Power Electronic Application and Design

EE 575
February 2023

9 Utility Interaction and Harmonic Mitigation

9.1 Introduction to harmonic and harmonic generation

Harmonics are the higher order frequency components of a signal, which creates a distortion in the
wave form.

Electricity generation is normally produced at 50 Hz or 60 Hz. the generator output can be

considered practically sinusoidal.

However when sinusoidal voltage is applied to a nonlinear load (device) the resulting current is no
longer sinusoidal.

Note 1. Linear Vs None-linear loads

ˆ Linear loads

– Draws current from supply which is proportional to the applied voltage.

– Current is in the same frequency as the supplied voltage.
– May or may not be in phase.

Figure 1: Single-phase linear voltage, current, and power waveforms

ˆ Non-linear loads

– Draw current from supply which is not proportional to the applied voltage.
 – draw non-sinusoidal current at the same frequency as the voltage, even when the source
voltage is sinusoidal.
– Ex: Computers, switching mode power supply (SMPS), Electronic ballast, Refrigerator,
almost all power electronic loads.

Figure 2: Single phase nonlinear voltage and current waveforms

Some example non-linear loads

Refrigerator

Figure 3: Voltage and current wave of a refrigerator

Hair dryer at lowest air setting

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 Figure 4: Voltage and current wave of a hair dryer at lowest sir setting

Compact Fluorescent Lamp CFL

Figure 5: Voltage and current wave of CFL

In order to see how harmonics are generated let’s consider the following circuit. In this circuit
generator feeds a purely resistive load via a line width impedance and a static converter.

Figure 6: Power flow at fundamental frequency

ˆ Generator supply power (Pg1 ) to Point of Common Coupling (PCC) of the load

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 – There is a power loss (Ps1 ) due to resistance of the resistance of transmission and gen-
eration system (Rs1 )

ˆ Most of this power (Pl1 ) is transferred to the load

ˆ Relatively small part of Pg1 (i.e. Pc1 ) is converted to power at different frequencies at the
static converter

Figure 7: Harmonic Power flow

ˆ Terminal voltage of the generator is purely sinusoidal.

– Only supply the power at fundamental frequency

– There fore generators e.m.f. is shor circuited
– Transmission line and the generators are represent by their harmonic impedances

ˆ The static generator becomes the source of harmonic currents

ˆ Small portion of fundamental power (Pc1 ) is transformed in to harmonic power

ˆ Some of this power consumed in the system (Psh + Pgh )

ˆ Rest in the load (Plh )

ˆ Thus the total power loss consists of

– fundamental frequency component (Ps1 )

– Harmonic power caused by the converter (Psh + Pgh + Plh )

For more detailed interpretation lets consider the circuit bellow with sinusoidal voltage source (V )
and constant voltage battery source (E) with negligible internal resistance

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 Figure 8: Basic circuit to explaint he convertion machanism

ˆ The thyristor turns on at ωt = α and off at ωt = β

– The voltage drop of the tyristor during the conduction is neglected

ˆ The source voltage, the voltage across the thyristor and the load voltage are as shown in
figure 9

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Figure 9: The source voltage, the voltage across the thyristor and the load voltage for circuit in
figure 8

ˆ The load voltage VA can be represent by

– The fundamental component

√
vA1 = 2VA1 sin(ωt + θ1 )

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 – Harmonic content
n
X √
vAh = 2VAh sin(hωt + θh )
h=2

– DC component Z T
1
vA0 = VA dt = Vdc
T 0

ˆ equivalently current shown bellow can also be expressed as three component

Figure 10: Current waveform of the circuit in figure 8

– The fundamental component

√
i1 = 2I1 sin(ωt + ϕ1 )

– Harmonic content
n
X √
ih = 2Ih sin(hωt + ϕh )
h=2

– DC component
Vdc − E
I0 =
R

ˆ The power supplied to load can be expressed as

PA = PA1 + PAh + PA0

ˆ Power supplied to the fundamental component

PA1 = VA1 I1 cos(θ1 − ϕ1 ) = I12 R

ˆ Power supplied to the harmonics

n
X n
X
PAh = VAh Ih cos(θh − ϕh ) = Ih2 R
h=2 h=2

ˆ The DC power
PA0 = Vdc I0 = EI0 + I02 R

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 ˆ Here the thyristor behave as an energy converter

– i.e., Ideal voltage source combined with the fundamental component of the current to
generate the total power PG

ˆ As the thyristor losses have been ignored

PG = PA = I 2 R + EI0

where v
u n
X
u
I = tI02 + I12 + Ih2
h=2

9.2 Harmonic Analysis

Harmonic analysis is the process of calculating the magnitudes and the phases of fundamental and
higher-order harmonics of a periodic wave form such as voltage and current.

Fourier series can be used to convert time domain signal to frequency domain signal.

9.2.1 Fourier series and coefficients

Fourier series of a periodic function x(t) can be expressed as

∞     
X 2πnt 2πnt
x(t) = a0 + an cos + bn sine
T T
n=1

where,

ˆ a0 is the average value of the function x(t)

ˆ an and bn , the coefficient of the series are the rectangular components of the nth harmonic.

ˆ The corresponding nth harmonic vector is

An ∠ϕn = an + jbn

– with magnitude p
An = a2n + b2n

– Phase angle  
−1 bn
ϕn = tan
an

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For a periodic function x(t) the constant coefficient a0 can be calculated by integrating both side
of the Fourier series over a period T (from −T /2 to T /2)

∞ 
" #
Z T /2 Z T /2   
X 2πnt 2πnt
x(t)dt = a0 + an cos + bn sine dt
−T /2 −T /2 T T
n=1

∞
( )
Z T /2 Z T /2 Z T /2   Z T /2  
X 2πnt 2πnt
x(t)dt = a0 dt + an cos dt + bn sine dt dt
−T /2 −T /2 −T /2 T −T /2 T
n=1

integral of sine and cosine terms over a single period will be zero and hence

Z T /2
1
a0 = x(t)dt
T −T /2

To determine the an , multiply the Fourier series by cos(2πmt/T ) and integrate over a period T

∞
"  #
Z T /2   Z T /2     
2πmt X 2πnt
2πnt 2πmt
x(t)cos dt = a0 + {an cos + bn sine } cos dt
−T /2 T −T /2 T T T
n=1
Z T /2   ∞ Z T /2    
2πmt X 2πnt 2πmt
= a0 cos dt + {an cos × cos dt
−T /2 T −T /2 T T
n=1
Z T /2    
2πnt 2πmt
+ bn sine × cos dt}dt
−T /2 T T

First term in the right hand side is zero.

All the bn terms are also zero as sin(2πnt/T ) and cos(2πmt/T ) are orthogonal functions for all m
and n

Due to the orthogonal property all the terms of an also become zero, except when the m = n

So we have
Z T /2   Z T /2  
2πmt 2πnt 2
x(t)cos dt = an cos
−T /2 T −T /2 T
Z T /2
an T /2
  Z
an 4πnt
= cos dt + dt
2 −T /2 T 2 −T /2

As the first term of the right hand side is zero

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 Z T /2  
2 2πnt
an = x(t)cos d(t) for n = 1 → ∞
T −T /2 T

Simlarly bn can be found by multiplying the Fourier series by sin(2πmt/T ) and integrate over a
period T equation, which gives

Z T /2  
2 2πnt
bn = x(t)sin d(t) for n = 1 → ∞
T −T /2 T

Day 2

9.2.2 Waveform Symmetry

Fourier coefficients an and bn can be represented as the sum of two separate integrals

Z T /2   Z 0  
2 2πnt 2 2πnt
an = x(t)cos d(t) + x(t)cos d(t)
T 0 T T −T /2 T

Z T /2   Z 0  
2 2πnt 2 2πnt
bn = x(t)sin d(t) + x(t)sin d(t)
T 0 T T −T /2 T

Replacing t by −t in the second integral, and changing the limits produces

2 T /2 2 0
   
−2πnt
Z Z
2πnt
an = x(t)cos d(t) + x(−t)cos d(−t)
T 0 T T T /2 T
2 T /2
Z  
2πnt
= [x(t) + x(−t)] cos d(t)
T 0 T

and

Z T /2  
2 2πnt
bn = [x(t) − x(−t)] sin d(t)
T 0 T

Odd Symmetry
The waveform has odd symmetry if x(t) = −x(−t). Then the an , terms become zero for all n.
while

Z T /2  
4 2πnt
bn = x(t)sin d(t)
T 0 T

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Even Symmetry
The waveform has even symmetry if x(t) = x(−t). Then the bn , terms become zero for all n. while

Z T /2  
4 2πnt
an = x(t)cos d(t)
T 0 T

Halfwave Symmetry
The waveform has halfwave symmetry if

x(t) = −x(t + T /2)

Then

( R
4 T /2 2πnt


T 0 x(t)cos T d(t) for n is odd
an =
0 for n is even

and

( R
4 T /2 2πnt


T 0 x(t)sin T d(t) for n is odd
bn =
0 for n is even

Let’s consider an square wave function shown bellow

Figure 11: Square wave function

This square wave function has halfwave symmetry and odd symmetry. Due to the odd symmetry
an terms become zero and only bn terms will exist.

Due to halfwave symmetry bn = 0 for even values of n and only the odd harmonics will exist.

Also you can note that the average value a0 is also zero.

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With those observations we can find the coefficients bn as

4 T /2
Z  
2πnt
bn = V sin d(t)
T 0 T
 t=T /2
−4V 2πnt 
= 2πn cos
T ×T
T


t=0
   
−4V 2πn(T /2)
= cos − cos(0)
2πn T
−4V
= [cos(nπ) − 1]
2πn
2V
= [1 − cos(nπ)]
nπ
4V
= ; for n odd
nπ

Corresponding Fourier series is then

∞  
4V X 1 2πnt
v(t) = sin
π n T
n=1,n odd
       
4V 2πt 1 3(2πt) 1 5(2πt)
= sin + sin + sin + ...
π T 3 T 5 T
 
4V 1 1
= sin(2πf1 t) + sin(3 ∗ (2πf1 t)) + sin(5 ∗ (2πf1 t)) + ...
π 3 5
 
4V 1 1
= sin(ω1 t) + sin(3ω1 t) + sin(5ω1 t) + ...
π 3 5

Homework 1
Find the Fourier series of the half wave rectified cosine waveform shown bellow.

Figure 12: half wave rectified cosine waveform

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9.3 Measurements with harmonics

9.3.1 Root Mean Square (RMS)

Squired RMS value of a periodic current wave form is defined as

Z t0 +T
2 1
Irms = i(t)2 dt
T t0

If the current is sinusoidal

Z t0 +T Z t0 +T
1 1
2
Irms = 2
i(t) dt = {Ipeak sin(ωt + θ)}2 dt
T t0 T t0

Ipeak
Irms = √
2

But when the harmonics are present

∞
X
i(t) = Ik sin(kω1 t + θk )
k=1

and
Z t0 +T
2 1
Irms = i(t)2 dt
T t0
" ∞
#2
Z t0 +T
1 X
= Ik sin(kω1 t + θk ) dt
T t0 k=1
 
Z t0 +T ∞ ∞ ∞
1 X X X
=  Ik2 sin2 (kω1 t + θk ) + 2 Im In sin(mω1 t + θm )sin(nω1 t + θn ) dt
T t0 k=1 m=1 n=1,m̸=n
∞
"
t0 +T  
1 − cos(2(kω1 t + θk ))
Z
1 X
= Ik2
T t0 2
k=1

∞ ∞  
X X cos((m − n)ω1 t + θm − θn ) cos((m + n)ω1 t + θm + θn ) 
+ Im In + dt
2 2
m=1 n=1,m̸=n

The above equation is complected, but most of its terms become zero and has no contribution to
RMS value.

ˆ Average value of cos(2(kω1 t + θk )) is zero

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 ˆ The average value of cos((m±n)ω1 t+θm ±θn ) is also zero because m and n are both harmonics
of fundamental.
So the equation reduced to
"∞ #
Z t0 +T
2 1 X 1
Irms = Ik2 × dt
T t0 2
k=1
"∞ #
1 X 2
= Ik × (t0 + T − t0 )
2T
k=1
∞
1X
= Ik2
2
k=1
∞
X 2
I
= √k
k=1
2

Where the Ik are peak values of the harmonic components.

So we have

2 2 2 2
Irms = I1,rms + I2,rms + I3,rms + ...

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In these RMS equation the DC component has been ignored. To facilitate the effect of DC IDC
term has to be added to the above equations.

9.3.2 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

THD is the most commonly used measure of harmonics. This is also known as distortion factor.

This can be applied to both the voltage and current, so we define T HDV and T HDI respectively.

This is defined as rms value of the harmonics above fundamental, divided by the rms
value of the fundamental.

For the current we can define

r
P∞ h Ik i2 q P
√ 1 ∞ 2
k=2 2 2 k=2 Ik
T HDI = I1
= I1
√ √
2 2

Same equation form can be applied to T HDV as well

THD and rms can be linked as

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 ∞
2 1X 2
Irms = Ik
2
k=1

and P∞ P∞
1 2
2 − I12

k=2 Ik k=1 Ik
T HDI2 = 2
=
I12 I12
2

This can be rewritten as

∞
X
Ik2 = I12 1 + T HDI2

k=1

and
∞
2 1 X 2 I12
1 + T HDI2 = I1,rms
2
1 + T HDI2



Irms = Ik =
2 2
k=1

So we can link the THD and the rms as,

q
Irms = I1,rms 1 + T HDI2

Because

ˆ line losses are proportional to the square of the rms current and

ˆ rms current is increasing with presence of harmonics,

line losses always increase with presence of harmonics.

Ex. Many PCs have THD around 100%. Then the wiring losses when supplying the PCs will be
twice as much as if there is no harmonics.

Note 2. ˆ Current distortion or T HDI in loads can vary from few percentage to more than
100%.

ˆ but voltage distrotion or T HDV is generally less than 5%. T HDV > 10% is highly unaccept-
able.

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9.3.3 Average power

Harmonic powers (including the fundamental) add and subtract independently to produce the total
average power.

Average power is defined as

Z t0 +T Z t0 +T
1 1
Pavg = p(t)dt = v(t)i(t)dt
T t0 T t0

Substituting the voltage and current wave with harmonics (Fourier series)

∞ ∞
" #
Z t0 +T X
1 X
Pavg = Vk sin(kω1 t + δk ) × Ik sin(kω1 t + θk ) dt
T t0 k=1 k=1

and expanding

∞
"
Z t0 +T
1 X
Pavg = Vk Ik sin(kω1 t + ϕk )sin(kω1 t + θk )
T t0 k=1

∞
X ∞
X
+ Vm In sin(mω1 t + ϕm )sin(nω1 t + θn ) dt
m=1 n=1,m̸=n
∞
"
t0 +T  
cos(ϕk − θk )cos(2kω1 t + ϕk + θk )
Z
1 X
= Vk Ik
T t0 2
k=1

∞ ∞  
X X cos((m − n)ω1 t + θm − θn ) cos((m + n)ω1 t + θm + θn ) 
+ Vm In + dt
2 2
m=1 n=1,m̸=n

As discussed in rms case, average values of all sinusoidal terms are zero. So,
∞
X Vm Im
Pavg = cos(ϕk − θk )
2
k=1
X∞
= Vk,rms Ik,rms × dpfk
k=1
= P1,avg + P2,avg + P3,avg + ...

Note 3. dpfk is the displacement power factor for harmonic k

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The harmonic power terms P2,avg , P3,avg , ... are mostly losses and small compared to the total power.
However harmonic losses may be substantial compared to total losses.

Let’s consider the below circuit where the where the perfect 120 Va c(rms) power system with 1 Ω
internal resistance supplies a triac-controlled 1000 W incandescent lamp. Let the firing angle be
90o so the lamp is operating at half-power.

Figure 13

The Resistance of the lamp is

1202
RL = = 14.4Ω
1000

Voltage source is √
vs (t) = 120 2sin(ω1 t)

The Fourier series of the current in the circuit truncated at 5th harmonic

i(t) = 6.99sin(ω1 t − 32.5◦ ) + 3.75sin(3ω1 t − 90.0◦ ) + 1.25sin(5ω1 t − 90.0◦ )

If a wattmeter is placed immediately to the left of the triac

1. calculate the the metered voltage

2. Calculate the average power flowing in to Triac controlled lamp

3. How much is the fundamental power and total harmonic power in the circuit

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 4. (To Think and argue !) should the wattmeter register only the fundamental power,or
should the wattmeter credit the harmonic power flowing back into the power system as well

9.3.4 True Power Factor

The true power factor with the presence of harmonic is defined as

Pavg
pftrue =
Vrms Irms

In sinusoidal situation, where there is no harmonics, this reduced to familiar displacement power
factor

V1 I1
P1,avg 2 cos(δ1 − θ1 )
dpf1 = = V1 I 1
= cos(δ1 − θ1 )
V1,rms I1,rms 2

When the harmonics are present equation become

P1,avg + P2,avg + P3,avg + ...

pftrue = q q
V1,rms 1 + T HDV2 × I1,rms 1 + T HDI2

Since in the most of the time, harmonic power are small compared to fundamental power and
voltage distortion is less than 10%, The equation can be reduced to

P1,avg dpf1
pftrue = q =q
V1,rms I1,rms 1 + T HDI2 1 + T HDI2

It can be seen that the true power factor is limited by the current THD.

T HDI Maximum pftrue

20% 0.98
50% 0.89
100% 0.71

Day 3

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