TIME SYSTEMS

MWAYI TAULO
Measurement of Time
• The unit for measuring time is based on the rotation of the earth on its axis.
• To observe this rotation we choose any object in the heavens and note the time interval
between two of its successive passages over the meridian of the observer.
• The object so selected defines the particular kind of time.
• The apparent diurnal motion, east to west, of the stars and sun about the pole affords a
measure of time.
• For universal use, it is necessary to adopt a certain meridian of longitude as a standard
meridian, so that the time of passage of a selected celestial body across this meridian can
be accepted as the zero datum from which time is reckoned.
• This meridian is internationally accepted as the meridian passing through the main transit
instrument at Greenwich Observatory, and times based on transits across this meridian
are spoken of as Greenwich Time (G.T.) or, when Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.) is
involved, Universal Time (U.T.)
• There are four time systems: sidereal time, universal/civil time, dynamic time and atomic
time
Sidereal Time
• A sidereal day is the interval of
time between two successive upper
culminations of the vernal equinox
over the same meridian.
• The vernal equinox is the
intersection point of the celestial
equator and the hour circle through
the sun at the instant it reaches
zero declination and is proceeding
into the northern hemisphere (i.e.
the intersection of the celestial
equator and the ecliptic.)
• Its scale is defined by the Earth’s
rotation with respect to the celestial
sphere.
Sidereal Time
• The sidereal day is divided into 24 hours and it begins when the
vernal equinox crosses the upper meridian of an observer; at
ℎ 𝑚 s
that instant the sidereal clock of the observer reads 0 0 0
(sidereal noon).
• When the vernal equinox is ℎat 𝑚lower culmination the sidereal
clock of the observer reads 12 0 0s
• Sidereal time at any instant is the hour angle of the vernal
equinox.
• That is, if the hour angle of the vernal equinox is 3ℎ ,the sidereal
clock of the observer reads 3ℎ .
• If the sidereal time is denoted by 𝜃 and 𝑡 stands for hour angle,
then by definition:
𝜃 = 𝑡(𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑥)
Apparent Solar Time(𝑻𝒂 )
• Apparent solar day or solar day
is the interval of time between
two successive lower transits of
the sun's center over the same
meridian.
• The lower transit is used so that
the change of date will occur at
midnight.
• The apparent solar day is divided
into 24 hours beginning with the
instant the center of the sun is at
lower transit (apparent midnight). The meridian of the observer at 𝑂 is the great circle
Σ1 𝑃Σ1′ 𝑃′ . The instant the vernal equinox(𝛾) is at Σ, his
• The instant the center of the sun sidereal clock reads 0ℎ ,and 12ℎ when 𝛾 is at Σ ′ while
is at upper transit is known as the sidereal clock of the observer at 𝑂′ , with the
apparent noon. meridian Σ1 𝑃Σ1′ 𝑃′ , will read 0ℎ the instant the vernal
equinox is at Σ1
 Apparent Solar Time
• Apparentℎ
solar time or apparent time is the hour angle of the sun's center
plus 12 .
𝑇𝑎 = 𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 + 12ℎ
ℎ
• For example, when ℎ
the apparent time is 17 or 5 P.M., the hour angle of the
sun's centerℎ is 5 , ℎand again, the instant when
ℎ
the hour angle of the sun's
center is 22 or −2 , the apparent time is 10 or 10 A.M.
• The sun moves eastward among the stars about a degree per day on
account of the revolution of the earth about the sun.
• But the motion of the earth is not uniform, hence the sun does not move
uniformly among the stars.
• This will cause the apparent solar day to vary in duration due to two causes:
• (a) the slow easterly non-uniform movement of the sun, referred to above, which is most
rapid when the motion of the earth is most rapid, and
• (b) even if the sun moved uniformly, the length of the solar day could not be constant,
for the sun moves along the ecliptic and the rotation is measured along the equator.
Mean Solar Time or Civil Time
• To avoid the variation of the solar day, a fictitious sun is assumed moving uniformly toward
the east on the equator and completing one revolution in the same time that the true sun
completes a revolution on the ecliptic.
• This interval of time (365.2422 mean days) is called the tropical year, and is defined as the
interval between two successive passages of the sun through the vernal equinox.
• The time given by the fictitious sun or the mean sun is such that every day is of exactly the
same duration and is equal to the average solar day.
• A mean solar day or civil day is defined as the interval of time between two successive
lower transits of the mean sun over the same meridian.
• Mean solar time or civil time (𝑇) is the hour angle of the mean sun plus 12ℎ
𝑇 = 𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑛 + 12ℎ
• Mean noon at any place is the instant of upper transit of the mean sun over the meridian
of that place.
• Mean midnight refers to the lower transit.
• The mean or civil day is divided into 24 hours beginning at midnight
 Equation of Time
• Inasmuch as time observations are possible only
on the true sun, it will be necessary to introduce a
method for changing apparent time to mean or
civil time.
• This is done by a quantity known as the equation
of time, which is defined by:
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑒) = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

• In reality the equation of time is a correction to be

applied to either time to obtain the other.
• It depends on how much the true sun is ahead or
behind the fictitious sun
Relation between Mean Time and
Sidereal Time
• As the mean sun moves eastward on the
equator it is evident that at some time
during the year it will pass over the
autumnal equinox.
• This occurs each year about Sept. 21.
• Suppose, for the sake of simplicity, that on
Sept. 21, at the instant when the vernal
equinox (V, Fig. 19) crosses the meridian
of the observer, the mean sun M is exactly
on the autumnal hence is just crossing the
lower meridian, Σ′ .
• At this instant the sidereal clock of the
observer at 𝑂 will read 0ℎ 0𝑚 0s and the
civil clock will read 0ℎ 0𝑚 0s .
 Relation between Mean Time and
Sidereal Time
• Twenty-four sidereal hours later, the vernal • In 6 months, about March 23, the
equinox will again be at Σ, but the mean sun will sidereal clock will be 12ℎ ahead of the
not have come quite to Σ ′ , because, during this civil.
interval it has moved in a direction opposite to the • At the end of a tropical year (from
diurnal motion about 1° or 4𝑚 and will therefore be
at 𝑀′ , so that the civil clock will read about equinox to same equinox), the mean
23ℎ 56𝑚 sun will be again at the autumnal
equinox and the sidereal clock will be
• From this we observe that the sidereal clock gains 24ℎ or one day ahead of the civil clock,
on the civil about 4𝑚 per sidereal day.
i.e., the two clocks will agree again
• In a month it will gain 2ℎ ; that is, when the vernal
equinox is at Σ on Oct. 21 the sidereal clock of the
observer will read zero and the civil clock about
22ℎ
• The mean sun at that instant will be at 𝑀′′ where
𝑀′′ Σ ′ = 30° 𝑜𝑟2ℎ
Relation between Mean Time and
Sidereal Time
• Since the Earth revolves about the sun once • Let 𝐼 represent the number of mean units in a
a year, there is one less day of solar time in certain interval of time, and 𝐼 ′ the number of
a year than sidereal time. sidereal units in the same interval, then
• The tropical year contains 365.2422 mean
solar days, and from what we have just
seen 366.2422 sidereal days.

• The same relations exist between any two

time units, for example, one sidereal second
= 0.99726957 mean second.
• For instance, 𝐼 = 24ℎ then 𝐼 ′ = 24ℎ 3𝑚 56𝑠
which indicates a gain in the sidereal
clock over the mean of 3 min 56 sec
sidereal time in 24 mean hours
 Relation between Time and Longitude
• The three kinds of time that we have considered, • Hence,
sidereal, apparent, and mean, have been defined 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = Δ𝜆
in terms of the hour angle, that is, by means of a
quantity measured from the meridian of the
observer; hence, they are local times.
• The mean time at Greenwich 𝐺 is the Universal
Time (U.T.)
• In other words, as soon as an observer changes
his position his meridian changes and hence the
readings of his clocks must change to conform
with the new meridian.
• Let 𝐶 be west of 𝐺 and let Δ𝜆 represent the
difference in their longitude, which is an angle
measured by the arc 𝐵𝐴 or Σ1 Σ2 .
• When the vernal equinox is at 𝑉 the sidereal clock
at 𝐺 reads 𝑡2 , and that of 𝐶, 𝑡1 .
Relation between Time and Longitude
• The difference in longitude between the two places is equal to the
difference in the readings of their sidereal clocks.
• Δ𝜆 is essentially the angle at 𝑂 and may be expressed in either
degrees or hour
• If we assume the mean sun at 𝑉 instead of the vernal equinox, the
reading of the mean clock at 𝐶 will be 12ℎ + 𝑡1 and that at 𝐺, 12ℎ + 𝑡2
• The difference of the mean times will be 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 which is again
equivalent to Δ𝜆 and may be expressed in hours or degrees.
• Therefore it is immaterial what kind of time we are using sidereal,
apparent, or mean the difference between the corresponding local
times of two places gives their difference in longitude.
Relation between Time and Longitude
• PP' is the earth's axis of rotation, P and P' the poles,
and the great circle PSP' the meridian cut out on the
earth's surface by a plane passing through P, P' and
the point S, the latter being any point on the earth's
surface.
• PGP' is the meridian chosen as the standard meridian
from which longitudes are reckoned, this usually being
taken as the meridian which passes through The main
transit instrument at Greenwich Observatory.
• Consequently, if G represents the position of the transit
instrument at Greenwich, the longitude of S is the angle
GPS, or the arc sg divided by the radius of the earth, s
and g being the points where the meridians through S
and G cut the earth's equator.
Relation between Time and Longitude
• Consequently, when longitude in angular measure is converted into time, we see that, for points
in west longitude;
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
• For points in east longitude;
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 + 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
• These relations hold for both solar and sidereal time.
• It is been found more convenient for surveyors and navigators to tabulate a variable E which is
defined as the difference between the Greenwich hour angle of the apparent or true sun and the
corresponding Universal, or Greenwich, mean time.

• Also, from this, from equation of time, and remembering that hour angle is measured westwards
from upper transit, it follows that
Approximate Relation between
Sidereal and Civil Time
• If 𝑇 represents the reading of the mean clock at a given date and the
corresponding reading of the sidereal clock, we will have;

• where D now represents the number of days from Sept. 21.7 to the given date.
• This formula will yield an accuracy of about two minutes.
Principal Formulae for Time
Conversion
Ephemerides
• Ephemerides are almanacs containing data on the positions of the sun and various
stars versus time.
• By an ephemeris is meant a catalogue in which the positions (usually, the right
ascension and declination) of heavenly bodies are given at equidistant intervals of
time.
• Without such a book of reference astronomical work is almost impossible.
• The data published are obtained by means of telescopes situated at the principal
national observatories.
• In addition to published ephemerides, computer programs are also available which
solve for the positions of celestial bodies.
• Their major advantages are that they provide accurate results without tables and can
be used year after year
Ephemerides
Examples
Examples
Dynamic Time
• Time scale associated with the independent variable in the (best) theories of the dynamics of
the solar system
• Based on the time variable in a relativistic theory of motion of all the bodies in the solar system
• Most uniform time scale (by definition)
• Dynamic time (DT) related on the basis of the Sun’s motion relative to the Earth is called
Ephemeris time (ET).
• There are two types
• Terrestrial Dynamic Time (TDT): Dynamic time scale of geocentric ephemerides of bodies in the solar system
• Barycentric Dynamic Time (TDB): Time scale of barycentric ephemerides of bodies in the solar system
Dynamic Time
• Dynamic time is measured in units of Julian Days.
• Julian days are closer to our usual days but the they are uniform
unlike solar days.
• The origin of Dynamic time is 1 January 4713BC and is designated a
Julian day of J0.0
• The Julian date (JD) defines the number of mean solar days elapsed
since the epoch January 1.5d, 4713 BC.
• Julian days start and end when it is noon in Greenwich, England.
• There are exactly 325.25 days in a Julian year.
• 1 January 1900 is Julian date J1900.0 which corresponds to Julian
day number JD2415021.0
Dynamic Time
• Converting Gregorian date to Julian day:
• The relations for date conversions are slightly modified so that they are only valid for an
epoch between March 1900 and February 2100
• Express the date as Y, M, D where Y is the year, M is the month number and D is the day.
• If M is January or February, subtract 1 from Y to obtain a new year and add 12 to M so
that M is either the 13th or 14th month of the previous year.
𝑌
• 𝐴= 𝐶 = (2 − 𝐴) + 𝐵
100
𝐴
• 𝐵= 𝐸 = 365.25(𝑌 + 4716) 𝐹 = 30.6001(𝑀 + 1)
4
• 𝐽𝐷 = 𝐶 + 𝐷 + 𝐸 + 𝐹 − 1524.5
Dynamic Time
• Converting Gregorian date to Julian day can also be done as follows:
• Let the civil date be expressed by integer values for the year Y, month M, day D, and a real value
for the time in hours UT.
• Then:

• Where INT denotes the integer part of a real number and y, m are given by
Dynamic Time
• Converting Julian date to Gregorian day can also be done as follows:
• The conversion from Julian date to civil date, is carried out stepwise.

Afterwards, the
civil date
parameters are
obtained from the
relations

• Where FRAC denotes the fractional part of a number. As a by-product of date conversion, the
day of week can be evaluated by the formula:
Show that Julian days J1900.0 and
J2000.0 correspond to Julian dates
where N = 0 denotes Monday, N = 1 means
JD2415021.0 and JD2451545.0
Tuesday, and so on
respectively and vice-versa.
Atomic Time
• Based on SI second (defined on the geoid in rotation, that is, an Earth
frame, not in a barycentric system)
• Time scale realized by the oscillations in energy states of the cesium
133 atom
• Maintained internationally by BIPM (combines data from over 200 high
precision atomic clocks around the world)
• The time standard for International Atomic Time (TAI)
• As uniform as dynamic time
• Origin: 0h 0m 0s, January 1, 1958
Atomic Time
• Used in GPS
Atomic Time
• The system time of GPS is related to the atomic time system and is referenced to coordinated
universal time (UTC).
• Nominally the GPS time has a constant offset of 19 seconds with TAI, the international atomic
time and was coincident with UTC at the GPS standard epoch January 6.d0, 1980.

• Starting at the GPS standard epoch, the system time of GPS is counted in terms of GPS weeks
and seconds within the current week. For the calculation of the GPS week use the relation
References
Nassau J. J. (1932). Practical Astronomy. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf P. R. (2012). Elementary surveying : an introduction to geomatics. Prentice Hall.
New Jersey

Clendinning J. (1960). The Principles of Surveying. Blackie & Son Ltd. Glasgow.
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