MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION – III

TOPICS TO BE COVERED:

_ Working Techniques in Glass

_ Sectional Drawings of Glass Windows
_ Sectional Drawing of Roof Glass
_ Introduction to Metals
_ Types of Metals
_ Ferrous Metals
_ Non-Ferrous Metals
_ Classification of Ferrous Metals
_ Iron
_ Pig Iron
_ Cast Iron
GLASS – CONTINUED

WORKING TECHNIQUES IN GLASS:

Glass use is not only in the daily life items like glass, mirrors, lights but also is being used majorly in construction
industry mainly because buildings need openings for light and air.
Glass plays an important role in the indoor environment of the building and with material difference this change
can be noticed. Now a days glass is being used in the windows, doors and roof skylights for penetration of light,
air and aesthetics.
SECTIONAL DRAWINGS OF GLASS WINDOWS:
Following are some of technical layouts of how glass is installed in the windows.
SECTIONAL DRAWINGS OF SKYLIGHT:
Following is technical layouts of how glass is installed in the skylight.
INTRODUCTION TO METALS:

Metals are aiming the most useful building materials. They exist in nature as compounds like oxides, carbonates,
sulphides and phosphates and are known as “ores”. Metals are derived from ores by removing the impurities.
Those used for engineering purposes are classified as ferrous metals, with iron as the main constituent, e.g. cast
iron, wrought iron and steel and others like aluminium, copper, zinc, lead and tin in which the main constituent is
not iron as non ferrous metals.

FERROUS METALS NON-FERROUS METALS

Iron Aluminium
Pig Iron Copper
Cast Iron Lead
Wrought Iron Zinc
Steel Tin
Nickel
STRUCTURES OF FERROUS METALS:
Iron is a pure element occurring in four different allotropic structures as alpha, beta, delta, and gamma iron.
▪ Alpha iron is hard, brittle, possesses magnetic properties and is unable to dissolve carbon.
▪ Beta iron is weak, ductile, non-magnetic and dissolves carbon.
▪ Delta Iron has properties similar to Beta Iron.
▪ Gamma iron absorbs negligible carbon and is non-magnetic.
The delta form is commercially unimportant. Gamma iron containing carbon, is called austenitic and alpha iron ,
is called ferritic. The other steel alloys having same gamma structures are also called austenitic. Similarly alloys
having alpha structure are called ferritic.

STRUCTURES OF NON - FERROUS METALS:

Although the production of individual non-ferrous metals is small in comparison to the iron, the former play an
important part in many engineering structure and industrial processes. The non-ferrous metals and their alloys
are used despite their high cost because they provide a wide variety of properties. Some of the more commonly
used non-ferrous metals are aluminium, copper, tin, zinc, lead and manganese.
IRON:
Iron is by for the most important of the metals used in engineering construction. It is available in abundance,
but does not occur freely in nature. The ores of iron are classed according to the iron mineral which is
predominant. The iron content of the main ores are as follows:

Magnetite (Fe3O4): 70 – 75 %
Haematite (Fe2O3): 70 %
Limonite (2Fe3O3.3H2O): 60 % if it is hydrated haematite
Iron Pyrite (FeS3): 47 %
Siderite (FeCO3): 40 %

The fundamental chemical principles in the extraction of iron from the ores is very simple. Heating the ores in
the presence of a reducing agent will result in the formation of CO2 or CO, liberated as a gas, and metallic iron.
Iron owes its greatest utility to the fact that it alloys freely with other elements, and its inherent properties are
markedly altered and improved for varying conditions of service.
PIG IRON:
The iron ore is dressed by crushing it to about 50 mm cubes.
The impurities are knocked off and the ore is then calcined to
drive off moisture. The calcined ore is smelted in blast furnace.
The iron is de-oxidized and a part of Sulphur is also removed.
Then limestone, which acts as flux*, is added to finally remove
the Sulphur. The molten metal is tapped from the furnace and is
cast in the form of pigs.
CLASSIFICATION:
Pig iron is classified as Bessemer pig, foundry pig, forge pig, and mottled pig.
▪ Bessemer pig derives its name because of its use in the manufacture of steel by Bessemer process
using haematite ore. Impurities such as sulphur, phosphorus and copper are not desirable in the
Bessemer pig.
▪ Foundry pig, also known as grey pig, contains sufficient quantity of free carbon and is produced
when the furnace is provided with sufficient fuel.
▪ When fuel provided is insufficient and if sufficient sulphur is present in the ore forge pig is produced.
This is also known as white pig.
▪ Mottled pig is in between the grey and white varieties. They exhibit mottled fracture.
COMPOSITION:
Pig iron contains 3 - 4 % carbon, 0.5 - 3.5 % silicon, 0.5 - 2% manganese, 0.02 - 0.1 % sulphur and 0.03 – 1 % Phosphorus.

PROPERTIES:
Pig iron is hard and brittle with fusion temperature of 1200°C and melts easily. It can be hardened but cannot be tempered
and magnetized. Its compressive strength is high but is weak in tension and shear. Pig iron does not rust and cannot be
riveted or welded.

USES:
Pig iron is most suitable for making columns, base plates, door brackets, etc.
CAST IRON:
Pig iron is re-melted with limestone (flux) and coke and refined
in Cupola furnace. It is then poured into moulds of desired size
and shape. The product is known as cast iron containing about
2 – 4 % of carbon in two forms, i.e., as the compound
cementite—in a state of chemical combination; and as free
carbon—in a state of mechanical mixture. Carbon in the first
form is called combined carbon, and graphite in the latter form.
The quality of cast iron thus depends upon the state in which
carbon exists in it. The striking difference between steel and
cast iron is that the former is plastic and forgeable while the
latter is not. However, some of the modern cast iron develop a
fair degree or plasticity and toughness.
METHODS OF CASTING:
SAND CASTING:
The most common casting procedure involves pouring molten metal into a cavity in a mass of packed sand.
Wooden patterns are used for moulds which are removed when the sand has dried. Each mould has a hole for
casting through which the molten iron is poured. Air and hot gases escape through another hole. Cast material
is taken out by breaking the mould after iron cools down.

HOLLOW CASTING:
Hollow Casting is used for making columns and piles. For hollow casting of the objects a solid core is placed
where the hollow is to be maintained. After casting the core and mould are taken out. Cast material becomes
hollow due to the core.

VERTICAL SAND CASTING:

The mould box and the solid core is kept in vertical position. Alter cooling the core is taken out by crane. Good
quality pipes can be obtained by this method.
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING:
Many blow holes are left in ordinary casting because of little control over temperature and the sand mould. The problem
is overcome by centrifugal casting. Molten material is poured in a revolving metallic cylindrical mould in a controlled manner,
rotating at the rate of 10,000 revolutions per minute. Large diameter pipes, gun barrels, etc. are cast by this method. The
castings are dense and have a fine-grained structure with uniform and high physical properties. They are least subjected to
directional variations on properties than static castings.

DIE CASTING:
Die casting is cheap for commercial production. Casting is done under pressure, which may be as high as 140 MN/mm2, into a
split die cavity. Since the die is water cooled, the molten metal solidifies quickly, permitting early removal of the casting.
THE END