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 Three Years' Experience
in Education
By AYALEW GABRE SELLASSIE ,
In charge of textbook and curriculum
I
In this article have attempted to sum up some of
the experiences I underwent in directing the revision of
the quality of education in the Ministry of Education in
Ethiopia from 1961-1964 . In the first part a historical
description introduces the reader to the main theme
for presentation . Section two renders a brief account of
current activities . Towards the end , in contemplating
future plans , certain provocative suggestions have been
made .
HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION
Joint Responsibility
Responsibility for education in Ethiopia is shared
among the government , the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church , and various missionary and private organisa-
tions . The eldest of these agencies is , of course , the
church , which had a well developed system of instruc-
tion in existence as long ago as the thirteenth century .
The church has long accepted the responsibility for
teaching children to read and write Amharic , and also
instructs them in church music , verse writing , and
interpretation of the Bible.
Mission schools , private schools , and those established
by various foreign communities are almost entirely
of twentieth century origin . Ethiopia contains about
400 schools of these three types . They cater to approxi-
mately 60,000 students in primary and secondary grades ,
and in some instances receive supervision by a special
department in the Ministry of Education .
The Government School System
The first Ethiopian Government School offering
formal instruction was established in 1905. Three
more schools were established in provincial centers
during the reign of Emperor Menelik . They were
designed to supplement the church school structure and
gave great emphasis to foreign language instruction
which would equip Ethiopians to make effective con-
tact with other countries . Before the Italian occupation
of Ethiopia , Emperor Haile Sellassie I built rapidly on
these foundations . In 1925 while he was still Regent ,
he established the Tafari Makonnen School and during
the early part of his reign , between 1930 and 1935 , some
20 additional schools were established . These included
provision for primary , secondary , technical , and voca-
tional education . Encouragement was given to the
education of girls , particularly in the establishment of
the Empress Menen Girls ' School in 1931 in Addis
Ababa . Thus , before the Italian occupation during
which education for Ethiopians was modified to suit
colonial exploitation , Ethiopia had all the elements of
19
B.A. , M.Ed.
, at the Ministry of Education
a modern education system up to secondary school
level .
After the Italian occupation very serious and ener-
getic measures were taken to restore and expand the
education system which had been started . From 1941
to the present day the government school system has
grown so that it now caters for approximately a little
more than a quarter of a million students in elementary
and secondary schools of all types . There are today
over 700 government schools with over 9,000 teachers .
Included within these totals are 37 secondary schools
of various types (general secondary schools , compre-
hensive high schools , technical schools , agricultural
schools , teacher training schools and a commercial
school ) *
The government school system offers education up to
Grade 12 of the secondary school . In this grade
students sit for the Ethiopian School Leaving Certifi-
cate Examination . On the basis of results in this exami-
nation there is a selection for the various colleges and
I
faculties of the Haile Sellassie University .
THE EARLY PERIOD OF CURRICULUM AND
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT
Following the liberation of Ethiopia in 1941 , the
government took steps to restore an education system
as quickly as possible . In the first years , " foreign
advisers and teachers were instrumental in the forma-
tion of directives given to the nation's schools . The
system obtaining then was somewhat equivalent to that
of the British system in which the headmasters submit
to the Ministry their schedule and curricula which , if
accepted , become the guide for instruction and teaching .
The picture drawn by this method did not make for
uniformity of subject matter taught in equivalent grades
or levels of instruction . " 1 The first curriculum
attempted to correct this situation by standardizing the
curriculum throughout Grade 6. Although there was a
sense of urgency , the Minister of Education attempted
not to act in undue haste without adequate planning ,
and did not finalize and publish the curriculum until
1946.2
The First Curriculum , a 6-6 Structure
The first curriculum was of a 6-6 Structure : 6 years
of elementary education followed by 6 years of
secondary education . It was envisaged that the ele-
mentary program would eventually expand to include.
the work of Grades 7 and 8 , while the secondary
program would then be reduced to Grades 9 through 12 .
Amharic was to be the language of instruction for
all subjects during the first two years ; there was to be matter included the curriculum have been considered

in
a gradual transition to the use of English in Grades 3 only they concern Ethiopia On the other hand the

as

,
.
and 4 in the teaching of art , science , physical training , boy or girl who has completed the various years of
handicraft , music , geography , history , and arithmetic ; work Ethiopian schools will have covered the equiva-

of in
and it was hoped that all pupils " should be able to lent subject matter included the program of any

in
receive their complete instruction in English for the modern school system.6
In order serve Ethiopian children effectively new

to
5th and 6th grades with the exception of course , in the

,
Amharic language . "3 English was to be the medium necessity by prepared especially for

of
textbooks must

,
of instruction at the secondary level . These language such subjects Geography and History

as
Books

in
.
goals proved quite unrealistic in terms of the availability some instances must be translated from other languages
and qualifications of the teachers and the limited num- and printed Amharic.7

in
ber of textbooks , teaching aids , and other classroom The Ministry

of
Education Yearbook for the years
materials . 1949-51 also voiced concern with the functionalism
The objectives of the Curriculum for Grades 1 of education notes that There the evolving con-

It

to is
"
.
through 6 as stated in its Introduction do not differ cept Ethiopian public education

in
shift from passive
radically from those of the present curriculum , but its

to
practical work

of

of
assimilation the academic one
and experience

8
"
.
Lack of Implementation
Unfortunately no effective steps were taken imple-

to
,
For example the

of
ment these statements intent

,
.
secondary school syllabus was based entirely upon the
London School Leaving Certificate Examination with-

,
out regard Ethiopia Although

to

to
its relevance

.
specific body

of
to
students were expected cover sub-

a
ject matter the elementary school syllabus provided

,
teachers with only topical outlines many

in
Teachers

.
instances were provided neither with textbooks nor with
specific titles for their use Yet teaching

of
suggestions

.
secure uniformity subject matter

of
to
was intended

in
"
schools throughout the Empire

of
Teachers science

"9
.
personal and house-

in
to
were expected give instruction
hold hygiene botany plant and animal biology geology
,
-
,

,
astronomy physics and chemistry all without specified
,

teaching materials but with uniformity subject

of
"
a
99
matter
"
.

The teacher of geography was advised that he must

rely great extent on his own knowledge

of
" to
"

10 a

.
. Ethiopia of The

of
. w
**** because lack adequate texts
the

.
. curriculum also interestingly advises when the teacher

,
discusses the towns rivers roads and mountains of
,

,
Ethiopia that avoid all confusing detail he should
to
,

not use any printed map but draw the map on the
"

board for each lesson When teaching about the

"
to .

world he advised ball he lacks proper

is

use
if
a

a
globe and ignore teaching the seasons the year

of
to

if
he doubts his ability -but
to

teach them correctly12

.
during the period that this curriculum was effect he
in
was provided with no teaching materials which could
help him improve his knowledge
or

abilities
.

The history curriculum notes specifically that uniform

. . textbooks are to be desired for Grades and and that
5

Cover illustration of an Ethiopian Ministry of Information Natural

either English or Amharic
at
in

Science textbook for the second year of primary school none was available the
time the curriculum was issued In lieu of textbook an
a
.

content displays considerably more naivete ex- outline of subject matter was provided for the teacher
It
.

presses the hope that every Ethiopian boy and girl can which was intended to enable him to take sufficient
66
cope with the needs material from available world history textbooks but its
to

secure an education adequate

,

of detail scarcely encourages uniformity

of

of

modern world The curriculum described as

is

lack instruc-
4
a

"
.

providing one of the first steps making education tion For instance the Grade History of Africa Section
in

6
"

,
.

uniform and adaptable has the following the complete description

of

every community throughout

to

as

content
Two extremely meaningful paragraphs for the study
of

the land North Africa Outline History

of

North
"5

"
.

13 ,

were to the effect that Africa including Ethiopia

of

With no suggestion the

:

to "
.

Each subject periods topics receive emphasis consider-

in

of

or

the curriculum has been dealt with time

,

way the Empire able discretion left to the individual teacher Yet the
to

to
as

is

such make most useful

in

it
a

.
.

Standards of education
in

other countries and subject desirable were not produced

as

textbooks described
.

20
1
 ATTHY

-
ole

. .
Cover of a Natural Science textbook used by students in their fifth year of primary studies

21
 Mathematics textbooks and teachers ' guides contained
universal principles but foreign application of them .
Arithmetic teachers of Grades 1 and 2 (as well as
teachers of other subjects ) were expected to be bilingual
in English and Amharic in order to translate American
texts into the Amharic language of instruction . These
books dealt with American weights and measures .
Mathematics books for the upper grades were written
mainly for British students and required a knowledge
of the British Isles , the British system of weights and
. .
Cover of a Social Studies textbook used by primary school students in
their fifth year
measures . While the people of Ethiopia were using
the metric system with the dollar ( 100c ) , meter , kilo
meter , hectare , gasha (40 hectares ) , gram , wakeit (28
gms .) , kilogram , farasula ( 17 kgs .) quintal ( 100 kgs .)
liter, kunna (5 liters ) , inkib (25 liters ) , dawla ( 100 liters) ,
kind , sinzir , gat, chamma , irmija , irbe , etc , the students
were spending their time in the study of pounds ,
shillings and pence ; inches , feet , yards , chains , furlongs ,
and miles ; ounces , pounds , hundred weights ; gills , pints ,
quarts , and gallons ; square chains , acres , and square
miles . The average Ethiopian had never used a pound
weight , or a yardstick or a shilling piece or a gallon
measure , the distances travelled between Manchester
and Birmingham . While it was recognized that a know
ledge of foreign systems was necessary for those pupils
who would pursue higher education , emphasis upon
these systems was not warranted for the entire body of
students . Most students would have received greater
22
profit from study of mathematics in an Ethiopian
context .
In the teaching of Amharic on the elementary level ,
due to both a recognition of the Christian heritage of
the country and an inability to find other suitable text
material , the Bible was selected as the textbook for
Grades 1 through 4. As the nation has a large non
Christian population and this particular text is often a
subject of dispute by adult scholars , it was scarcely an
ideal selection for pupils at the youngest age level . The
teaching of English was also found to require consider
able improvement as pupils were not gaining sufficient
fluency in the language during the elementary school to
provide them with the background required in second
ary school .
In general , although the goals of the first curriculum
were carefully conceived , considerable work remained
before they could be achieved .
The Second Curriculum , an 8-4 Structure
In line with the suggestion made in the first curri
culum , Grades 7 and 8 were soon made part ef the
elementary school . This was done largely because of
the difficulties in learning English . It was believed
that a more thorough training in the language was
desirable before students attempted work on a
secondary level . Advocates of the change also recog
nized that many Ethiopian youths dropped out of
school after completing the elementary cycle . They
claimed that if these pupils were to remain in school
for an additional two years , not only would they gain
further education and training , but they would also
achieve greater maturity and suitability for employ
ment . In addition , the change took into account the
beliefs of the rest of the world following World War
II. In almost all countries there was a desire to extend
and expand the period of elementary education .
Until about one year ago all schools in Ethiopia ,
with the exception of experimental schools described
below , followed a system which consisted of eight years
of elementary education and four years of secondary
education . The language of instruction from Grade 4
was supposed to be English . Each of these sequences of
education , the eight year period and the four year
periods , was a complete whole . There was neither
direct continuity between them nor an intermediate
stage .
The course outlines as specified in the curricula for
Grades 7 and 8 were given in somewhat more detail
than those which had been listed in the earlier
volume covering the lower grades . To the extent that
they provided for greater standardization of instruction ,
they were an improvement . However , based on foreign
texts , they were no more closely geared to the needs of
the unsophisticated Ethiopian student than was the
earlier volume . For instance , science during those years
called for little , if any , mention of personal or com
munity hygiene , human nutrition , health or safety
measures , agriculture or the conservation of natural
resources . It was highly theoretical in content and
dealt with such items as the planets , magnetism , ex
pansion of solids and liquids , carbon dioxide and car
bonates , the atmosphere and combustion , the Bunsen
burner and blowpipes , life histories and classifications of
various plants and animals . Little of this content had

of
Time Book Big Country

of
Little Stories

a
) ,

I,
practical application for the pupil in a rural agricul America and Little Stories of the Well Known

-
tural setting . Americans

.
The syllabi for history reflect the foreign texts on The geography curriculum concluded with the state
which they were based . In Grade 7 , a British text is ment that the course had taken the form of detailed
used . The first term is devoted entirely to England study of the home area and Ethiopia and was an

of

,
and British expansion in Canada and India ; the second introduction to World Geography There can be no
term is devoted to America and France and bio

.
question that be so but how could

to
intended

it
it

,
graphical information about individuals who made with texts consisting of Stembridge's five books
contributions to these countries or Britain ; the third

:
Seeing the World Book Africa Asia and Australia

,
I;
,
term at least sees fit to mention Africa , but only insofar

,
Book The World We Live In Book III The World

II;

,
as it relates to David Livingstone and H. M. Stanley . Wide Geography Book and VII These were read

V
,
The American text used as basis for history in Grade 8

.
conjunction with Evans Australia and Africa Book

II; in

,
includes a unit on Ancient Egypt, but there is no fur

'
map book and an atlas

.
ther mention of Africa in the syllabus . On the contrary ,
the outline for second term begins with the notation The English curriculum more openly recognized the
inadequacy the texts adopted for

to
attempted
that " our " civilization begins with the Teutons and

of

it
,
incorporate elements teacher's guide

of
fighting tribes from the north . While the

.
The syllabi of other subjects similarly showed a lack
of relevance to Ethiopian needs .
This 8-4 curriculum was criticized on a number of
grounds . One of the main criticisms dealt with the
fact that it provided for only one type of education .
Without diversified streaming of students into different
types of classes , all students could not reach their full
potential , some would receive the type of education for
which they were not best suited , and the many areas of
need to be served by an educated populace would not
be adequately served . Another often heard criticism
dealt with the language problem . With pupils trying to
learn both foreign language and content during their ele
mentary years , they had difficulty grasping either . The
average pupil completing Grade 8 retained practically
nothing of what she should have learned in the lower
grades . Elimination of the language problem would
mean that greater emphasis could be given to content
of the various subjects taught .

The Third Curriculum : Experimental Curriculum

Because it was recognized that further improvement
would someday be made , five schools were provided
with an experimental curriculum.14 It was presumed
that after study and revision this curriculum would
then serve as the basis for any future change . Advo
cates of this curriculum considered it radically different
in many respects , but it still reflected a non - Ethiopian
bias . Amharic was used as the language of instruction 1.203
throughout Grades 1-6 , but foreign text - books written in
English continued in use . This meant that although the
curriculum showed greater relationship to the needs of
the Ethiopian pupil , there could be no implementation
/

in the texts provided the teachers . In addition , even this Cover of an Arithmetic textbook used in the fifth year of primary studies
curriculum remained very theoretical in content and
made rather unrealistic demands upon immature pupils .
the teacher should have proved of
to

suggestionsmade
For instance , history for Grade 3 , the second year in
some help they could not stand lieu of systematized
in

which it was taught , sought that pupils be introduced to

a
,

progressively difficult language content pre

of

how history is written , the concept of time and the con course
pared with carefully delineated methology
of

cept of space , as well as the methods used by historians instruc

a

for gathering data . Other units during these early tion both of which are required for adequate teaching
,

grades dealt with various periods in the history of Syllabi and texts for health home making and agri
,

-
its

culture showed considerably more relationship

its

of

government development communi

to

Ethiopia , need
,

cation and its culture Yet the British and American than had the earlier curriculum but needlecraft con
,

,
.

texts in no way offered content pertinent

to

give disproportionate emphasis

to

to

these tinued the

a

Ethiopian areas Adopted history texts consisted of decoration of articles rather than to their more vital
III
.

construction altering maintenance and repair

of

The March The Stream

11

Time Books and

,

I,
,

23
 48 . . 354 . .

7769.9 .

138

? ?

mall lllls ` "

1 . .

( ) A picture story of Greece used in Ethiopian primary schools

24
 1 1.
S.P.G.R

7.TH

16 . . 1 . . 1833 .

1. ?
?
( ?9 )
2. ?
?
5. „
?
4. ?
5. ?

125

25
 In general , although the Experimental Curriculum
was an improvement over its predecessors and reflected
the thought given to its construction , it was but a half-
way measure. It had not gone far enough in formu-
lating an appropriate curriculum and had scarcely
moved ahead at all in implementing the one it did
formulate .
? operations had to be drawn up , approved , and followed .
A new approach to natural studies at the primary level : diagram showing
co-ordination of brain and eye
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN STRUCTURE
AND CONTENT
Groundwork for Change
Since 1955 the Ministry of Education has been pre-
paring for a new school structure and curriculum . This
26
was the subject of experiment in five pilot ( experi-
mental ) schools for a period of years before specific
changes were advocated in other schools . Before any
further changes in the curriculum could rightfully be
suggested , the situation required thoroughgoing analysis .
There had to be a clear delineation of objectives , pro-
blems , possible procedures , resources , and requirements
of time , manpower , and money . A calendar of
On the basis of the foregoing criticisms levied against
the 8-4 structure , combined with personal observation ,
it was apparent that several problems inherent in change
had to be solved before any worthwhile change could
take place , and that a priority of needs existed . These
problems and priorities included the following :
( 1) The curriculum was not reflected in the texts
and so could not be implemented and carried out ;
once the curriculum was definitely established , new
texts were of paramount importance .
( 2) With the needs of educational expansion as great
as they were , we sometimes hurried along duplicating
efforts instead of profiting from the experience of others .
This created a waste of time , money and manpower .
For instance , we attempted to write textbooks without
taking into account the findings of foreign research . We
paid little if any attention to group psychological be-
haviour , word frequency or sentence patterns of graded
difficulty .
In our attempts to provide books that did not reflect
foreign culture , we neglected to provide sufficient ex-
position of ideas or continuity in the treatment of varied
subject matter . Writers have withdrawn from foreign
texts much content not pertinent to the Ethiopian
student , but they have not substituted sufficient material
reflective of local culture . Attempts to keep language
simple have sometimes resulted in insufficient explana-
tion . Understanding of the subject matter has suffered
through lack of appropriate organization of books into
units , chapters , and sub -chapters . In general , our
attempts to provide textbooks have been characterized
by insufficient groundwork in knowledge of the
educational process .
If
(3 ) there had been a sufficient number of qualified
teachers , many of the other problems would not have
existed . There has been an appalling failure to retain
those teachers who are capable and to train additional
ones , particularly at the secondary level . Many capable
teachers have lacked motivation to remain in their posi-
tions because of low social status , lack of increment in
salaries , and better paying jobs elsewhere . Efforts to-
ward recruitment , training and retention of teachers
had to be made .
Many of the teachers employed were substandard and
in situations in which long careful training was
desirable . Part of the solution would be to provide
teachers with handbooks to supplement the texts .
These would contain careful delineation of teaching
objectives and procedures .
(4 ) Textbooks and handbooks would not meet the
entire need because of lack of facilities at many of the
schools . Teachers had to be given concrete assistance
in the use of teaching aids : informed as to their
function , furnished them , and shown how to obtain or
construct them .
(5 ) In the past the Ministry of Education had various
advisers and experts in different phases of its work . There had been notable lack teaching

of

in
success

9
)
(
Although these people have been knowledgeable in sufficient English the medium of instruction

to
make

it
their fields , they have largely been unfamiliar with during the final years the six year elementary period

of

.
Ethiopia and specific problems This lack of Neither teachers nor pupils were equipped

its

to
handle

.
familiarity has served opinion this language Yet knowledge the English language

of

of
to
create difference

.
among them and has decreased the value of their vital for effective teaching the language of East

It
is

is
.
recommendations Although we should make full use Africa and the non African world necessary for

is
it
-

;
.
of the experience and opinion qualified people from reading supplement classroom instruction

of
will

to

it
;
other countries when their services are available greater be the language this country's university for the fore

of
,
emphasis might profitably be placed upon their know seeable future

.
ledge the Ethiopian scene Now that the academic world recognized language
of

as
.
No way existed for the valid evaluation was felt that should be scientifically

of
student science

it

it
(6

a
)

,
achievement studied from the point The study

of
Standardized tests were necessary for view of Amharic
.

.
use at each grade level way

to
as
should be treated such establish that

in

in
a
.

Generally speaking could be said that Ethiopia given number of years instruction can yield positive
it

a
7
(
)

,
has historically been interested educating only boys
in results within predetermined range and that these

,
.
Church school educated girls were considered results should be an improvement over these we have

as
Greek
godesses powerful bring about their wroth upon those the past
to

obtained

in

.
who mistreated them Because of the considerable As of the present date we have taken the first step
.

,
impact that society received from its female members all these problems but certain

of
toward correction

,
be given the edu priorities remain
to
greater encouragement needed
to

.
cation of girls Priority Number One based upon the problem of

is
.

Considerable difficulty had been experienced language preparation

in in
standardized graded

of
It
is
(8
)

,
.
Amharic and
to

English particularly

in
the transition from Amharic progressively more difficult material
,

scientific ter English taking into account the transition from one
of

or

subjects which the use technical

in

,
minology was required Illustrated scientific technical language into the other

.
.

lecture books to smoothen this transition would have Priority Number Two the problem

of
over aged

is

-
be created by qualified linguists
to

pupils from an agricultural setting

to
necessary

It
is
.

.
OCMENT
7277

?
»
"

"
"
”

now
»
"

15
Relating taught the child's experience three ways
in

in
to

of

what school the world which accidents can be caused

is

27

.
VA
V ...1362
A sketch illustrating the child's natural curiosity
make education a tool of rural cultural development ,
to make it a means of training people in rural areas
in the needs , development , and satisfaction of an agri-
cultural environment .
Priority Number Three is a problem based upon the
practices of the past twenty years . It is that difficulty
created by the continuous change in curriculum structure
and content and the concurrent shifting of emphasis .
This has been done before the results of any one pro-
gram have been fully realized , and before they can
have been evaluated . In a sense the problem of educa-
tion in Ethiopia is one of too rapid development . It has
been undertaken on so large a scale and has grown
so fast that no one knows what to do at any given
time . Students who are familiar with history in the
European sense are baffled by this unprecedented
experience . Hence original and feasible thinking and
foresight is called for .
contented , productive members of society . Planning
has recognized also that an adequate secondary educa-
tion must rest upon the solid foundation of educational
discipline and principles instilled in the pupil at the
elementary level .
Amharic became the language of instruction through-
out the elementary level . The dual problem of language
and content was now reduced to the problem of only
content . Pupils ' earlier knowledge of the language of
instruction means that some of the content which
formerly was taught only in the higher grades can now
be taught in the lower grades .
The pupils ' progress in the elementary school was
further aided by the production and distribution of new
textbooks in Amharic . These embody the traditional
values of the nation , take into account the most fun-
damental needs of the pupils without erroneous
assumptions about their life experiences or standards
of living, and give appropriate emphasis to the pupils '
Own community , country and continent without
undue concentration on foreign countries or conditions .
However , these texts were based on the best models
available from foreign cultures . To take advantage of
their publishing and educational experience , it was
recognised that an adaptation , rather than a discarding ,
of their work was necessary . Thus substitution of
appropriate cultural variables was made , but much of
the foundation of these proved educational tools
27
47

Changes in Structure 69
The foregoing list of needs suggested the desirable
form for some modifications in the over - all structure .
The transition towards the new system in all govern-
ment schools began at the opening of the present school
year . The structure of the curriculum was changed to 83
provide for an elementary period of six years and a
secondary period of six years . The latter period was
divided into two cycles : a junior secondary cycle of two
years and a senior secondary cycle of four years . Each
had an emphasis different from the corresponding period 107
of the earlier program .

Changes at the Elementary Level

Curriculum planning has recognized that the ele-
mentary school is terminal for many pupils and that it 139
must therefore provide them with sufficient fundamental
knowledge , concepts , and ideals to help them become The page of contents in a primary school textbook

28
 59.

-
–

EY 582054

EY 582054 State Bank ofEthiopia

ONE ETHIOPIAN DOLLAR
SECURITYBANKNOTE
COMPANY

How the decimal system is taught : examples drawn from Ethiopian currency

29
remains . It is hoped that as more and more experience
is gained in the use of these books that further improve
ment will be made . The production of these texts is
described more fully below .
Modifications were made in several subject areas .
The Social Studies programme was expanded to include
a broad base of fundamental knowledge as well as
understanding of their country . Rudimentary aspects
of economics , civics , history , geography and moral
instruction are dealt with in order to help each pupil
see his role in a developing country . Teaching begins
with that area most familiar to the pupil and then
branches out into ever - widening areas . The syllabus
for Grade 2 deals with the home , its contents and
family relationships . Its text is called Living Together
at Home and is accompanied by a manual . Grade 3
deals with improving living conditions and social
relations in town and country , enumerates several con
cepts to be taught and has as its text Living Together
in Towns and Cities , accompanied by a manual .
Grade 4 deals with Ethiopia and Africa and also has
texts specifically prepared for the content enumerated
in the syllabus The same is true of the later grades .
Science emphasised the importance of and relationship
between health and safety . It is presented with a rural
bias appropriate to the environment of the pupils .
Mathematics is being presented with an attempt to
show the pupil it deals with units of time ; differences
between Ethiopian and European usage of clock and
calendar ; Ethiopian monetary units and postage , the
metric system of measurements as used in Ethiopia ,
and other more conventional content . It is offered in
terms that might stimulate economic productivity , and
in terms that the pupil is taught to apply to cultural
as well as to scientific measurement .
The language programmes are still receiving the
most thoroughgoing research of any subject fields .
They are undergoing serious observation and study
as a means of determining the type of curriculum best
suited to a student body of whom two languages of
instruction are demanded : Amharic at the elementary
-
and English at the secondary level . Subjects of lesser
academic importance arts , crafts , music , physical
education are recognised as having their role in the
formation of both body and personality . Their cur
riculums incorporate both the contributions and limita
tions of the pupils enviroments . They draw upon the
habits , materials , and customs known to the pupils.15
Textbooks for the Elementary Level
Textbooks for this implementation of the curricu
lum were obtained by a procedure that hopefully would
provide the most suitable books possible . A perusal
of elementary texts from other African countries
indicated that they had important variables which were
dependent upon their cultures , as well as material
which was common to them all . It was evident that
our need was to provide texts that would apply the
constants and would contain those variables which were
reflective of Ethiopian culture .
In the new attempt to find or create appropriate
texts for all grades , the task was made extremely
difficult because of the language factor . The situation
regarding English usuage in Ethiopia differed from
30
that of any other country . People with linguistic
ability were needed , but little work had yet been done
in regard to the relationship of the two languages of
the educational system .
Therefore after the preliminary work of defining
content , the first step was to give an examination to
200 third and fourth year college students in mathema
tics , science , and social studies . On the basis of the
results , five people who majored in each of these three
fields were selected . We thus had 15 people to work
on the draft in their respective three academic fields .
The head of the Ethiopian Linguistics Section also
provided five of his best people . It was agreed that
they would help in the cultural context , in the con
sistency and use of words , and in the overall language
problem . The drafted manuscripts were then sub
mitted to the language groups for correction . This
latter group added a glossary of technical and scientific
terms in Amharic with their English equivalents .
The work of these 20 people was then submitted to
psychologists for their critical evaluation . They made
suggestions relative to child development and experi
ence at the various age levels for which the texts were
prepared . They also made suggestions to the artists
who were to provide illustrations .
When suitable revisions had been made on the basis
of the psychologists ' suggestions , the material was sub
mitted to five subject specialists for their criticism , and
further revision was made when appropriate . Because
of the awareness of need and application of effort , all
of these procedures were accompanied in a ten month
period .
After that period of time the following manuscripts
were ready for printing :
-
Grades 1-6 Science , with teacher's guide for each
grade 12 books .
-
Grades 1-6 Mathematics
each grade 12 books .
with teacher's guide for
-
Grades 2-6 Social Studies with teacher's guide for
each grade 10 books (This subject is not formally
taught in Grade 1 ) .
1-6 year teacher's guide in arts , crafts and music
1 book .
1-6 year teacher'sguide in agriculture -- 1 book .
-
3 series of home science books for girls 3 books .
Total books prepared in ten months 39 books .
These manuscripts were given to four printers on the
basis of tender submitted . They were to be ready for
school distribution in a six month period . His
Imperial Majesty and appropriate governmental
authorities approved these books for use all over the
empire one year ago , April , 1963. They have since
been put into use as planned .
During the next 3-5 years we are planning ways to
accumulate information about their use . Thus their
effectiveness might be increased as new editions of the
material are printed to replace those volumes which
become obsolescent through use . It will of course be
six years before we can see students who will be visible
products of the curriculum . At that time a more com
plete evaluation can be made .
Basis for Change on the Secondary Level : the Together with the recommendations regarding

(1
)
:
Tananarive Conference the teaching specific subject fields and the adop

of

of (2
)
practical measures

of
facilitating

as
tion
It was obviously desirable that any programme means

a
curriculum reform the statements of these experts
established for Ethiopia be in accord with sound

,
served to provide an invaluable source

of
reference
educational philosophy and that no change in the

.
The report when considered conjunction with per

in
existing programme be made without justification . An

,
sonal observation and experience provided concrete
important statement of philosophy and problems as

a
,
basis for analysis

of
Ethiopia's existing programme

,
standards by which the need for changes might be
determined procedures for effecting such changes and
A REGIONAL

,
SURVEY methodology for implementing the changes

at
the
teaching and administrative levels Such adaptations

.
planned the Ethiopian school

or
as
have been made

in
secondary school curriculum have been

in
accordance
with the recommendations this report

of

.
Basis for Change on the Secondary Level Group

:
Participation
was readily recognised that the most effective

It
programme for the adaptation the secondary school

of
curriculum would be obtained with the interest and
co peration people

of of

of
the greatest number The

.
-o
initial states domestic planning recognised the value
which might be obtained the participation repre

in

of
sentative personnel who were familiar with the subject
be taught and experienced various educa

to
matter

of in
tional fields Therefore series meetings was

a
.
contemplated

.
Curriculum had been the Ethiopian

to of
The Director
representative the above mentioned Tananarive

-
Conference Immediately following the conference and

,
.
philosophy for each subject

its

to
line with be
in

,
taught he drafted an outline containing the tentatively
AUSTRALIA desirable content Each of these outlines served as

a
.
working paper for specific subject matter area and

,
discussion by specialists
NEW ZEALAND

in
that

of
each was the focus
each subject

in
subject matter area Sub committees

-
.
area met inumerable times The chairman of each
LATIN AMERICA

.
and sub committee was member of General Committee

a
a
-

.
of
in
This group met 24 times discussion the overall
programme The Committees were composed of
.

as
practising senior teachers educators con
at as
well ,

Cover of a geography textbook for secondary schools : this book is used cerned with teacher training Haile Sellassie Univer

I
in the ninth grade
sity
.

of
In March 1963 this group submitted draft

a
they applied to developing nations in Africa was found
,

revised curriculum Three months later was

it
.

in the report of a conference of educational experts approved after further discussion questions about of
held in Tananarive , Madagascar , in July , 1962 . policy and examinations The opinions and recom
.

in
These experts met to discuss the adaptation of the mendations expressed were also incorporated the
general secondary school curriculum in Africa . Cur later teaching material produced for implementation of
riculum adaptation was recognised as a problem the curriculum envisaged that these meetings
It
is
.

throughout Africa , particularly in those nations which of providing constant

as

will continue means

a
a

had a colonial history . In Ethiopia there had for many surveillance of the work progress to support the
in

years been talk of curriculum adaptation , but few putting

of

final form
in
as

revised curriculum means

a
;

concrete steps had been taken . However , the Tana the teaching
of
the revisions particularly
of

in

some
,

narive conference served to crystallise thinking on the Amharic and English which are now tentative and
,

subject and served as a basis for much of the sub further study and means of bringing
as

subject
to

a
;

sequent work that has been done . The conference adminstrative attention the opinions of practising
to

served as a springboard to change . teachers The opinions and judgments of these

.

The final report of the conference provided a com specialists familiar with Ethiopian education will pro
or

vide bases for adopting such procedures

or

prehensive view of its topic of discussion . It was aids

,

may later prove

to as

explicit in defining the secondary school curriculum's making such modifications

,

importance to developing nations , enumerating its desirable They will also serve highlight those areas
.

or

objectives and discussing necessary adapta which teacher training might be improved
in
of
its

areas
tion supplemented
.

31
Changes Effected on the Secondary Level
Movement towards a 2-4 year division of the
secondary school system is now taking place . The first
two years (the junior secondary school ) is viewed as
an opportunity for transition from the elementary to
the senior secondary school . Approximately one -third
of the instructional time is devoted to exploratory
activities in agriculture , commerce and industrial arts
which will enable a student to select the field of studies
best related to his aptitude and ability in the senior
secondary school .
In the junior secondary school the important transi-
tion from Amharic to English as the medium of
instruction also takes place .
A four -year course in the senior secondary school
offers a choice of specialisation between purely
academic courses , agricultural courses , commercial
courses and industrial arts courses and leads to the
Ethiopian School Leaving Certificate Examination .
It could also be contemplated that specialised
technical and vocational schools such as the Bahr Dar
Technical School , the Commercial School of Addis
Ababa and the Elementary School Teacher Training
programme could be started at the completion of fourth
year , i.e. tenth grade . These could be for a duration
of two to four years depending on the demand and type
of training .
Changes in Content
Three volumes of clearly defined new curriculums
have been prepared , each volume dealing with related
subjects . Volume One is concerned with Amharic ,
English , French , geography , history , mathematics and
the physical and biological sciences . Volume Two is
concerned with home economics , agriculture , industrial
arts and commercial training . Volume Three is con-
cerned with physical education , music , art , crafts ,
Ge'ez , bookkeeping and economics .
The syllabus for Amharic is considered a temporary
revision . The final plan awaits the report of a study
group reviewing the overall problem and the changes
required by the current move to the use of Amharic
as the medium of instruction in elementary schools .
Similarly the English syllabus will withhold any major
changes pending the report of a special committee set
up by the Ministry of Education in conjunction with
the Haile Selassie I University .
The study of French now emphasised the student's
ability to use the language in practical situations , rather
than his knowledge of the structure and development
of the language . In mathematics there is an attempt
to view the subject as a unified whole in accordance
with modern academic thinking , i.e. axiomatic
approach . Encouragement is given to a deeper under-
standing of mathematical concepts and principles ,
rather than upon rote memorisation of rules and
theorems . In science the broad outline of the course
remains unchanged but there are two modifications in
approach : ( 1) General science is taught as a unified
subject with less emphasis on division into the specific
sciences of biology , physics and chemistry . Students
learn some aspects of all of these sub - topics in each
grade and are given a greater appreciation of their
relationship ; (2) The whole syllabus has been placed
in an Ethiopian and African context . In addition ,
32
there is a strong emphasis on practical applications
of science in health , agriculture and the thinking
process .
In geography the new syllabus strengthens the study
of Africa and Ethiopia . The approach to other
regions on the earth is largely through topics which
have relevance to African and Ethiopian problems .
These are considered in the light of potential economic
development . The new programme also illustrates
general principles of geography and leads to an under-
standing of the world scene in general . The remodel-
ling of the history syllabus provides for a parallel study
of Ethiopian , African and world development . Each
year's course is divided into units treating each of these
geographic areas during specific time periods . Con-
siderably greater detail is provided in the study of
Africa and Ethiopia than was specified in the previous
curriculum and the impact of these areas on the world
scene is considered.17
Teaching Aids
Following distribution of the revised curriculum ,
immediate attention was paid to the preparation ,
duplication and distribution of pamphlets to assist
teachers in adapting their old curriculums to the revised
curriculums . These compared the old and the new
syllabi , discussed new materials and offered specific
suggestions for easing the transition period .
Detailed curriculum guides are also contemplated
for each teacher , both to help him present his subject
most adequately while meeting any special require-
ments of his particular school , and also to provide a
general outline of the desirable content of the teaching
subject . These guides contain suggestions for im-
plementation of the curriculum , such as definition and
description of aims , methods and materials ; potential
reference texts and lesson plans ; alternate activities
from which a teacher might make a selection best
suited to local conditions ; and corollary aids . It is
believed that their use will constitute a big step for-
ward in standardising education throughout the empire .
The Curriculum Division of the Ministry of Education
has already prepared , duplicated and distributed such
guides in home economics , agriculture and geography .
It is purchasing from UNESCO and will soon have
ready for distribution five guides for the teaching of
the natural sciences in tropical schools . These deal
with general science , biology , chemistry and physics .
For the teaching of mathematics , the teacher's guide ,
as well as the students ' texts , are being obtained from
a group known as the " Entebbe Mathematics Work-
shop ." This workshop at Entebbe , Uganda , was com-
posed of mathematics teachers of experience drawn
from Africa , the United States and Britain . They have
made a start on the production of a complete set of
mathematics textbooks for a six - year secondary school
programme , geared to the needs , interests and experi-
ences of the African student . This series of texts is
an adaptation of a new programme in mathematics
produced in the United States . The Ministry of Educa-
tion intends to provide each teacher with a guide
pertinent to his teaching subject . Guides for teaching
subjects not listed above are now under preparation .
Textbooks for the Secondary Level
The Tananarive Conference served to emphasise the
dearth of suitable textbooks throughout Africa . The
lay public as well as education specialists on this con
tinent have generally agreed that one of the most
serious handicaps to adequate education was the lack
of texts written with an African perspective , written
specifically for the African student with an attempt
to deal with those subjects of greatest concern to him ,
to give him pride in his heritage , and to assist him in
assuming a participating role in his country's develop
ment .
To meet this need for books , it was apparent that
the Curriculum Division would have to assume some
responsibility for their preparation . However , it
obviously was neither expedient nor economical to
ignore the work already done in the educational pub
lishing field . Prepared by scholars , tested in class
rooms , and published by highly reputable houses in
England and the United States , much of the material
already available needed only modification or sup
plementation to meet our secondary school needs . On
the other hand , there was little commercially published
in other nations which was completely acceptable
without modification . These works were written for
students whose mother tongue was English , students
whose culture and experience were different from those
of Ethiopian students , students whose needs were of a
different nature .
Textbook authorship of original preparation ,
adaptation of existing texts , and purchase of existing
texts
To fill this vacuum , three primary measures were
used . With such subjects as history , geography and
biology , the Curriculum Division contracted with
qualified scholars , living and teaching in Addis Ababa ,
to prepare texts in accordance with the content of the
revised curriculum . Although some of those were
Textbook Production
This intensive secondary level textbook production
programme was launched in May , 1963. Since that
date , 15 manuscripts have been solicited , of which
seven have been published . During the coming months
it is hoped that the remaining eight will be published .
Thereafter , it will be necessary to publish at least an
additional 15 books to complete the programme . The
following texts are ready now or will be ready for
distribution before the start of the 1964-65 school
year : science , Grade 7 and 8 ; biology , Grades 9 , 10 ,
DIAMA
Fig . 32 Food chain: Can you show.
the relationships?
Moreover , a friend or an enemy, as
these terms are commonly used, is not
always even another plant or animal.
Any condition that improves the wel
fare of an organism or otherwise makes
its survival easier is its friend. Likewise
any condition that injures it or kills it
is its enemy.
On the following pageswill be found
many examples of conditions or
organisms that are friends to some
living things and enemiesto others.

contributed free of cost , in most cases a nominal pay 1. Sunlight

ment of E $ 500 was given for each manuscript . With
such subjects as physics , chemistry and industrial arts ,
in which internationally known texts almost entirely
suitable were already available , these teachers made
adaptations to help such texts meet the needs of the
Ethiopian student . For this procedure , permission was
received from American publishers and U.S. $ 100 was
paid them in royalty for each of their texts so adapted .
In instances in which no individual could be found
happen to make the survival of man or
some other organism easier. An enemy
is one whose efforts to survive make
man's or another organism's survival
more difficult or impossible.
-34
A "food chain " : a page from a secondary
Sunlight is necessary to some
organisms, of benefit to many others,
and harmful to still others. It is not
certain yet, however, whether in many
casesthe effects of sunshine are due to
its light , its heat, other forms of its
radiant energy, or combinations of
school textbook

who was competent in subject area and also able to

write expository material in a suitably simple style of
English , groups of people assisted . In some cases
Ministry staff prepared texts under the supervision of
the Curriculum Division . The Ministry was fortunate
at this time in having in their employ over two hundred
Peace Corps Volunteers who were subject to the former
curriculum and reacted violently . When they learned
that revision was contemplated , many rushed to assist
with the printing , illustrating , editing , proof - reading ,
and in some cases , adapting of material .
As noted above , the mathematics textbooks are
based on those of the Entebbe Mathematics Conference ,
and purchased from the agency distributing them .
These books are specially adapted to African require
ments .
33
11 , and 12 ; history , Grades 7 , 8, 9 , 10 , and 11 ; geog
raphy , grades 7 and 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ; music ,
Methodology of the Mashenko ; Methodoly of Kerrer ;
mathematics , grades 7 and 8 , handbooks for home
economics and agriculture ; teachers ' handbooks for
geography , grades 11 and 12. Other manuscripts are
now in a state of preparation and their date of publica
tion cannot be clearly predicted . Attempts are being
made to adhere to a schedule that would have all
material for grades 7-9 completed in 1964 ; that for
grades 8-10 completed in 1965 ; that for grade 11 com
pleted in 1966 ; and that for grade 12 completed in
1967 .
production programme has been run with
The entire
a minimum of fuss . Payments for authorship and
 royalties have been nominal and the use of Peace
Corps Volunteers in Ministerial employment has
sharply reduced production staff costs . Printing costs
were based upon sealed bids from the leading printers
in Ethiopia . The printer selected is meeting specifica
tions at a cost considerably lower than that bid by his
competitors . Monotype tapes of the copy are produced
in England and are then used in Addis Ababa to
produce Monotype galleys . This procedure has enabled
the Ministry to keep its editing staff to an absolute
minimum . Copy set in Ethiopia rather than in
England would require an increase of three to four
persons for proof - reading purposes because of the
typesetters ' lack of familiarity with the English lan
guage . In addition , two geography books are now
being printed free of charge in Yugoslavia under the
sponsorship of UNESCO .
Current Problems
The total programme for the school system embodies
many advanced principles of education and demands
a great deal of practical activity and initiative on the
part of the teacher . It is recognised that the full
implementation of this programme will require special
attention to the training and supply of teachers able
to satisfy the demands of the teaching programme .
The efficiency of the programme also depends upon
the ability of students to work in the medium of
instruction . English is taught as a foreign language
from Grade 3 in the elementary schools and it becomes
the medium of instruction in Grade 7 of the junior
secondary school . Much depends , therefore , on the
creation of firm foundations by efficient English
language teaching by qualified teachers in the elemen
tary school and upon the provision of language
specialists in the secondary school .
The new curriculum incorporates a much wider pro
gramme of activities from the old school curriculum .
The inclusion of agricultural , commercial and industrial
arts studies presupposes the supply of adequate
apparatus , equipment and materials for effective practi
cal work . The science programmes require laboratory
workbooks as well as standardised laboratory equip
ment and demonstration apparatus . These studies are
vital to the development of the economy but the pro
vision of the material requirements will impose some
strain on the economy .
The life span of the books now being produced and
distributed is expected to be from three to five years .
In order to have constructive revision of content by
the time a new printing is required , immediate and
continuing attention must be paid to analysis of these
first editions . Teachers ' comments must be solicited .
Future Plans
In planning for the future , four areas are considered
to require the greatest concentration if education pro
gress is to be made . The first of these is the training
and retention of Ethiopian secondary school teachers ;
the second is the gradual conversion of the language .
of instruction in the secondary grades into Amharic ;
the third is improved language teaching in both
Amharic and English based upon scientifically applied
knowledge of linguistics ; the fourth is the encourage
ment of private enterprise .
to participate in education
34
on a larger scale . With regard to teacher training ,
it is believed that a greater assumption of initiative and
responsibility by potential teachers and a realistic
programme of incentives and rewards offered by the
Ministry would provide more highly motivated , better
qualified , longer lasting teachers . Present experience
in teacher training schools demonstrates that too many
of the students are motivated primarily by the subsidy
during training . They display an interest inversely
related to their expectation of employment , with their
work performance and classroom behaviour deteriorat
ing as they move towards a certificate which is prac
tically guaranteed then . Teachers are given little
incentive to improve their skills voluntarily , either at
private or governmental expense . Many remain as
teachers only until they find desk jobs in a govern
mental ministry or in some other capacity .
If the funds the government is now spending on
teacher training prior to assignment were instead spent
on in - service training and effective upgrading in salary
and status , teachers would show an improved quality
and morale . If student teachers had to pay for their
own training , or if they had to perform work during
training in order to remain eligible for their subsidisa
tion , or if they were subsidised by the government with
a clear - cut, mutually understood , enforced understand
ing that repayment would be made immediately sub
sequent to employment , they would increase in interest
and effectiveness . The need for teachers is not so great
that poorly motivated , disinterested students should be
trained in that capacity . Only poorly qualified teachers
can result , and obviously the ideal situation would be
one in which students assumed the full responsibility
for costs of training , but until the general economic
development of the country expands to permit a higher
correlation between need for teachers and ability to
pay , those two types of subsidy mentioned might be
considered necessary alternatives . Certainly there are
many tasks that would be appropriate to teacher train
ing students . Many tasks would provide experience
that would be potentially helpful in the students ' later
professional roles . Many would encourage initiative .
Hospitals , sanatoria and custodial institutions are in
short supply of recreational , occupational therapy , and
teaching staff for those confined . Even a minimal
programme offered by students would be of mutual
benefit . Few are devoting so much time to studies that
they could not be available for such a programme .
They would gain in emotional maturity and ability to
work with groups , but most importantly , they would
be aware that they had to give something of them
selves for what they were receiving from others , that
they had to pay something in exchange for their educa
tion they were receiving .
The second recommended area of activity is
probably that one about which there is the greatest
difference of opinion . However , there appear to be
several advantages to conversion of the language of
instruction on the secondary level to Amharic . It is
seen as an obvious step in the future as our educational
system expands . Conversion admittedly could not be
done in regard to all subjects simultaneously but would
have to proceed in at least three stages . Probably the
social sciences would be the first to be taught in
Amharic ; mathematics and the natural sciences would
 becausethey had not testedthem. He his observationshe made careful

a
decided to see for himself if a heavy guess about the answer.
thing fell faster than a light thing He guessed
. He that heavy and light things would fall Balls
took two balls, one heavy and one

is at
the same speed This kind

of
guess Galileo experimentedwith

let
light, and

.
them fall from the same now called hypothesisby scientists 35cm

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balls and slopingboard

to
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fell The hypothesis only the beginning
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find out light object

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exactly the samespeed He showedby

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.
simple test that the authorities
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.

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.
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.

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.
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realizethat Galileo's test When he dropped the 30

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?
had found betterway getknowledge
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a
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How did Galileo find new facts
This was new way doing things,

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What was his method His first step Most things we do we do not

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or

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with Galileo you like scientists If we want to put two
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had made may make your own experiment 35cm
.

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show that he was wrong

If
you can usually take ten differentsizes nails

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.
make an experiment show he was

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and testthem thewood to seewhich

in
60
wrong then all the scientists the

in
,

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be

world will willing change their

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pieces and which ones are too small reach the Americas for many

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must tell exactly how you did your work well. But sometimeswe choose that worms in meat were born from

a
noma experiment that other people may
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nail which too big and the wood the bad meat. Sinceno one testedthis

is
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it
,
because seemscorrect but we must Italian scientist FrancescoRedi proved

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,
realizethat we may be wrong this wrong He believed that living

.
The people who built this For centuriessailors would not sail things come only from living things

.
obeliskat Axum hadto solve

be
out on the Atlantic Ocean. They He decidedthathis ideamust tested

.
theproblems cutting, trans- believedthat the world was flat and He took piece loosely wovencloth
of

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madethis wrong guess they were not close the meat. The flies could not

From Grade Seven General Science textbook

-3-
a

the principle of gravity illustrated by an example

:

taken from Ethiopian history

be the second subjects converted and technical subjects evolve only when people can express
,

would be the third themselves freely

.

and partake
a of

education on
as

as
The idea wide possible
of

scale

a
conversion repugnant mainly
to
is

two

.
While only minority
of

groups our people become educated

of

people those who cannot consider anything

there will develop some gap
:

except what they themselves have possible ideas and outlook in

as

advocated
and those who have cultural bias towards the English between this minority and those people who
have not
a

language and would seek to have obtained an education However with facile
thriving use of communi-
,
.
a

English books and teachers However no language cation between peoples such gaps can often
be bridged
,
.

If

the education

.
foreign to this country whether English or obtained
is

language that differs

in
a

some other
,

of

language could continue from that their parents and uneducated contempor-
to as

medium of instruction
if
a
,

our educational goals are aries the gap more difficult

is

to

be reached Our schools close and some degree

,
at

of emotional estrangement
.

present are educating only tiny minority of our more apt

to

result There
is
a

more likely
.
to
is

people Certainly for the next several years and poss- be discord between father and son
.

ibly for some time The former may resent his inability .
,
to

come many
to
of

those seeking communicate

,

with his son

in

education will have to seek outside the formal educa- the son's language There develops
it

a
.

tional structure The people's incentive for education wider gap between hostile generations
.

increasing and Use of Amharic as

is

can become part and parcel of their medium of instruction would

it

daily lives As the rate permit the greater individual

of

literacy rises and an increas- intellectual growth and

.

ing number of pupils complete primary development

of

school there those students who have considerably

,

will be growing desire for continuing self education more aptitude

in

some areas than they do

a

language
in
-

As economic activity increases and more and

.

in If

such students have

to

more overcome language handicap

a

people obtain jobs order to move ahead

in

technical fields they will be en-

in

their chosen spheres of activ-

couraged job ity their horizons are markedly
to

obtain knowledge greater than can be lowered both they and

,

found on the job itself But the people must have the nation suffer
access
.
in .

to material written language they can understand Our schools are going
to
a

be filled beyond capacity

and in which they have achieved some fluency for some years
A

to

genuine educational system that come Our educational budget going

is
.

truly Ethiopian can

is

at

of

Continued
37

foot page
(

).

35
 EAST AND NORTH - EAST AFRICA
SOME UNIFYING PHYSICAL FEATURES

RED

SEA

RIFT
ARABIAN
PLATEAU

K.

RIFT
ADEN

ETHIOPIAN
RIFT

.
M
EASTERN
RIFT

.
6 LAKE
WESTERN V.
RIFT
.

THE NILE DRAINAGE BASIN

,
ZANZIBAR
DesSo
LAVA PLATEAUS

.
NYASA GENERAL DIRECTION OF
500 1000 RIFT
MAJOR FAULT LINES

.
KILOMETRES

Fig 210
.

SECTION ACROSS KENYA AND UGANDA TO SHOW

RIFT VALLEY STRUCTURES
VERTICALSCALE GREATLY EXAGGERATED
(

MTKENYA
.

EASTERN
RUWENZORIMTS. RIFT VALLEY

MONINGAI
WESTERNRIFTVALLEY CRATER
,

MTELGON
.

CONGO UGANDA KENYA

LAKE VICTORIA

HORST
DOWNFOLD
RIFT
WEST F FAULT EAST
=-

V VOLRANIC
VENT

Fig 211
.

page from secondary school geography textbook

A

36