EFFECT OF FLY ASH ON DURABILITY OF LIGHTWEIGHT

CONCRETE
G. Sirotin, Y. Ribakov and M. Nisnevich
Ariel University Center of Samaria, Ariel, Israel

ABSTRACT
Lightweight concrete is widely used in civil engineering construction mainly because
its low density and thermal conductivity, consequently yielding lower dead load,
faster construction and other advantages. Workability, mechanical properties,
durability, and other features of lightweight concrete were widely investigated by
many researchers. Results of previous studies have shown that stability of the ternary
lightweight concrete, based on using high fly ash volume, under the environmental
temperature and humidity conditions of the hot and humid Mediterranean climate was
confirmed. This result is essential for practical application of such concrete. The
current paper presents results of a recently carried out experiments, focused on
investigating durability of ternary lightweight concrete using cyclic crystallization
tests. The experimental results, obtained in the frame of this study, demonstrate that
formation of high volume solid cement-fly ash matrix creates a lightweight concrete
structure with a minimum porosity. It is shown that partial replacement of the
lightweight aggregate (for example, bottom ash) by fly ash reduces the water content
in the concrete mixture due to spherical shape and glassy surface of the fly ash
particles. It is also evident from the experimental results that a dense transition zone
between cement-fly ash matrix and porous aggregate prevents formation of water
layers, revealed on the aggregates surface.

INTRODUCTION
The enhanced durability of normal weight concrete, containing high volume fly ash, is
well known and was reported in the literature 1-3. The following positive properties of
such concretes were noted: enhanced resistance to repeated freezing and thawing
cycles, higher resistance to reinforcement corrosion, better resistance to alkali-silica
expansion and other kinds of aggressive environmental effects. The advantages seem
to result from improved water-tightness of concrete containing high-volume fly ash.
However, the concrete strength decreases along its lifetime period, and micro-cracks
are easily formed. Therefore increasing the concrete durability is one of the most
important problems in civil engineering that are intensively investigated. Penetration
of water and aggressive solutions to porous concrete structure results in cracks
formation, corrosion of concrete and reinforcing steel that finally yield to failure of
structural elements or even constructions' collapse 4.
In the ternary lightweight concretes, the fly ash and other pozzolanic materials seem
to contribute to forming with cement a solid cementitious paste, compensating the low
strength of bottom ash or other porous aggregates5, 6. It is known that the properties of
concrete depend rather on defects than on overall average parameters, and the final
features of a complex composite like concrete, although approachable by materials
science and modeling, are often a hardly predictable and surprising effect of many
factors on the material's microstructure. Without wishing to relate the invention to any
particular theory, it seems that the role of fly ash (or other materials with cementitious
properties) in increasing the durability of the investigated ternary concretes can be
understood much better wuth the following considerations:

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- the main objective for using fly ash is formation of solid cement-fly ash matrix that
has a sufficient volume for creating a lightweight concrete structure with a required
strength.
- in the case of normal weight concrete increasing the total cement and fly ash volume
instead of replacing a part of cement by fly ash is possible.
Partial replacement of the bottom ash or other porous aggregates by fly ash causes
lowering the water content in the concrete mixture because the fly ash particles have
spherical shapes and glassy surfaces. The cement-fly ash paste adhesion to the rough
surface of highly porous bottom ash is strong due to the mechanical factor in the
adhesion of the porous aggregates.
The most used standard method for determining the resistance of concrete (including
the lightweight one) to varying environment humidity and temperature conditions is a
freeze-thaw cyclic test7, 8. For example, it was shown9 that the increment in fly ash
content in concrete significantly decreases the effect of freeze-thaw cycles. Strength
loss of concrete without fly ash was found to be around 15%, whereas for fly ash
concrete with FA/(C+FA) = 0.3 it is just about 5%.
For the Mediterranean climate conditions, characterized by a very hot summer with
temperature extremes (especially in desert regions) and a very wet winter with
prolonged rains the freeze-thaw cyclic test method is not suitable for concrete
evaluation. Therefore a proper method for concrete failure or shaking loose
evaluation, conforming to the above-mentioned climate conditions, is required.
With this aim the effect of fly ash on the soundness of lightweight concrete under
cyclic crystallization test can be tested. In order to evaluate the aggregate soundness
the sulfates crystallization test (ASTM C8810, AASHTO T10411), modified for testing
concrete specimens is proposed to be used. The method is based on an application of
alternative cycles of immersion of aggregates in saturated solutions of Na2SO4 or
MgSO4 at a temperature of 25±5o C and drying at a temperature of 110±5o C.
Crystallization of sulfates causes pressure in concrete pores and capillaries. The
method simulates the expansion of water when frozen and is used in several countries
for this purpose. However, it is also accepted as a standard method for evaluating
soundness of aggregates in India, characterized by a hot climate, (IS 38312). An
advantage of the method is that the testing procedure is as essentially stricter than the
freeze-thaw cyclic test.

RESEARCH AIM AND SCOPE

As known, durability of lightweight concrete may be increased by combining
cementitious material, comprising cement and materials with cementitious
properties13-15. The present paper presents a method that enables to produce durable
lightweight concrete, comprising: a matrix that includes the hardened paste of
cementitious materials and a mixture of lightweight and normal weight aggregates
that form the concrete structure. Such concrete combines low density with sufficiently
high durability, making it very attractive for application in structures, subjected to
severe environmental exposures.
In a preferred embodiment, the density of durable lightweight concrete, produced
using the proposed method, should vary in the range between about 1400 and 2000
kg/m3, providing a combination of desirable concrete properties, such as low

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construction weight and required durability, as well as high thermal resistance in case
of thermal insulating-structural concrete.
The lightweight concrete durability can be increased by means of varying the
following parameters within certain range:
(a) relative volume of cementitious materials matrix and the total aggregates volume
in concrete;
(b) relative volumes of cement and other materials with cementitious properties in the
cementitious materials’ paste;
(c) relative volumes of lightweight and the normal weight aggregates in the total
volume of aggregates.

Using cyclic crystallization test for evaluating concrete durability considers that the
procedure does not allow distinguishing damage by sulfate crystallization from
damage, caused by sulfate attack. However, character of macro-cracks in the concrete
after a certain number of cycles can confirm the presence of a high pressure in pores
of hardened cement-fly ash paste. Such cracks, resulting from an expansion of sulfate
crystals, play a major role in the destruction of concrete. It allows using the
crystallization method for an approximate evaluation of concrete exposure to cyclic
humidity-temperature conditions with a simultaneous short-time action of sulfate
attack.

EXPERIMENTS
Materials properties
Portland cement similar to ASTM C15016, Type I, was used in all experiments. The
cement physical properties were as follows:
- relative specific gravity – 3.1;
- Blain's finesse – 370 m2/kg;
- compressive strength of standard prism at 28 days – 41 MPa.

The samples of fly ash and bottom ash were taken from one of the local power
stations. The ashes were produced by combusting a coal batch, supplied from one of
the South African sources. The bottom ash was conveyed to the power station
storehouse by hydraulic transport means. The wet sample of bottom ash was dried in
the laboratory to a constant mass.
The fly ash met the requirements of ASTM C61817, Class F. The sum of SiO2 + Al2O3
+ Fe2O3 was 81.57% (the standard requirement is min. 70%). The value of SO3 was
2.98% (the standard requirement is max. 5%). The loss of ignition was approximately
3% (the standard requirement is max. 6%). The relative specific gravity of the fly ash
was 2.1 and the Blain's finesse was 380 m2/kg.
The percentage of bottom ash, passing the standard sieves were as follows:
- 10 mm – 100 %;
- 5 mm – 92 %;
- 2.36 mm – 78 %;
- 1.18 mm – 62 %;
- 600 µm – 45 %;
- 300 µm – 27 %;
- 150 µm – 12 %.

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Therefore, the bottom ash was used without any correction for grading. The physical
properties of the bottom ash were as follows:
- relative specific gravity, 1.7;
- relative particle density (including pores), 1.35;
- porosity, 40.5 %;
- water absorption, 25.5 %;
- loose bulk density, 600 kg/m3;
- volume of voids (interspaces between particles), 48 %.

The sample of unprocessed crushed sand (UCS) was taken from the local dolomite
quarries. The grading of UCS met the specifications of ASTM C3318, with the
exception of a lower content of particles passing sieve 1.18 mm, and higher content of
particles passing sieve 0.15 mm. The percentage of the particles passing sieves
according to ASTM C33 were as follows:
- 9.5 mm – 100%;
- 4.75 mm – 92%
- 2.36 mm – 62%;
- 1.18 mm – 41%;
- 0.6 mm 31%;
- 0.3 mm – 20%;
- 0.15 mm – 17%.

The physical properties of the UCS were as follows:

- relative specific gravity – 2.8;
- relative particle density (including pores) – 2.72;
- porosity – 3%;
- water absorption – 1.7%;
- loose bulk density – 1490 kg/m3;
- volume of voids (interspaces between particles) – 45.2%.

Experimental program
Experiments, evaluating durability of the suggested lightweight concrete were
performed using the fly ash as an additive to cement. The cement content complied
with ASTM C33019 (intended for the evaluation of aggregates for structural
lightweight concrete) was 200 kg/m3, 335 kg/m3 and 400 kg/m3. The content of UCS
was constant (515 kg/m3), in order to exclude influence of its varying on the concrete
properties. Fly ash was used as a main varied component. The variation of fly ash
content was in the range of 0, 0.3 and 0.5 from sum cement and FA content
(FA/(C+FA). The bottom ash content was in the range, according to the fly ash
content. The water content was such that the concrete mixture consistency was
constant (slump = 70 mm). The concrete mixtures compositions, used in experiments,
are presented in Table 1.
The volume distribution of all concrete mixtures components (per 1 m3 of the freshly
mixed compacted concrete), is presented in Figure 1. Vertical straight-line segments
between the solid lines characterize the volume of the concrete components for a
given ratio of FA/(C+FA). Figure 1 shows also the volume of the cement-fly ash paste
(dotted curve).
To evaluate the concrete durability, data on the volume of pores and capillaries,
accessible for filling by water, is essential. This volume was determined separately for

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the entire volume of concrete specimens, and for the volume of the hardened cement-
fly ash paste in the specimens.
Table 1. Proportions of concrete mixtures used in experiments

Concrete mixture, No
Component
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Cement, C, kg/m3 200 200 200 335 335 335 400 400 400
Fly ash, FA, kg/m3 - 85 200 - 150 335 - 165 400
Bottom ash, BA, kg/m3 730 695 640 600 480 355 475 335 210
UCS, kg/m3 515 515 515 515 515 515 515 515 515
Water, l/m3 320 300 280 355 355 340 420 410 380

Density of fresh concrete, 1765 1795 1835 1805 1835 1880 1810 1825 1905
kg/m3

Density of hardened concrete, 1485 1550 1635 1515 1580 1675 1470 1515 1685
kg/m3

28-days concrete strength,

14 18 22 17 20 24 16 20 25
MPa

The volume of pores and capillaries in the hardened concrete was assumed to be equal
to the volume of water evaporated by hardening, i.e. approximately equal to the mass
of water in the fresh concrete less the mass of water, used for the cement/fly ash paste
hydration. This mass was calculated as the difference between densities (Tables 1) of
the fresh and hardened concretes (the latter were dried to the constant mass). The
volume of pores and capillaries in the hardened cement or cement-fly ash paste was
calculated as the difference between the volume of pores and capillaries in the
concrete and that in the aggregate, accessible for filling by water. The latter volume
was determined from the data on water absorption of bottom ash in the concrete
mixture5, 20. In the present study it was 17.5%. The water absorption of the UCS is
essentially lower and can be ignored. The results of determining the above-mentioned
studied lightweight concrete characteristics are presented in Table 2. The volumes of
pores and capillaries are expressed in percents of the concrete specimens and cement-
fly ash paste volumes, accordingly.

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a

1000
900 Water
800
700
Volume, l

600 UCS
500
400 BA Cementitious paste
300
200 Cement FA
100
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
b FA/(C+FA)

1000
900 Water
800
700
Volume, l

600
500 UCS
400
300
BA Cementitious paste
200 FA
100
Cement
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
FA/(C+FA)

c
1000
900 Water
800
700
600
500 UCS
Volume, l

Cementitious paste
400
300
BA
200 FA
100 Cement
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
FA/(C+FA)

Figure 1. Dependence of concrete mixture constituents volumes on the FA/(C+FA)

ratio: a – for cement content 200 kg/m3 (mixtures No 1, 2 and 3), b - for cement
content 335 kg/m3 (mixtures No 4, 5 and 6)and c - for cement content 400 kg/m3
(mixtures No 7, 8 and 9).
The crystallization test procedure that was used in the frame of the present study,
complies with ASTM C88 (AASHTO T104), except specimens with a regular cubic
shape. The tested specimen dimensions were 50 x 50 x 50 mm, corresponding to the
maximum size of the aggregates, used for the standard test. The specimens were
sawed out from the 100 x 100 x 100 mm concrete cubes. Twelve specimens were
prepared from each concrete sample, and subjected to 5 sulfates crystallization cycles.
The concrete specimens' quality evaluation of and analysis of visible cracks formation
was performed after each test cycle.
The Na2SO4 solution was prepared according to requirements of ASTM C88. In order
to exclude an error due to reaction between the fresh sulfate solution and the

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carbonate aggregate in concrete, a portion of UCS was previously placed in the sulfate
solution.
Table 2. Properties of hardened lightweight concrete

Concrete mixture, No
Characteristic
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Volume of cement/fly ash paste, l/m3

257 283 328 358 450 546 466 559 663
Volume of pores and capillaries in
concrete, % 59 42 27 50 40 26 55 43 28
Volume of pores and capillaries in 28 25 20 29 26 21 34 31 23
cement-fly ash paste, %

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

An increase in the volume of cement-fly ash paste as compared to concrete without
fly ash was 10% for mixture No. 2, 28% for mixture No. 3, 26% for mixture No. 5,
53% for mixture No. 6, 20% for mixture No. 8, and 42% for mixture No. 9.
The improved properties included an increase of 3-14% and 18-57% of density and
strength, respectively (Table 1). The above-mentioned increase of the cement-fly ash
paste matrix volume and lowering its porosity resulted in an increase of density and in
a decrease of water permeability.
Results of the cyclic crystallization test are presented in Fig. 2. As it follows from this
figure, the tests confirm the effect of lowering the volume of pores and capillaries and
accordingly the capillary water absorption on concrete durability. The cyclic
crystallization test demonstrates that using an appropriate fly ash volume provides the
possibility to control the damage, caused by the exposure of concrete to environment.
The result of weight loss specimens are shown in Figure 3. It should be noted that
concrete specimens, prepared using mixtures No 2, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 9, passed 5 cycles of
cyclic crystallization test. Under these conditions the specimens without fly ash have
completely destructed after 4-5 cycles.

Figure 2. Destruction of lightweight concrete specimens caused by 5 cycles of

crystallization test

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 25
Cement content 200 kg

Loss of mass, % 20 Cement content 335 kg

Cement content 400 kg

15

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
FA/(C+FA)

Figure 3. Loss of lightweight concrete specimens mass, caused by 5 crystallization

test cycles

CONCLUSIONS
An experimental program, focused on investigating durability of ternary lightweight
concrete using cyclic crystallization tests, was carried out. Nine concrete mixtures
with different fly ash additive volume were used.
The experiments show a way for producing durable lightweight concrete with a
matrix, including the hardened cementitious materials paste and a mixture of
lightweight and normal weight aggregates. Such concrete has low density and
sufficiently high durability, making it very attractive for application in structures,
subjected to severe environmental exposures.
Durability of lightweight concrete, containing porous aggregates (or a blend of normal
weight aggregates), can be significantly improved by incorporating a high volume of
fly ash as an additive to cement. The main reasons for improving the durability of
lightweight concrete in this case are:
a) increase of 10-53% in the cement-fly ash paste matrix volume (as compared to
concrete without fly ash);
b) decrease of 9-32% in the volume of pores and capillaries of the cement-fly ash
paste (as compared to the cement paste matrix);
c) decrease of 12-49% in the volume of pores and capillaries in concrete (as
compared to that without fly ash).
The experiments have demonstrated that the above-mentioned factors, affecting the
concrete proportion and structure, cause a significant decrease in the capillary water
absorption of lightweight concrete. Accordingly, an essential increase of the
lightweight concrete durability, demonstrated by higher soundness under the strict
crystallization test is established due to high volume of fly ash additive.
The results, obtained in the frame of this research, have also shown that cyclic
crystallization tests may be successfully used for determining the resistance of
lightweight concrete to varying environment humidity and temperature conditions.
Therefore the method can be recommended as a standard test for evaluating concrete
durability in the Mediterranean region.

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