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Pumped-Hydro-storage (PHS)Plant
Pumped Hydro Storage is the natural large-scale energy storage solution. It provides all services
from reactive power support to frequency control, synchronous or virtual inertia and black-start
capabilities.
Pumped-storage plant converts electrical energy from a grid-interconnected system to hydraulic potential
energy (so-called ‘charging’) by pumping the water from a lower reservoir to an upper one during the off-
peak periods, and then converts it back (‘discharging’) by exploiting the available hydraulic potential energy
between the reservoirs like a conventional hydropower plant during the peak periods

PSH has high-value characteristics, such as a fast response to provide ancillary services to the grid, because
it is a power converter interface with the grid (like battery storage), but at the same time it has the energy
content large enough to supply both short-term (seconds to minutes) and long-term
(minutes to hours) energy needs, like more conventional power plants.
The impact of massive penetration of intermittent renewables such as wind and solar on the grid reliability is
huge. Supply of energy is variable and services to maintain voltage or frequency of the grid cannot be met by
inverter-based resources.
The development of pumped storage particularly in the areas with concentrated solar and
wind generation would significantly improve the grid reliability and it would act as the best
partner for the Renewable Energy integration

PSHP has low maintenance cost, and has quick ramping properties, i.e. it can be fully loaded by 10sec. The
operation and maintenance required for this system is minimal as compare to other storage devices. These
systems have high capital cost and long gestation period.
The main difference between the conventional hydro plants and PHS plants are that water just flows from a high
point to a low point in a hydroelectric plant, but the water in a pump storage power station can be pumped back
up to the top and used again in times of need for generation.

Hydropower Energy Conversion

The stored energy is proportional to the volume of water

and the height from which it falls.

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Characteristics

A hydropower plant is usually operated with low rotational speed (e.g., 300 rpm);
thus, the number of poles can be significantly larger than off-the-shelf induction
machines (e.g., a 40-pole synchronous generator connected to a 60-Hz grid rotates at
180 rpm).

The reservoirs used with pumped storage are

quite small when compared to conventional
hydroelectric dams of similar power capacity,
and generating periods are often less than half
a day.

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There are over 170 GW of pumped storage capacity in operation

worldwide. Europe is the second biggest zone, with 57 GW,
accounting for approximately 33% of the market.

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Present pumped storage hydro plants in India

Potential available in India for PSHP capacity, assessed by CEA is more than 96.5 GW.
However, at present total installed capacity of PSHP is about 4800 MW that consists of nine
(9) plants.

Out of the nine (9) PSHPs, only five (5) are in operation, those generates 2600 MW power in
total (Srisailam LBPH- 900 MW, Purulia PSS- 900 MW, Kadamparai- 400 MW, Ghatgar- 250
MW, and Bhira- 150 MW).

Rest four (4) installed PSHPs with cumulative generation capacity of 2185.6 MW (Sardar
Sarovar- 1200 MW, Nagarjun Sagar- 705.60 MW, Kandana- 240 MW, and Panchet Hill- 40
MW) are not operational. The major reason of non-operation is the absence of tail pool dam
and vibration issue.

Additional, two (2) PSHP of 1080 MW capacity are now under construction (Tehri - 1000 MW
and Koyna - 80 MW). Also, four (4) PSHPs with cumulative capacity of 2600 MW (Kundah–
500 MW, Malshej Ghat- 700 MW, Humbali- 400 MW, and Turga- 1000 MW) generation are
envisaged for development.
ESS in Grid:
The Washington Clean Energy Fund (CEF), comprises five battery storage
systems sited at three utilities’ service areas in Washington State. Avista Utilities
has deployed a 1 megawatt (MW) / 3.2 megawatt-hour (MWh) UniEnergy
Technologies (UET) vanadium-flow battery system in Pullman, Washington. Puget
Sound Energy deployed a 2 MW / 4.4 MWh lithium-ion/phosphate ESS at a
substation in Glacier, Washington. SnoPUD deployed two 1 MW / 500 kWh lithium-
ion battery systems at a substation in Everett, Washington. At another substation in
Everett, SnoPUD deployed a 2 MW / 8 MWh vanadium-flow battery built by
UET.

Batteries respond very quickly (sub-seconds) to disturbances in

frequency by injecting or absorbing energy, thus providing ‘synthetic
inertia’.

Based on capacity, hydropower can be classified as: pico (<5 kW), micro (5 kW–100 kW), small
(101 kW–2,000 kW), mini (2,001 kW–25,000 kW), and large (>25,000 kW).
The above categories might vary from one country to another, but the general rules are the same
(low power rating is connected to low-voltage level, high power rating is connected to the
subtransmission or transmission voltage levels)

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Three types of configurations used: (i) a binary set composed of one pump-turbine and one electrical
machine (motor/generator), (ii) a ternary set composed of one turbine, one pump and one electrical
machine (motor/generator) and (iii) a quaternary set in which one turbine is driving one generator and
one motor for one pump
Ternary Sets
A ternary set is two separate hydraulic machines that consist of a motor, generator, pump set and a separate turbine.
Because they are two separate machines, the rotational direction can be the same in both operational modes. They
can also switch between pump and turbine modes by using a clutch, starting turbine and a torque convertor. These
are a newer component of many pump storage power stations, but they have found use in systems which require a
fast grid response and have started to become widely used in new, and technologically up-to-date, power stations.

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 In pumped hydroelectricity storage systems,

the turbine can become a pump:
 Instead of the generator producing electricity,
electricity can be supplied to the generator
which causes the generator and turbine to spin
in the reverse direction and pump water from a
lower to an upper reservoir.
 Sometimes the pump and the turbine are
separate items of equipment, but more
commonly they are combined.

 PHES has characteristics that are well-suited for balancing large amounts of variable,
inverter-based wind and PV. PHES has rapid response (from idle to full output in a time
span of 20 s to a few minutes).
 PHES has rotational inertia if the generator is spinning, to replace the loss of the
rotational inertia associated with conventional thermal generators when they retire.
 PHES has black start capability, meaning that an electricity system can be restarted
after complete collapse of supply without the need for electricity supply to start the
generators.
Land requirements
The area of land required for the upper and lower reservoirs per GWh of storage is
about 12 hectares for an off-river pumped hydro system with a head of 400 m,
generation efficiency of 90%, usable water volume of 85% and average water depth of
20 m.

The cost of a hydroelectric system comprises six elements:

(a) Planning and approvals
(b) Construction of reservoirs
(c) The water conveyance: tunnels, pipes, aqueducts
(d) The powerhouse including pump/turbine, generator, switchyard and control
(e) Access: roads, electricity transmission and water (for off-river systems)
(f) Operations and maintenance over the life of the system.

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PHS…

 The head refers to the altitude difference between the water intake and the
water egress.

 Since the cost of most components is largely independent of the head, a larger
head will generally allow cheaper electricity generation and storage on a per-unit
basis. Typical heads are in the range 100–800 m.

 The electrical power generated by the water as it passes through the turbine is
equal to the product of the head (in metres), the water flow rate (in l s−1), the
gravitational constant (9.8 m s−1) and the generation efficiency.

PHS…

The efficiency of generation is about 90%. This means that 10% of the energy
stored in an upper reservoir is lost when the water passes through the turbine to
produce electricity.

In a complete PHES cycle,water is pumped from a lower to an upper reservoir and

at a later time returns to the lower reservoir, with a round-trip efficiency of about
80%. In other words, about 20% of the electricity is lost in a complete
umping/generation cycle.

For example, a flow of 100 m3 of water per second through a turbine/generator

operating at 90% efficiency in a system with a head of 570 m will yield electrical
power of 500 MW.

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PHS…
• Most existing pumped hydro storage is river-based .
• The efficiency of generation is about 90%. If operated in the spinning mode (using
only 1% of the rated power) , PSH systems can be changed to a pump or generator
mode within 10 s.
• An overall cycle efficiency of about 80%.
• Taking into account the evaporation and conversion losses, 71-85% of the electrical
energy used to pump the water into the elevated reservoir can be regained.

• PHES has rapid response (from idle to full output in a time span of 20 s to a few
minutes).

• PHES has rotational inertia if the generator is spinning, to replace the loss of the
rotational inertia associated with conventional thermal generators when they retire.
• Advantages: Improved energy regulation , provide ancillary services such as stand by
and reserves, black-station start, f-control, flexible reactive loading, long storage
period (several hours to weeks), high efficiency, increases the load factor of other
systems and also provides additional capacity to meet the peak loads.
• Disadvantages: Geographical limitations, High capital cost, two interconnected
reservoirs at different altitudes ( one at high head to reduce the size of the reservoir),
large land area needed, destruction of trees and green land for building reservoirs
which could also change the local ecological system.

PHS…..

Hydroelectric systems include dams that store large volumes of water. Others are run-of-river (RoR) which
include small or nearly zero storage, with energy production rising and falling according to day-to-day rainfall in
the river catchment.

A RoR hydroelectric power station that is downstream of a large dam takes advantage of storage in that dam to
reduce dependence on day-to-day rainfall. Water is conveyed from the water intake to the turbine and returned
to the river through use of tunnels or pipes (‘penstocks’). Depending on local geology, geography and the head,
tunnels are sometimes partially or fully lined with concrete or steel.
The turbine spins in response to flow of high-pressure water. The turbine is attached to the generator which
spins to produce electricity, which is sent to the switchyard for voltage transformation and transmission to
distant loads.

The turbine and generator are housed in the powerhouse, which can be underground. Multiple pipes are
typically used to deliver water to multiple turbines within the powerhouse.

In pumped hydroelectricity storage systems, the turbine can become a pump: instead of the generator
producing electricity, electricity can be supplied to the generator which causes the generator and turbine to spin
in the reverse direction and pump water from a lower to an upper reservoir. Sometimes the pump and the
turbine are separate items of equipment, but more commonly they are combined.

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PHS….
Larger head will generally allow cheaper electricity generation and storage on a per-unit basis. Typical heads
are in the range 100–800 m, although larger and smaller heads are sometimes used. The electrical power
generated by the water as it passes through the turbine. The efficiency of generation is about 90%.
For example, a flow of 100 m3 of water per second through a turbine/generator operating at 90% efficiency in a
system with a head of 570 m will yield electrical power of 500 MW. Hydroelectric systems that include large reservoirs
can offer seasonal storage. Sufficient water is harvested from a river during the wet season and stored to allow
significant electricity generation for many months.

Large reservoirs can store thousands of GWh of energy.

Variable-speed operation would provide greater flexibility in the selection of the number and size of units to be
installed in a station because each individual unit is capable of operation over a wide, rather than narrow, power
range.

Fixed Speed & Variable Speed PSH

• Fixed speed pumped storage technology : power regulation is possible while the plant is
generating electricity.
• State-of-the-art variable speed technology: power regulation in specific ranges is possible
while generating and while pumping, providing additional flexibility to support the grid
stability.

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Francis turbines
In fixed speed Pumped storage plants the reversible Francis turbine uses one runner for
both types of
Operation ( generating and motoring).
i.e. Francis turbines can act as both a hydraulic pump and hydraulic turbine. But it is
difficult to change the turbine and pump characteristics independent of each other.
The optimum speed for pumping ranges from 1.1–1.2, which is that of generating.
Constant-speed operation at maximum efficiency cannot be achieved at any time for
both modes with a single generator/motor. The pump turbine faces serious stress and
vibration problems associated with the wicket gate operation.
PSH can be controlled to reduce the impact of transient disturbances on a power system

Variable speed motors vary in their operating principles to classical motors that only move the turbine head in
one direction. In one-way systems, the motor usually uses many projected (salient) poles and a direct current
(DC) to generate a magnetic field. By comparison, variable speed motors use a three-phase winding
mechanism and a low-frequency alternating current (AC). A frequency convertor is also used within the circuit
of the motor to control the frequency– where changes in the frequency change the speed of the motor.
Variable-speed operation would provide greater flexibility in the selection of the number and size of units to
be installed in a station because each individual unit is capable of operation over a wide, rather than narrow,
power range.

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Conventional Hydropower Based on Induction Generator

In a conventional, single-speed pump-turbine, the magnetic field of the stator and the magnetic
field of the rotor always rotate with the same speed and the two are coupled.
In a variable-speed machine, those magnetic fields are decoupled. Either the stator field is
decoupled from the grid using a frequency converter between the grid and the stator winding, or
the rotor field is decoupled from the rotor body by a multi-phase rotor winding fed from a
frequency converter connected to the rotor.

An induction generator is often used in micro-hydro turbines. It uses a squirrel-cage induction

Generator, where there is no winding in the rotor of the generator. Instead, squirrel-cage-like
copper or aluminum bars are casted within a cast iron or other ferromagnetic materials to
function as the rotor winding.

This generator does not require access to the rotor circuit of the generator. This is different from
a wound-field AC generator (e.g., wound-field synchronous generator or wound-field induction
generator), where a set of slip rings is required to access the rotor winding. The operating speed
varies by a very narrow range (e.g., 1%–2% range).

Note that the slip range is an indication of the efficiency of the generator; thus, for practical
purposes, the range of operating speeds of the hydro turbine using an induction generator is very
narrow, so it can be considered as having fixed-speed operation.

Reversible pump turbines

The reversible pump turbine is a hydraulic machine which works as both a pump and a turbine.

The direction of flow and the sense of rotation of the runner are reversed from pump mode to turbine mode,
i.e. the same waterways can be used, while the machine needs to change its sense of rotation.

The advantages of the reversible pump turbine are

-
lower plant costs for the hydraulic machine, and waterways,
-
lower construction costs by reduction of the plant size

The disadvantages compared with conventional construction are

-
a slightly lower total efficiency (especially with pump turbine with fixed speed) and
-
longer change-over times between pump and turbine operation because of the necessary braking
process and re-starting in a different sense of rotation.

Since, however, the advantages outweigh the disadvantages by far, reversible pump turbines have
prevailed in the most suitable head range (< 800 m). More recent developments with variable
Speed compensate for the efficiency disadvantage,

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Comparison of Turbine Efficiency

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Hydropower generator
From the electrical generation point of view, two types of hydropower generators are used:
Fixed-speed hydropower generator, based on an induction generator or a synchronous generator. This type
is characterized by a direct connection to the grid. The speed variation for an induction generator is
normally around 1%–2%, whereas for a synchronous generator there is no speed variation, although there
is a power angle variation.
Adjustable-speed generator- One common choice of the generator is a doubly-fed induction generator
(DFIG), which has partial power conversion that is processed through rotor winding via a power converter
and then to the grid, and another part of conversion is through the stator winding directly delivered to the
grid.
Another choice is to use a synchronous generator with full power conversion. This type is characterized by
the presence of a power electronics converter (power converter) in the system to allow for adjustable-
speed operation.

Conventional Hydropower Generator

A conventional hydropower plant uses a synchronous generator . It is equipped with the governor (to
regulate the frequency) and exciter (to regulate the voltage via its excitation winding). An additional
component might include a power system stabilizer (PSS) to dampen power oscillations in the grid.
The excitation is accomplished by feeding DC current to the field winding to adjust the flux on the rotor
poles via rotating slip rings.
This type of generation has been accepted as most mature technology.
Newer synchronous generators might use a brushless concept to perform the excitation control. In that
case, there is no need to use the slip rings.

Hydropower generator..2

Power factor correction is needed because the induction generator, by its nature, always
absorbs reactive power during motoring or generating modes. The size of the reactive power is
proportional to the quadratic function of the real power generated.

Some small hydropower generators (e.g., micro-hydro, P < 100 kW) are operated at a fixed
speed with a squirrel-cage induction generator. The squirrel-cage induction generator generates
electricity when it is driven above synchronous speed. The difference between the synchronous
speed and the operating speed of the induction generator is measured by its slip (in per unit or
in percentage). A negative slip indicates that the induction generator operates in generating
mode.Normal operating slips for an induction generator are between 0% and -1%.

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Adjustable-Speed Hydropower Based on Doubly-Fed Induction Generator

In the original synchronous generator, the excitation
winding of the generator was replaced by a wound-field
induction generator with a set of three-phase rotating
windings fed by a three-phase power converter.

Rebuilding the rotor winding was constructed by using a

narrower air gap than the original synchronous generator
because an induction generator with so many poles will
have a low magnetizing Lm, resulting in low power factor,
which affects the overall efficiency.
With the power converter connected to the rotor winding,
the wound field rotor induction generator can be operated at
variable speed using a partial-rating power converter. Of the
total air gap power of the generator, only a small fraction is
dissipated in the rotor circuits.

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Adjustable-Speed Hydropower Based on Doubly-Fed Induction Generator-2

The total electrical output power generated to the grid is given by:

Advantages and disadvantages of pumped hydro energy storage

It has a comparatively low capital cost per kWh of energy storage and usually has a long lifetime, which mostly
depends on the lifetime of mechanical components. PHES possesses large energy storage capacity which makes it
ideal for grid-scale energy storage and could provide black start capability (meaning that an electricity system
can be restarted after complete collapse of supply without the need for electricity supply to start the
generators) as well as frequency regulation. PHES provides system flexibility and makes it easy for deployment
with intermittent sources such as wind and solar. Another benefit by variable speed operation is that the allowable
operation range in generator mode can be extended.

PHES has characteristics that are well-suited for balancing large amounts of variable, inverter-based wind
and PV. PHES has rapid response (from idle to full output in a time span of 20 s to a few minutes).
PHES has rotational inertia if the generator is spinning, to replace the loss of the rotational inertia
associated with conventional thermal generators when they retire.
There are also drawbacks associated with PHES, which include its relatively lower energy density compared with
some other energy storage systems. It is bedevilled with high construction cost and long construction time in
comparison to most types of power generation plants. The conventional PHES has several environmental concerns
including the destruction of terrestrial wildlife habitat prior to reservoir flooding and disruption of aquatic
ecosystem. Additionally, the construction of this type of PHES inevitably destroys land vegetation and trees,
especially during the creation of the reservoirs.

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Batteries Currently Used in EVs Energy storage systems such as batteries play a critical role in electric vehicles (EVs), plug-
in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). The major battery types currently used in EVs,
PHEVs, and HEVs as energy storage systems include lithium-ion batteries, nickel-metal hydride batteries, lead-acid
batteries, and ultracapacitors.

Hydrogen
Hydrogen use : refineries, fertilizers ,steel production, aviation to transport (i.e.,
fuel cell electric vehicles , reducing agent in primary steel instead of coking coal
and so many, where carbon-based solutions are used presently.
Cost of transport of hydrogen by various mode over distances is
high.
Energy losses are significant for carrier-based storage

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Hydrogen has several “colours”;

• Black hydrogen: Derived from oil or coal and is emission intensive. Grey hydrogen:
derived from steam methane reforming (SMR) of natural gas. The emission intensity is
lower than that for black hydrogen but still, 15-20kgs of carbon dioxide emissions (CO2)
are emitted per kilogram of grey hydrogen synthesis.
• Blue hydrogen: generated by SMR but the carbon produced is captured by CCS
(carbon capture and storage) technologies resulting in reduced emissions. Initially
technology has shown promise but large scale projects are capturing under 40% of
emissions and are often facing time/cost overruns.
• Pink hydrogen: generated by water electrolysis but with electricity derived from
nuclear power plants. Emission intensity is negligible.
• Green hydrogen: generated by electrolysis of water but with electricity sourced from
renewable energy (solar, wind, hydro etc). Some technologies are mature or are near
commercial viability. Renewable hydrogen produced using 100% renewable
electricity for water electrolysis is a near-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) energy
source
• Turquoise hydrogen: generated from pyrolysis of methane. The process has minimal
emissions but is fairly energy intensive and is not commercially mature yet

Hydrogen
Generating hydrogen from fossil fuels has brought about a significant amount of
carbon footprint. However, Hydrogen is a clean burning fuel with no carbon emissions
at the end-use stage;

To eliminate emissions at the generation stage, the target is to produce hydrogen

from electrolysis of water using green energy (renewable energy), which has no
carbon emissions, and the product is known as green hydrogen.
Green hydrogen is a decarbonisation solution for existing hydrogen use.
India has committed to reducing emission intensity by 45% of GDP by 2030, aiming for
energy independence by 2047 and finally Net Zero emissions by 2070.
It is envisaged Hydrogen as a key pathway for decarbonisation; and path towards
energy independence .

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Hydrogen
 Currently, green hydrogen is a costly solution for decarbonisation,.
 The current cost of generating green hydrogen is around USD4-5.5/kg which is
significantly higher than hydrogen generated from fossil fuel sources (USD2.0/kg
breakeven cost).
 However, with incentives, it is being estimated and indeed a challenge that green
hydrogen cost will drop to USD1.6/kg by FY30F (against the government's target of
USD1/kg)
 Green hydrogen production will reach 3.1mntpa in FY30F (against the government
target's of 5.0mntpa).

Hydrogen

 Hydrogen can be produced by reforming of natural gas with steam or by the

electrolysis of water into oxygen and hydrogen.
 Electrolysis of water can be done directly from renewable power.
 The electrolysis operates as follows:
Water (H2O) consists of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) and by using
electrical energy the electrolysis can split water into these two basic elements.
 Technically, two electrodes in a basic electrolysis are connected to a direct current
(DC) supply and once a sufficient high cell voltage is applied to the cell, a redox
reaction occurs.
 The redox reaction produces oxygen at the anode (positive electrode) and
hydrogen at the cathode (negative electrode).
 In order to separate the reaction compartments for hydrogen and oxygen a
proton conducting polymer membrane is used. The membrane is called Proton-
Exchange Membrane (PEM).
 Besides from separating the compartments it also provides the ionic contact
between the electrodes, which is essential for the electrochemical process .

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 Technology is being explored still whether alkaline electrolyser technology or

PEM (polymer electrolyte membrane) or AEM (anion exchange membrane) or
SOEC (solid oxide electrolyser cell) production technologies would dominate in
the long term.
 PEM has the highest technology maturity so far among these. However, the use
of materials like platinum, iridium and titanium makes electrolysers expensive.
 Figure shows how the production of the actual gas takes place on the surface of
the two precious metal electrodes.

 The hydrogen production amount is dependent on how often a plant can run, and
the electrolyzer’ conversion efficiency.
 An estimate made by EU studies : For around 500 kg green hydrogen output per day, 1
megawatt (MW) of installed is reqd. Besides, there is electricity need to compress
hydrogen to the target fueling pressure at 700 bar for fuel cell vehicles(FCVs )

Storage:
 Nanotubes or solid metal hydrides can serve as storage units for hydrogen with a
very high density while man-made underground salt caverns can store truly great
amounts of hydrogen.
 After storing, hydrogen can be converted back to heat or electricity. This
technology can be used as a fuel for portables such as rockets, Vehicles .
 The technology permits leveling during longer periods of excess/deficit of wind-
and solar production and can even balance seasonal variations .
 When used in transportation, hydrogen would need to be supplied to a
hydrogen refueling station (HRS). The hydrogen can be produced at a
central facility and transported to the HRS or directly produced onsite at the
HRS. When produced at a central plant, it must be transported to an HRS
for use in hydrogen vehicles, either by truck or pipeline.
 At-the-pump hydrogen price consists of two main components, hydrogen
production cost and HRS cost (Fig as provided in the EU study report)

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 Oxygen is a by-product of water electrolysis and we assume hydrogen

producers would sell oxygen to bring in additional revenue.

What is the Hydrogen Economy?

• Hydrogen produced using renewable processes.
• Hydrogen produced centrally and piped like natural gas or
shipped by truck.
• Hydrogen can be locally combined with oxygen to produce
electricity (Fuel Cell).
• Vehicles are electric and powered by hydrogen fuel cells
• Houses are heated and cooled with electricity.

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Reasons for a Hydrogen Economy

• Reduce or eliminate emissions of CO2 a gas produced by

burning hydrocarbons that is widely believed to be artificially
accelerating global warming.
• Hydrogen can be produced using energy sources inside the
india allowing us to reduce or eliminate our dependence on
importing oil from other countries.
• Oil based energy sources will eventually run out.
• Hydrogen is used to produce ammonia which is used as a
nitrogen fertilizer.

Other EESSs

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