may be funny
for others are often not funny to the neurotic.
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (KAREN
HORNEY) PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
NEUROTIC NEEDS. The neurotic has:
Need to be recognized socially. They are extremely concerned with
appearance and popularity so they strive to be outgoing
Need for others to admire their inner qualities. They are desperate
perfectionists, fearing being unimportant or meaningless to others
Need personal accomplishment, they are obsessed with it. They want to
be leader of everyone, being on top of the world and number one in
everything
Need independence. They refuse help from others, thinking they can
accomplish things by themselves
Need perfection, hoping that everything in life is just going to get better
and better. They fear failure and people finding out that they make
mistakes. They feel it is important to be in charge of everything.
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (KAREN
HORNEY) PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
INTRAPSYCHIC CONFLICTS – people also experience inner tensions or
intrapsychic conflicts that become part of their belief system and take on a life
of their own, separate from the interpersonal conflicts that created them
A. IDEALIZED SEL-IMAGE - People who do not receive love and affection
during childhood are blocked in their attempt to acquire a stable sense of
identity. Feeling alienated from self, they create an idealized self-image or an
extravagantly positive picture of themselves. She recognized three aspects of
the idealized self image
The neurotic search for glory, or a comprehensive drive toward actualizing the
ideal self
The neurotic claims, or a belief that they are entitled to special privileges;
The neurotic pride, or a false pride based not on reality but on a distorted and
idealized view of self
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (KAREN
HORNEY) PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
B. SELF HATRED – Neurotics dislike themselves because reality
always falls short of their idealized view of self. Therefore, they
learn self-hatred, which can be expressed as
Relentless demands on the self
Merciless self-accusation
Self-contempt
Self-frustration
Self-torment or torture
Self-destructive actions
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (KAREN
HORNEY) PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY – Horney believed that
psychological differences between men and women are not
due to anatomy but culture and social expectations. Her view
of Oedipus complex differed markedly from Freud’s in that
she insisted that any sexual attraction or hostility of child to
parent would be the result of learning and not biology.
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (KAREN
HORNEY) PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
PSYCHOTHERAPY – The goal of Horney’s psychotherapy
was to help patients grow toward self-realization, give up
their idealized self-image, relinquish their neurotic search for
glory, and change self-hatred to self-acceptance. Horney
believed that successful therapy is built on self-analysis and
self-understanding
ATTACHMENT THEORY
(JOHN BOWBLY)
 ATTACHMENT THEORY
1. Bowbly’s attachment theory suggests that children are born with
innate need to form attachments. Such attachments aid in survival by
ensuring that the child receives care and protection

2. Children strive to stay close and connected to their caregivers

who in turn provide safe haven and a secure base for exploration

3. Children who receive consistent support and care are more likely
to develop a secure attachment style, while those who receive less
reliable care may develop an ambivalent, avoidant or disorganized
style.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
(OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING)
(ALBERT BANDURA)
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
1. Bandura believed that the conditioning and reinforcement
process could not sufficiently explain all of human learning. For
example, how can the conditioning process account for learned
behaviors that have not been reinforced through classical
conditioning or operant conditioning?

2. According to SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY, behaviors can

also be learned through OBSERVATION & MODELING. By
observing the actions of others, (including parents and peers),
children develop new skills and acquire new information.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
3. Bandura’s child development theory suggests
that observation plays a critical role in learning,
but this observation does not necessarily need to
take the form of watching a live model. Instead,
people can also learn by listening to verbal
instructions about how to perform a behavior as
well as through observing either real or fictional
characters display behaviors in books or films.

LEARNING THROUGH OBSERVATION OR BY

EXAMPLE
 COMPONENTS OR PROCESS
OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
1. ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES: PERCEIVING THE MODEL
 COMPONENTS OR PROCESS
OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
2. RETENTION PROCESS: REMEMBERING THE
MODEL

3. MOTOR REPRODUCTION PROCESSES

4. MOTIVATIONAL PROCESSES: FROM

OBSERVATION TO ACTION
 COMPONENTS OR PROCESS
OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
MODELING can lead to the acquisition
of new responses and change the
frequency of behavior already learned
OPERANT CONDITIONING/
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
B.F. SKINNER
 SKINNER RECOGNIZED 2
KINDS OF CONDITIONING
RESPONDENT conditioning also called CLASSICAL or
PAVLOVIAN - a response is drawn out of the organism by a
specific identifiable stimulus
ex: reflexive behaviors such as sneezing when snipping pepper
or salivating when one sees food-responses are unlearned,
involuntary and common across species

NOT only limited to reflexes, but if is also responsible for more

complex human learning like phobias, fears and anxiety
 SKINNER RECOGNIZED 2
KINDS OF CONDITIONING
Behavior is elicited from the organism (responses is drawn from the
person)

OPERANT CONDITIONING - key to this is the immediate

reinforcement of a response. The organism first does something
and then reinforced by the environment
Reinforcement then increases the probability that same behavior
will occur
• A process by which an organism operates on its environment with
consequences that influences the likelihood that the operation, or behavior
will be repeated.

• The behavior that constitutes the operation on the environment is called

“OPERANT”

• In operant conditioning consequences are contingent on the prior

performance of some response

• REINFORCERS - a tern used in reference to stimulus that is presented

(event) as a consequence of a response

• REINFORCEMENT - is anything within the environment that strengthens a

behavior. It has 2 effects:
• it strengthens the behavior
• it rewards the person
 3 KINDS OF CONSEQUENCES
IN OPERANT CONDITIONING:
• Positive reinforcement - occurs when some event is
contingent on the prior performance of some response and the
response changes in likelihood of occurrence on future occasion
• it is a process whereby some event, usually a stimulus, increases
the likelihood of a response on which its presentation is
contingent
• Reinforce means to strengthen and the occurrence of an event
that positively reinforces a response strengthens it
• Any stimulus that when added to a situation, increases the
probability that a given behavior will occur
 3 KINDS OF CONSEQUENCES
IN OPERANT CONDITIONING:
• Negative reinforcement - is a process whereby the likelihood of
a response increases when it is followed by the termination, reduction
or absence of a stimulus
• The removal of adverse stimulus from a situation also increases the
probability that the preceding behavior will occur. Ex: reducing loud
noise during study hours, would be negatively reinforcing because it
strengthens the behavior immediately preceding it
• Punishment - responses that are followed by the presentation of
aversive stimuli decreases in likelihood of being performed in the future
• The presentation of an aversive stimulus such as the removal of a
positive one (e.g. disconnecting adolescent’s phone)
 3 KINDS OF CONSEQUENCES
IN OPERANT CONDITIONING:
• Positive punishment - refers to presenting an aversive stimulus
(such as spanking) after a response. The aversive stimulus
decreases the chances that the response will recur
• Negative punishment - refers to removing a reinforcing stimulus
(a child’s allowance) after a response. This removal decreases the
chances that the response will recur.
• Both positive and negative punishment function as “stop sign”;
they stop or decreases the occurence of a behavior.
 Operant conditioning

Reinforcement Punishment
increase behavior Decrease behavior

Positive Negative Positive Negative

Escape Active Avoidance

Positive - presence of a stimulus

Negative - absence of a stimulus
Reinforcement - increases behavior
Punishment - decreases behavior
Escape - removes a stimulus
Avoidance - prevents a stimulus
INTERVENTION TECHNIQUES:
1. OPERANT LEARNING
(+) reinforcement

CHAINING - teaching the person one part of chain behavior then another
until the chain is complete - this is useful with people with learning difficulties
who need to learn ordinary skills of daily living sich as dressing, or eating

SHAPING - called successive approximations - means reinforcing a

behavior somewhat like the desired behavior and then raising the standard for
reinforcement and so on, step by step, until the persons has learned got it
perfect - teaching skills such as social skills (teaching student active listening
start with simply looking at the speaker, second require other non-verbals
signs of attentiveness and concern then third, require some verbal
encouragement
INTERVENTION TECHNIQUES:
POINT SYSTEM - star chart; token economies
PUNISHMENT
TIME-OUT - removing the child from sources of (+) reinforcer. (The
child is warned then removed to a dull place and made to stay there
quietly for a period of time)

2. RESPONDENT CONDITIONING -
Social learning
Modeling

3. Social learning Training

Communication training
Problem-solving training
self control
 GANDHIAN APPROACH
Focuses on

• DECENTRALIZATION,

• WOMEN EMPOWERMENT,

• NON-VIOLENT,

• NON POSSESSION,

• SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

• OMSC Assignment - state a problem in our society, if you were Gandhi

how are you going to approach the problem? creative presentation
 FEMINIST APPROACH
OMSC assignment: critique on the feminist theories

Women centered approach

Focuses on understanding women oppression in relationships

and society

Aims at providing mutual support, valuing diversity and

emphasizes on women’s experience sharing in order to guide
clients in their functioning
 ECLECTIC APPROACH
It draws from many theories which might be
complementary or contradictory

It explains human behavior & interventions in human

behavior

Pick & Mix - Social worker tries to match the most

helpful theoretical explanation
 DIALECTIC APPROACH
Everything is related and nothing can be understood in
isolation

This approach focuses on questioning

Change is constant and occurs as a result of unity and

struggles of opposites. (thesis-anthesis)

It draws together theories that may contain opposing

assertions
 FOUNDATION THEORIES &
PERSPECTIVES
SYSTEMS THROUGH

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

ECOLOGICAL THEORY

CRITICAL THEORY

ANTI-OPPRESSIVE

STRUCTURAL SOCIAL WORK

FEMINIST

POST MODERN