Society and culture

Preliminary notes
Modules 1-3
Module 1: Social and Cultural World
● Society - all levels
● Social expectation & individual behaviour
● Institutions in society
● Social & cultural research
● Focus study - cultural group (eg. Masaai)
● Research - examine contemporary issues within society

Personal experience
Memories, stories and reflections

Public knowledge
Books, films and documentaries

concepts

Persons
- The individual human; their relationships with other persons and with society,
culture and environment throughout time

Society
- Human relationships from small groups to large systems

Culture
- Knowledge shared by members of these groups and systems and reflected in
their customs, values, laws, arts, technologies and artefacts; their way of life

Environment
- Settings where people live and work, the interaction between people and their
environment, people’s perceptions of the environment, and their actions to
improve their environment
Time
- The continuous passage of existence; perceptions of the past, present and future

Gender
- Social constructed differences between females and males
- Social life (family, roles, work) is organised around the dimensions of this
difference
- Reflects value society places on these social constructs
- Gender is a power debate

Identity
- Sense of self, which can be viewed from a personal, social and cultural level
- Formed over a period of time and is the result of interactions at micro, meso and
macro levels of society
- Contributing factors may be:
- Gender, sexuality, family, class, ethnicity, beliefs, social status, group
membership, national pride

Globalisation
- Process of integration and sharing of goods, capital labour, services, knowledge,
leisure, sport, ideas and culture between countries
- Evident in emergence of global patterns of:
- Consumption and consumerism
- Growth of transnational corporations
- Global sport
- Spread of world tourism
- Growth of global military and economic systems
- Assisted by technologies and media
- The world as a single place

Technology
- Tools we use to assist our interactions in society
- Lead to innovation and can initiate change at micro, meso and macro levels
- Value placed on technologies at all levels of society
- Influences rate of change to society and culture

Power vs authority
Authority
- The right to make decisions and to determine, adjudicate or settle issues and
disputes in society
- The legitimate use of power
 - Important in process of decision making, initiating change and maintaining
continuity
- Control delegated to an individual or group
- Is a right granted to you- resides in the post or position
- Technical and static
- Illustrated in organizational charts- flow downwards
- Positional

Power
- Ability or capacity or influence or persuade others to a point of view or action to
which they may not always agree
- Important in initiating or preventing change
- Control that allows influence on others
- Comes from who you are- resides in the person/ people who use it
- Flexible and dynamic
- Cannot be accurately illustrated- flows in many directions
- diffuse

Macro, meso, micro world

Micro
Where individuals everyday actions and social interactions occur, for example, within
families and small-scale groups such as peer groups

Meso
The middle-ground where individuals interact within groups such as schools,
communities, church groups and neighbourhoods, and workplaces, at branch and state
level

Macro
Includes those social institutions- such as the media, the law, the workplace institution
and the government- that help to shape the social and cultural world.

Quantitative and qualitative research

Quantitative
Quantitative researches the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be
used to find patterns and average, make predictions, test casual relationships, and
generalize results to wider populations.
Qualitative
Qualitative research involves collecting and anaylzing non-numerical data e.g. text, video
or audioto understand concepts, opinions or experiences. It can be used to gather
in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Quantitative methods Qualitative methods

Distinguishing the two Researchers collect data Researchers aim to gather

broad approaches to social
research
that can be measured,
counted or quantified
resulting in a statistical
report. The focus of
quantitative research is
what and how many.
an in-depth understanding
of an issue by way of
open-ended questioning,
non-statistical research
techniques, or value-based
observations. A qualitative
investigation focuses on
why and how

Main features - large and randomly - usually a small selected

selected samples
- structured data collection
- quantities and trends
identified; comparisons
can be made
- quantifies the findings in
numerical data, tables,
graphs and diagrams
sample
- interactive process
- participants’
characteristics may be
known to the researcher
- narrative report with
conceptual description of
behaviour, values,
attitudes and beliefs
- contains direct quotations
from research participants
- used for the exploration
of subjective experiences

Research methods

Reliability
Research reliability is the degree to which research method produces stable and
consistent results. The extent to which the research is repeatable.

Validity
Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure. If
research has high validity, that means it produces results that correspond to real
properties, characteristics, and variations in the physical or social world.
Content anaylsis
The study of documents and communication artifacts, which might be texts of various
formats, pictures, audios or video.

Questionnaire
A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the purposes
of a survey or statistical study.

Interview
Essentially a structured conversation where one participant asks questions, and the
other provides answers.

Observation
A way to gather data by watching people, events, or noting physical characteristics in
their natural setting.

Participant observation
Participant observation involves the observer being a member of the setting in which
they are collecting data.
Statistical analysis
Statistics or statistical analysis is the process of collecting and analyzing data to identify
patterns and trends. It’s a method of using numbers to try to remove any bias when
reviewing information.

Secondary research
Secondary research involves the summary, collation and/ or synthesis of existing
research.

Ethics of research

1. Do no harm (this includes psychological & emotional harm)

2. Informed consent
3. Invasion of privacy
4. No deception

Nature of the social and cultural world

Society as a concept that developed over time

- Society is comprised of the interactions of its members at the micro, meso and
macro levels
 - Society influences the way its members interact
- How interactions between members of society cause change in the nature of
society over time

Social construct
Socially created aspects of social life. Social constructionists argue that society is actively
and creatively produced by human beings rather than merely given or taken for granted.
- Society influences the way its members interact
- How interactions between members of society cause change in the nature of
society over time
- How indivdual behaviour towards others is socially constructed and influenced
by social expectation

Norms
Rules or expectations that are socially enforced. We can split this into a further four
categories:
- Folkways
- Mores
- Laws
- Taboo

Folkway
Norm that stems from and organizes casual interactions

More
Norm that structures the difference between right and wrong

Law
Norm that is formally inscribed at the state or federal level

Taboo
Strong negative norm; violating it results in extreme disgust

Conforming

Why do we conform
People conform to group pressure because they are dependent on the group for
satisfying two important desires: the desire to have an accurate perception of reality and
the desire to be accepted by other people. People want to hold accurate beliefs about
the world because such beliefs usually lead to rewarding outcomes.
 - Strength through discipline
- Strength through community
- Strength through action
- Strength through unity

how interactions between members of society cause change in the nature of society over time
Case study: Greta thunberg and her climate strikes

What norms were broken

Greta Thunberg was only 15 years old when she began protesting for action on climate
change. As a girl that age, in society she is expected to follow rules and ‘orders’ from
older people with more power and authority so her standing up and creating a large
protest and school strike was going against societal norms. She also has Asperger’s
syndrome which is a disability on the autism scale, Greta has broken norms by being a
person of high influence and power with a disability.

Why were these norms broken

Greta broke these norms in pursuit of more attention regarding the issues surrounding
climate change. She viewed the intensity of the climate change issue much more
important than the ‘norms’ she was breaking to get there.

What are some well-known examples of this action

1. Her “school strike for the climate” has now grown into a global movement that
has brought more than 10 million people onto streets worldwide to demand
action on climate change. This began back in 2018 when Greta protested outside
the Swedish Parliament to pressure the government to meet carbon emissions
target
2. Her speech in front of the United Nations in September of 2019. This speech,
commonly referred to as the “how dare you’ speech, was heard by people in
person and on social media all around the world and had a large impact on how
the UN handled climate change.

What aspects of society changed as a result of these civil/non-violent acts of

disobedience

Greta Thunberg attracted international attention through her persistent and

recognisable movements and speeches. Through this, many people have brought more
attention and efforts towards the severity of climate change.
How long did these changes take to occur

Although Greta Thumburg has shined a lot on the severity of climate change, pushing for
change internationally, climate change is a global issue which is far more difficult to be
solved than just through protesting and informing people. With this in mind, Greta has
pushed for and found some results through being invited to speak at international
events, forcing many world leaders to ‘take a look around’ such as Alok Sharma, the
president of the COP26 summit, who said that Thunberg's UN speech in 2019 had made
him feel "really uncomfortable" because it held up a "mirror" to his generation. However
not all attention has provoked thought and action as people such as Donald Trump
tweeted that she should "work on her anger management problem".

Multicultural and hybrid nature of societies and cultures

Hybrid society
A society that comprises a range of social and cultural influences and components,
rather than having a homogenous identity.

Multiculturalism
An approach to cultural diversity in society that promotes the view that cultural
difference should be respected and even encouraged and supported. Multiculturalism is
premised on the belief that different cultural groups can live together harmoniously,
each contributing to an enriching of the whole society.

Acculturation
The process of contacts between different cultures and also the outcome of such
contacts. Accultiuration occurs when members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs
and behaviours of another group. It may involve direct social interaction or exposure to
other cultures through mass media.

Enculturation
Enculturation is the process by which people learn the dynamics of their surrounding
culture and acquire values and norms appropriate or necessary to that culture and its
worldviews.

Assimilation
Theprocess whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnic heritage are absorbed into
the dominant culture.
Stimmel’s theory
- No such thing as society and people just interact with each other
- Stimmel said you need to look at society as not a structure or system but as a
web of interactions between people
- “Social forms” instead of society
- Social forms need to constantly be changing
- Social and political change is an example how something so signifcant and
structured can collapse and completly change
- Without the constant change/ reproduction of social order, it doesnt continue, it
can just fall apart
- “Nothing lasts forever and, every so often, nation-states and societies discover
that they can live without the institutions they have inherited… The institutions
disappear and their functions are picked up elsewhere…” -Simon Marginson

Is it possible for a country to truly be multicultural (+ case study)

The legal system.

Legal system is the broad term that describes the laws we have, the process for making
those laws, and the processes for making sure the laws are followed and obeyed. The
legal systems purpose is to establish rules of a society and rights of the people within
that society. They are made to keep a sense of order.

How the group influences individual behaviour

The legal system controls many actions of individuals within said society. Individuals
must follow laws made by the legal system or face punishment. E.g. road rules such as
speeding can be punished through forms of fines or prison and is monitored live by
police or by speeding cameras.

How individuals are shaping the institution

Individuals have the ability to shape legal system laws as the individuals make up the
related society. E.g. referendums such as the nations decision to form a commonwealth
and have a constitution. Individuals also have to vote to form members who make up
the parliament and make further decisions on behalf for those who voted them in.

Application of Stimmels theory

The legal system requires society to constantly be interacting with it, at risk of facing
consequences. If people were to collectively reject the law, it would lead to anarchy and
revolution, and the government would likely collapse. As part of this, the law must be
able to adapt and change in order to reflect new societal values and avoid resistance.
Proposed changes to legislation undergo a process through parliament. As mentioned
earlier, compulsory voting in elections and referendums are an important way to keep
society engaged with the law.

Government
A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community,
often a state.
Main ways the group influences individual behaviour:
- Creating laws which govern daily behavior
- Creating systems of sanctions and rewards of individual behaviour
- Creating standards for workplaces
- ‘Party of the day’ influences values and culture of the country
- Provide welfare and assistance to individuals
- In some countries, governments control and monitor all individuals actions (eg.
North Korea)

Explain how individuals shape the institution:

- Prime Minister as leader of the government influences the policies
- Leaders of social movements and unions have a large influence on government
policies (eg. Grace Tame)
- Wealthy individuals (Murdoch, Packer, Rinehart) can influence government
policies and decisions (eg. casinos)
- The Governor General has legal influence on the government in Australia (fired
the PM once

Cultures
3 different types of cultures

Multicultural
Containing several cultural or ethnic groups within a society but with one main,
dominant culture who passes on traits to minority cultures. Approach to cultural
diversity in society that promotes the view that cultural difference should be respected
and even encouraged and supported.

Hybrid
Societies of mixed character, where the dominant culture is less obvious and there is
more of an exchange between dominant and minority cultures.

Monoculture
A single, homogenous culture without diversity or dissention. A society that excludes
external cultural influences and practices only the traditions of one cultures
3 processes
Enculturation (Multiculturalism)
- the process by which people learn the dynamics of their surrounding culture and
acquire values and norms appropriate or necessary to that culture and its
worldviews.

Acculturation (Hybrid)
- the transfer of values and customs from one group to another.

Assimilation (Monoculture)
- refers to the process through which individuals and groups of differing heritages
acquire the basic habits, attitudes, and mode of life of the dominant culture.

Maasai

General information
Population:
There are a total of 2 million Maasai people across the world. 1.1 million live in Kenya
and 800 thousand live in Tanzania. Even though the Maasai people live a very different,
much simpler life than us, they still thrive in our constantly developing, changing world.

Language:
The Maasai refer to their language as Maa. Most also speak Swahili, the lingua franca of
East Africa.

Religion:
The Maasai people are monotheistic. Their God is named Enkai or Engai, who is mostly
benevolent and who manifests himself in the form of different colours, according to the
feelings he is experiencing

Movement:
Mixture of nomadic, and semi-nomadic

Society:
Patriarchal and polygamous

Diet
Traditional Maasai food has a few main components: milk, fat, blood, honey and tree
bark. Cattle blood is often mixed in with other food items and can be boiled and used in
cooking or drinks.
Clothing
The clothes of the Maasai are usually very colourful beaded necklaces, an iron rod
(weapon), red Shuka cloth. Red is the most common colour however they also use blue,
striped and checkered cloth to cover themselves.

Housing
Maasai shelter is either circular or loaf shaped and are made by the women. Their
villages are enveloped in a circular Enkang or fence, built by the men and this protects
their cattle from wild animals especially at night. Typical materials used to create Maasai
huts include cow manure, mud, sticks, grass, urine and ash.

Module 2: Personal and Social Identity

● Development of personality & self-concept
● Socialisation
● Adolescence as a social construct
● Development theories (psychology)
● Transitions through life course & theories
● Focus study & research - comparative cross-generational study on socialisation

Personality
Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling
and behaving.

Difference between social and personal identity

Personal Identity - that which is perceived to make us different to others

Social identity- also known as collective identity and is the way in which we see
ourselves as having commonality with others

Self-concept
Composed of the various identities, attitudes, beliefs and values that an individual holds
about himself or herself and by which the individual defines himself or herself as a
specific objective identity: the ‘self’.
Three aspects of self-concept are:
- Self image
- Self-esteem
- Ideal self

Self image
- One’s social role, personality, how we see ourselves. (eg; sister, clever, tall)
- Self-image is the mental picture of how you see yourself.
- Men and women usually are resistant to change their self-image because it was
defined and shaped at an early age.
- Family and friends have a large influence on self image
It includes:
- How you see yourself physically (body image)
- What others think of you or what you perceive them to think of
you
- What you think about your personality
- Your status
- The kind of person you think you are

Descriptor Example 1 Example 2

Social role I am a student I am a teacher

Personality I am outgoing I am caring

Physical self I am sporty I am short

Intellectual ability I am clever I have much to tell

Self-esteem
- How we feel about ourselves. Do we like ourselves? Do we value ourselves?
- Self-esteem can be different in different areas of your life (eg. a good student,
but not strong at sport)

Ideal self
- The person we would like to be.
- This concept changes and develops over time, and at different life stages.
- Societal ideas on beauty largely shape our physical ‘ideal self’
- - It is more common for women to have poor self-image than men.
Personality testing
Personality testing is now an industry worth over $2 billion and has become very popular
in last 40 years due to growth of office workers. Companies are the largest users of
personality quizzes to help hire, and assign the right work to employees in their
company.

Ancient Greece
Choleric
Yellow bile
- Determined, quick to act, fiery, energetic, passionate

Sanguine
Blood
- Warm hearted, outgoing, violate, optimistic, cheerful

Phlegmatic
Phlegm
- Slow, patient, calm, quiet, shy, rational, consistent

Melancholic
Black bile
- Serious, anxious, quiet, fearful, depressed, poetic, sad, artistic

Japan
What your blood type says about you, based on Ketsueki-gata
Type A
- Creative, operative, stubborn, uptight

Type B
- Empathetic, passionate, selfish, erratic

Type AB
- Rational, adaptable, indecisive, critical

Type O
- Confident, resilient, self-centered, unstable

Self-concept development

Infants (0-2)
- Not intellectually developed-no idea of self or what a person is
 - Need emotional support from others to learn, developand understand feelings of
others
- How they are treated by carer will affect what they think about themselves and
others

Children (3-12)
- Meet more people who influence the image they have of themselves
- Learn to fit in with others and basic social rules (sharing). Also develop their
social role and what is expected of them
- Praise and reward for good behaviour and punishment for misbehaviour adds to
their development of self concept
Adolescents (13-18)
- Develop strong sense of self- althoughnot always positive. Show this through
friendship/ groups/ clothing/ music etc
- Independent, make own decisions, begin to develop more intimate relationships
- Media and others around them also affect their self-concept or how/ who they
think they should be

Adults (18-65)
- Knows their roles/ what is expected
- Life events (marriage, divorce etc) also begin to affect life self-concept
- Can be positive or negative depending on circumstances
- How we have learnt to value ourselves and others earlier in life will have huge
impact now- we are responsible for our actions

Later adulthood (66-)

- retirement / loss of partner means loss of some social roles
- Loss of social life and physical abilities can have negative effects including
depression
- May find more time for things they enjoy- can be positive as they get better at
hobbies and achieve things
- Also take on new roles as grandparents etc

Goffman’s “The Performed Self”

Goffman is the person most associated with what has become known as the
dramaturgical model of social interaction. As the name suggests, this model likens
ordinary social interaction to theatrical performance. Thus, the setting, or context,
interaction is viewed as a stage. The people who are acting are actors; those
who watch are the audience. The roles people (or actors) take in interactions are
performances strategically crafted to project particular images to others, the
audience. Within a drama are a number of specific scenes, each of which must
be managed correctly for the overall drama to be successful.

- Social community share many common frames for interaction

- Despite differences that arise from personal experience and membership
in diverse social communities, most Americans share a basic frame for
interactions
- first date, wedding, applying for a job, funeral and so forth
- Because frames typically reflect cultural knowledge, they vary from culture
to culture
- For instance, most members of a specific culture share an understanding
of the frame for classes
- We know the range of behaviours that are normal for teachers and students
- Using his dramaturgical model, Goffman studied how people present
themselves and their activities to others
- His theory describes how people shape others’ impressions of them as
well as hoe people convince others to adopt certain, and not other,
definitions of a situation
- What can a person do and not do to sustain a particular image?
Impression management
- Goffman was especially interested in impression management, which is
the process of:
- managing setting, words, nonverbal communication, and
dress in an effort to create a particular image of individuals and situations
- According to Goffman (1959), our efforts to create and project certain
impressions may be either highly calculated or unintentional
Front and back stage
- Front stage is what is visible to an audience
- Backstage includes all that is not visible to an audience
- Back stage is where actors can act in ways that might undermine their front
stage performances
- When you attend a dramatic presentation, you see the actors performing
on stage, what you don’t see is all that is happening backstage to make
front stage performances believable
- Everyday life occurs on both front stage and back stage

Socialisation
The role of socialisation and the influence of agents of socialisation on the development
of personal and social identity.
Socialisation is gaining knowledge and understanding of the rules and expectations for
social situations. It is the process through which individuals learn the norms and values
of society, It is a lifelong process as we encounter new social situations (eg. workplaces).

Socialisation is divided into two types: primary and secondary.

● Primary socialisation is the knowledge that we gain from our family, and early
phases in life.
● Secondary socialisation includes influences outside the family, such as peers,
religion, school and the media, and occurs later in life.

These roles, norms and values learnt through socialisation typically become internalised
and part of who we are and how we present ourselves to the world.

First born Middle child Youngest child Only child

Typical traits -reliable -not as family -highly social - mature

-responsible orientated -confident -perfectionist
-have been -feels -creative -diligent
disciplined overshadowed -problem solver -leaders
-usually, -not -attention -sensitive
smartest perfectionists seeking -overachievers
- “forgotten -manipulative -loyal
child” -undisciplined -cautious
-outgoing
-self centred

Development of personal and social identity

- Family and kinship
- Ethnicity and culture
- Gender
- Sexuality
- Beliefs
- Location, class and status
- Peers
- School
- Media,including contemporary communication technologies

Family and kinship

Family
 A social group characterised by (usually) common residence, economic
cooperation and reproduction
Kinship
Established relationships between individuals and groups on the basis of socially
recognised biological relationships or martial links

Parenting styles

Authoritarian Authorative Permissive Uninvolved

Focus on Create positive Dont enforce rules, Provide little

obedience, relationship, ‘kids will be kids’ guidance, nurturing
punishment over enforce rules or attention
disipline

Newer types of parenting styles

Helicopter parent
- Also called a cosseting parent or simply a cosseter
- Pays extremely close attention to a child’s experiences, problems, particularly at
educational institutions

Snowplough parent
- Removes any obstacles in their child’s way
- Doesn’t want their child to experience any discomfort or problem so they
interviene for them

Attachment parent
- aiming to promote the attachment of parent and infant
- by maximal parental empathy and responsiveness but also by continuous bodily
closeness and touch

Free range parent

- opposite of Helicopter parenting
- Allowing kids to have the freedom to experience the natural consequences of
their behavior—when it’s safe
- It’s also about ensuring kids have the skills they need to become responsible
adults
gender neutral parenting, answer the following questions

1. Do you agree/disagree with gender neutral parenting, and why?

I don’t agree or disagree. I think it has its benefits by allowing the child to
identify as whatever they like and giving them the freedom to be themselves. It
does turn gender into some huge choice for the child which can add a lot of
pressure to their life. I also think it makes life harder for your child when they
grow up as as lot of people won’t understand and they will get a lot of criticism.

2. How do you think traditional gender norms affect personality development in

infants & children?
Yes. Females are expected to come off as very soft and impressionable. They are
expected to be obsessed with their femininity and focus on their looks rather
than intelligence etc. Males are more expected to be stronger and more assertive
which gives females the impression they are always meant to come off as smaller
and not masculine at all.

Nature vs Nurture
Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and
other biological factors. Therefore, if nature is more important, then our personalities
will form early in our lives and will be difficult to change later.

Case Study
One study, the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart, studied 350 pairs of twins
between 1979 and 1999. Participants included both identical and fraternal twins who
were either raised together or apart. Results revealed that personalities of identical
twins were similar whether they were raised in the same household or apart, hence
suggesting that some aspects of personality are influenced by genetics. These studies
suggest that identical twins share approximately 50% of the same traits, while fraternal
twins share only about 20%.

Facts
- genetics or other natural influences are mostly, if not entirely, responsible for the
characteristics resulting in the personality, behaviour and intelligence of an
individual.
- Mental health/addictions are usually influenced by genetics
- E.g. schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression
- Scientists have proved that psychiatric disorders run in families
- Proven studies show the association of biological factors that affect the
development of mental health disorders
 - Adoption studies have shown adopted children often have greater resemblance
to their biological parents, in terms of behaviour and personality
- Often it is easy to see similarities between a child’s personality and one or both
of their parents’ personalities. In this situation, it would seem that the child's
personality has developed largely from the influence of the parents' genes.
- If the child of someone who is a convicted criminal also commits criminal acts,
some argue that the outcome was inevitable due to the impact of nature.
- Some individuals believe that homosexuality is a biological factor, no more a
choice than eye color or foot size. These individuals are debating from the
perspective of nature being responsible for the development of the individual

Class and status

Cultural capital
Cultural capital is the accumulation of knowledge, behaviours, and skills that a person
can tap into to demonstrate one’s cultural competen e and social status.

Embodied state
The farm of knowledge that resides within us
Objectified state
Material objecrts we use to indicate social class
Institutionalised state
The way society measures social capital

Students examine research on how social media affects our brain and shapes our
personality. Read this New Yorker Article titled ‘How Social Media Shapes our Identity’.
(Links to an external site.)

Step One: SCANNING

Read the article and scan for any fundamental and additional course concepts. Highlight
of underline as you go. List them below:
Step Two: RE-READING
Read the article again, and this time, identify any language associated with the concepts
identified above (e.g., while GENDER is a concept, masculinity is a term associated with
this concept). List these below:
Step Three: MONITOR COMPREHENSION
Identify any words or areas of the article where you might be confused or lack
understanding. List them below, look them up and discuss them with the person next to
you .
Step Four: SYNTHESISING
Based on your reading and what we have already studied about how personal and social
identity develop, write a paragraph explaining how social media affects our brain and
shapes our personality.

Social media has a large effect on our brains and how we present ourselves to other
people. Over the last couple of decades, social media has become an extremely
important part of our lives and the way we communicate with others all across the
world. Social media has the ability to limit our personalities and how we express
ourselves as on social media there is always a footprint of your past self/ selves that you
are reminded of which can limit you. There is also a very strong stereotype that people
on social media work around.

Writing a questionnaire

● Questionnaire should have a mixture of CLOSED and OPEN questions

● They should be fairly short (10-15 questions)
● Questions should be logically ordered- questions should start with collecting
personal info then more onto topical questions
● Keep wording simple and ask direct questions
● Consider using scaling carefully
● Be piloted- should test it on a smaller group in case questions are ambiguous or
misinterpreted
● You can break questionnaires up into sections

Belief Systems
Do you think people from different belief systems have different personalities and
identities?
———
Select a religion or belief system other than one you may believe in.
Outline three significant beliefs of that religion and then link each belief to a speciifc
ritual.
How does each ritual provide meaning to the participants?
Discuss how these practices shape the values of these participants.

Scientology
Belief Ritual How this provides meaning
& shapes identity
Man is an immortal spiritual Auditing is the process in which
being a Scientologist verbally confers
with a trained auditor to delete
"life's painful experiences" and
increase "spiritual abilities,"
according to the Church of
Scientology's newsroom.
Auditors ask specific sets of
questions to the person, or
"pre-clear," aiming to help the
person root out sources of
spiritual distress.
-
funerals are not meant to be a
gloomy occasion, as adherents
believe in reincarnation.
Scientologists believe that when
a person dies, they leave the
earthly body they had been
inhabiting and go find a new
body to inhabit. Therefore, a
ceremony is meant to celebrate
the person's life and prepare
their spirit for the next phase of
its existence. "The service is a
reaffirmation of the knowledge
that we are immortal spiritual
beings," the church's newsroom
says.

Scientology refers to itself as

One of the most highly
scientific. It is not.
publicized rituals for
Scientologists is the idea of the
silent birth. Celebrity adherents
-- including Kelly Preston and
Tom Cruise -- have discussed the
ritual publicly, clearing up
popular misconceptions, such as
the idea that the pregnant
mother must be completely
silent during her baby's delivery.
In fact, while Scientologists ask
for silence during a baby's birth,
so as to reduce the risk of
psychic scarring on the baby,
that silence is maintained by the
doctors, nurses and family
 members; the mother is not
asked to remain quiet
throughout the process. Sounds
are preferred over words.

Scientology is anti-psychiatry
and psychology. Scientologists
In Scientology, this is
view psychiatry as a barbaric
accomplished through a rigorous
and corrupt profession and
process of indoctrination
encourage alternative care
through written and
based on spiritual healing.
tape-recorded materials. The
member's confidence in all
previously trusted social
institutions is ended, and
replaced with the belief that
salvation can come only through
Scientology. The person's new
sense of identity comes from his
or her belonging to the cult as all
other allegiances are severed

A third paradigm of mind

control, or brainwashing, comes
from George Estabrooks in his
writing about hypnotism, about
which he was an expert.
Estabrooks noticed that many of
the elements of mob psychology
used by cult leaders were very
similar to techniques used by
hypnotists. He states that these
techniques were used by Hitler,
they were also practiced by
Hubbard.

Silent generation - World war II - Roller skates

- - Record
player
 Baby boomer - Be cool - Moon - Frisbee
- Peace landing - Casset tape
- Groovy -

Gen X - Dude - Stock - Rubix cube

- Ace market - Walkman
- Rad crash
- As if -

Millennials - Bling - September - BMX bike

- Funky 11th - Ipod
- wasssap -

Gen Z - Fam - Global - Folding

- Slay financial scooter
- GOAT crisis 2008 - Spotify
-

Gen Alpha - Lit - trump/ - Fidget

- Yeet Brexit spinner
- idrc - Covid-19 - Portable
speakers

Generational theories

Theory of generation - Karl Mannheim

- A group of people born over a series of years can share a worldview that is
specific to that group
- People are strongly shaped by their social and cultural context
- Each generation plays a unique role in acting as a catalyst to social change

Generational theory- Strauss and Howe

- Building on the work of Mannheim, their theory states that there are four cycles
of generational characteristics that emerge and re-emerge through time
- Each era is referred to as as a ‘turning’ and lasts for 20-25 years
- Allows us to predict the ‘near future’
- The four cycles form part of a larger cycle called a saeculum (80-100 years)
- Each turning is also associated with a generational archetype

1. High period - positive era that strengthens institutions and a new civic order
grows. Individualism is weakened
2. Awakening - a passionate time of change and upheaval. Former civic order
challenged by new values
 3. Unravelling - individualism rises and institutional power declines. Older values
decay and new values rise.
4. Crises - great upheaval and new values system drives creation of new civic order
and institutions

Generational Archetype - Prophet

- Enter childhood during a High
- Grow up as indulged children of a post-Crisis era
- Come of age as self-absorbed young crusaders during an Awakening
- Focus on morals and values in midlife
- Emerge as elders guiding a new Crisis

Generational Archetype - Nomad

- Enter childhood during an Awakening
- As young adults passionately attack the established institutional order
- Grow up as ‘under-protected’ children
- Come of age as alienated post-Awakening adults
- Become pragmatic middle leaders during a Crises
- Then resilient post-Crises elders

Generational Archetype - Hero

- Enter childhood during an Unravelling
- Grow up as increasingly protected post-Awakening children’
- Come of age as team-orientated young optimists during a Crises
- Emerge as energetic, overly-confident midlifers
- Age into politically powerful elders attacked by another Awakening

Generational Archetype - Artist

- Enter childhood during a Crisis when dangers cut down social and political
complexity in favour of public consensus, aggressive institutions and personal
sacrifice
- Grow up overprotected by adults preoccupied with the Crisis
- Come of age as conformist young adults in a post-Crisis world
- Break out as process-orientated midlife leaders during an Awakening
- Age into thoughtful post-Awakening elders
Theories of development

Jean Piaget- cognitive theory

1. Senseri-motor
0-2

2. Pre-operational
2-7
- Engaging with speech
- Developing gross motor skills
- Playing games

3. Concrete operational
7-11
- Thinking about time and space

4. Formal operational
11-

In Piaget’s theory, the child is developing on their own- discovery based learning. Kids
are discovering things for themselves as they, move through life. Piaget underestimates
the concept of nature, age of development can very easily vary from person to person.
*NO THEORY IS EVER GOING TO BE PERFECT, YOU CAN ALWAYS CRITIQUE IT

Erik Erikson
Psychosocial Theory
- Personality development occurs over a lifetime
- At each stage there is a ‘social crisis’ or conflict that requires resolution
before the stage can be completed
- Overcoming these challenges at each stage enables a person to acquire
skills that make them an ‘active member of society’.

Stage 1: Basic Trust v. Mistrust

Age Key aspects of the Successful Unsuccessful
stage

0-1 Development of Optimism, trust and Mistrust,

trust is based on confidence is worthlessness &
quality of developed
 caregiver’s in love. insecurity
Mainly developed developed
through touch &
eye contact.

Stage 2: Autonomy v. Shame

Age Key aspects of the Successful Unsuccessful
stage

1-3 Development of Child develops Child develops a

personal control pride. sense of shame &
Opportunity to low self-esteem
obtain autonomy,
self-esteem and the
values of right and
wrong
Obtain preferences
for food &
expression
Struggles around
stubbornness,
defiance & temper
tantrums are still
common (terrible
2s).

Stage 3: Initiative v. Guilt

Age Key aspects of the Successful Unsuccessful
stage

3-5 Focuses on children Children will feel Child left with

developing the capable to lead frustration and a
ability to asset others. sense of self-doubt
power& exert regarding their
control ont he abilities.
world
Guilt & lack of
Done through play initiative.
and other social
interactions.
 Children desire to
copy adults and
learn through
imitation through
play situations

Stage 4: Industry v. Inferiority

Age Key aspects of the Successful Unsuccessful
stage

6-11 Often referred to as Children who are If the child

‘Latency’ phase encourage and experiences
Focuses on capacity affimed by teachers inadequacy and
to learn new skills and peers develop inferiority among
& knowledge. Helps a sense of belief peers it results in
develops a sense of and competence in lack of self-belief,
industry in the their abilities. competence and
child. self-esteem
Stage is very social
and also involves
the child’s teachers
and peers.

Stage 5: Identity v. Role Confusion

Age Key aspects of the Successful Unsuccessful
stage

Adolescence This stage is not Develops close Feels confused

reliant on others bonds to friends, about possible
actions and ideals and causes. adult roles, and role
external validation, they play in society.
but is rather General upheaval.
focused on what a
person does and
their own sense of
achievement.

Involves grappling
with questions of
identity, whilst
navigating social
interactions, ‘fitting
 in’, and belonging
to particular
groups.

Stage 6: Intimacy and solidarity v. Isolation

Age Key aspects of the Successful Unsuccessful
stage

Young adulthood Seeking love and Individuals find Isolation may occur.
companionship. themselves in a
committed & loving
relationship, and
often want to
marry.

Stage 7: Generativity v. self-absorption and stagnation

Age Key aspects of the Successful Unsuccessful
stage

Middle adulthood ‘Prime of life’ and Individuals feel that Fears of

thinking about their they are producing meaninglessness,
future and what something that is and inactivity.
their legacy will be. contributing to
Trying to establish a society.
sense of stability.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

Age Key aspects of the Successful Unsuccessful
stage

Old age Involves reflecting Feel that their life May feel despair,
on one’s previous was worthwhile and fear death.
stages. and they achieved
what they wanted. Fear of death may
come from a feeling
of failure or lack of
purpose in one’s
life.
Pro’s and Con’s of Erikson’s theory

Pros:
- Very in depth
- Has a new stage of development for each new ‘part’ of your life
- Accounts for environmental factors/the impact of parenting and family situations
- Flexibility with stages
- it provides a broad framework from which to view development throughout the
entire lifespan
- Also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings and the important
influence that social relationships have on development

Cons:
- Too definitive to confine humanity’s experiences into 8 stages or groups
- Lacks deeper explanation
- One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for
resolving conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not well described
or developed
- Centralised around Western values
 Critically analyse ONE development theory (Piaget or Erikson) with reference to at least ONE course
concept.

Erik Erikson’s development theory

CRITICALLY ANALYSE: add a degree or level of accuracy depth, knowledge and understanding, logic,
questioning, reflection and quality to (analyse/evaluate).

Course Concepts that could be referenced:

1. Core Concepts: Persons, time, culture, environment
2. Depth Study Concepts: life stages and course, self and self-concept, social construct.

Persons:
Time: your generation is brought up with different views (espec politics) the world events that are
happening at that time
Culture: the theory is very Western based, one stage is moving out, being independent, some cultures
has different values around those parts of your life
Environment: Your upbringing, the people you are surrounded by, wealth etc all impact development

Adolescence
The delay between childhood and adulthood.

The period following the onset of puberty during which a young person develops from a
child into an adult.

Rite of passage Whats involved Where it occurs Age it occurs at

Bar and bat Before his/ her The ceremony 13th birthday
Mitzvah 13th birthday, a happens at the
Jewish boy will synagogue by
attend lessons, Jewish people
usually at the
synagogue, in
Hebrew and in how
to read the Torah
aloud. On the
Sabbath nearest to
his 13th birthday,
the boy will
become Bar
Mitzvah . During
the Sabbath
 service, the boy will
read aloud part of
the Torah or a
section of the
Prophets.

Quinceanera also called Hispaniuc countries 15

quinceaños or
quince años or
simply quince, the
celebration of a
girl's 15th birthday,
marking her
passage from
girlhood to
womanhood; the
term is also used
for the celebrant
herself.
A quinceañera is an
important
milestone in a
young girl's life. In
many Hispanic
cultures, the
celebration
recognizes her
entry into
womanhood by
officially granting
her permission to
use makeup, wear
heels, and perhaps
even date.

Hamar Cow Hamar

Jumping cattle-leaping and
whipping. A Hamar
man comes of age
by leaping over a
line of cattle. It's
the ceremony
which qualifies him
to marry, own
cattle and have
children. The timing
 of the ceremony is
up to the man's
parents and
happens after
harvest.

The universal experience of adolescence varies greatly depending on the cultural and
social influences on a young person's development. As explained in erikson's
psychosocial theory of development.

Hasidic Jews

KINSHIP
Established relationships between individuals and groups based on socially recognised
biological relationships or marital links. [NESA]

RIGHTS
are the social, civil and political rights accorded to individuals. These include human
rights – the fundamental rights that individuals should have as humans, such as the right
to life, equality before the law, education and freedom of belief.

RESPONSIBILITIES
are obligations: things that it is the individual’s duty to deal with (e.g., as part of their
job), or ways in which they are expected to behave within the society (such as following
rules).

Rights and responsibilities- australian adolescence

- Start to make decisions independently
- Education
- Start adjusting to the idea of adulthood
- Develop a new perspective on human relationships
- Understand more complex emotional experiences
- Establish key aspects of identity

Rights and responsibilities- Hasidic Jew adolescence

- Wearing religious garments
- Having their bat/ bar mitzvah
- Faith and teaching
- Education
Module 3: Intercultural communication
● how culture determines the ways individuals encode messages, what mediums they choose
for transmitting them, and the ways messages are interpreted
● The role of communication in maintaining social relationships and social control
● The individual’s rights and responsibilities in relation to communication, communication
technologies and citizenship

Why is it important for you to learn about intercultural communication?

- Interconnected world
- Culture changing
- Communication fosters cooperation
- Not causing offence
- Stops us from developing an ethno-centric view

What are the different forms of communication?

- Verbal
- Speech
- Language
- Tone
- Non-verbal
- Gestures
- Facial expressions
- Touch
- Dance
- Sign language
- Morse code
- Braille
- Texting
- Writing
- song/ music
- Images
- Art
- Symbols
- Emojis
- Clothing
 - Food
- Jewellery

IMPORTANT MODULE DEFINITIONS

Enculturation
The gradual acquisition of the characteristics and norms of a culture or group by a
person, another culture etc…

Acculturation
The process of contacts between different cultures and also the outcome of such
contacts. Acculturation occurs when members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs
and behaviours of another group. It may involve direct social interaction or exposure to
other cultures through mass media.

Culture shock
The feeling of disorientation experienced by someone when they are suddenly subjected
to an unfamiliar culture, way of life, or set of attitudes.

Cultural diversity
Appears as a society becomes larger and more complex, immigrant groups join the
dominant culture, and subcultures form within the society. The more complex the
society, the more likely it is that its culture will become internally varied and diverse.
Cultural diversity implies a two-way sharing of ideas, customs and values among the
various cultural groups that comprise the society.

Cultural heritage
The practices, traditions, customs and knowledge that define who we are socially and
personally. Cultural heritage is an expression of the values that help us to understand
our past, make sense of the present, and express a continuity of culture for the future.
Cultural heritage can be analysed at the micro, meso and macro levels in society.

Cultural relativism
The idea that concepts are socially constructed and vary across cultures. Therefore,
individuals and groups must always view other cultures objectively and not judge them
using the values and norms of their own culture as a measure of right or wrong.

Customs
Established ways of acting or cultural practices that are unique to groups in society.
Customs have important links to the heritage, values and traditions of people.
Cultural transmission
The transmission of culture – such as traditions, values, language, symbols, cultural
traits, beliefs and normative behaviour – across and between generations in society.

Features of high and low context cultures

High context Low context

Key features - Relational - Logical

- Intuitive - Individual
- Collectivist - Action orientated
- Value interpersonal - Value directiveness
relationships and facts
- Indirect and formal - Discussions and in
- Humility, elaborate action
apologies, and - Problem solving is
sophisticated step by step and
language are the based on facts
norm - Communication is
- Trust developed expected to be
through gestures, succinct, concise,
silences, and and straightforward
posture- words are - Use of precise
less important words that are
expected to be
taken literally

Examples Middle-East, Asia, South US, Australia, Europe, NZ

America
The Communication Process- Hall’s Encoding/Decoding Theory

Non-verbal communication

Proxemics
- The amount of space we put between ourselves and others depends upon the
relationship, situation and context
- The study of how close or far away we choose to be other people and objects
- Helps us understand our own use of personal space and gives us clues about our
relationship with others

Intimate zone
- Between 0 and 1.5 feet
- Hugs, kisses, headbutts
- Group or work situations
- Personal and intimate conversations happen here

Personal space
- Between 1.5-4 feet
- Handshakes, high fives
- Fighting distance
- Conversations with family and close friends

Social zone
- 4-12ft
- Conversations with co workers and professionals
- Close enough to talk
 - Big gestures or placing objects around to protect their own territory
Public zone
- 12ft+
- Teachers and public speaking

Semiotics
- The study of meaning behind signs and symbols, and how signs and symbols
convey that meaning to the receiver
- Can be used to analyse film, art and literature
- More recently used for analysing consumer behaviour and brand communication
Examples:
- Wedding rings
- Tartan
- Neck elongation
- Traffic lights

Social control
- Social control refers to the ways in which people’s behaviours are regulated in a
particular social system
- This is also known as the regulation and enforcement of norms through political
and social mechanisms
- Institutions attempt to regulate social behaviour so that we can have conformity.
- Conformity is better for governance- easier and more cost effective
- Individuals, groups and institutions communicate verbally and non verbally and
employ formal and non formal penalties or punishments to maintain social
relations and social control

Formal and informal control

- Formal controls tend to be those enforced by the state, usually through the
creation of laws
- Eg. police issue fines for speeding, new legislation created by the government
- Informal social control mechanisms can be less obvious and are based on shame,
ridicule, exclusion and disapproval. Informal social controls also include peer
pressure and community pressure to conform to societal norms, customs and
values.
- Eg. community giving disapproving looks

Micro Meso Macro

 Eg. verbal reprimands Eg. letter of warning from Eg. Media defines what is
employer acceptable/unacceptable
by way of reporting

- Frowning - Parking ticket - Jail

- Email - Suspension - Laws
- Hand gestures
- Text message

1. Identify the social values Australian journalists feel are being challenged, which
gave rise to the blackout protest.
- Freedom of speech
- Holding the government accountable
- Transparency
2. Explain how effective this action was in promoting awareness of media and
censorship.
- No
3. Evaluate the impact of technology on the media and how it demonstrates
continuity and change in Australian society.
- No

Communication rights

- Those rights which enable people everywhere to express themselves individually

and collectively by all means of communication in order to improve their lives

Four pillars of communication rights

Based on Jean d’Arcy’s work, there are four pillars of communication rights:

1. Communicating on the public sphere - democratic participation in society

2. Communication knowledge - the terms and means of knowledge generated by
society is communicated
3. Civil rights in communication - exercising civil rights in regards to communication
4. Cultural rights in communication - communication of diverse cultures, cultural
forms and identities
Communication accommodation theory
Theorist: Howard Giles

- Theory centred around conversation.

- Theory tries to explain the ways in which people shift the way in which they
speak depending on who they are speaking to.

Theory posits:
- Accommodation occurs when both parties recognise the appropriate social
norms
- Every conversation there are similarities and differences - differences allow for
some accommodation.
- At the start of a conversation communicators are evaluating the other person to
determine if they need to change their communication style
- Usually there is an unspoken agreement that the conversation will be conducted
to suit the needs of the higher-status person

Ways people adapt in a conversation:

- Convergence - changing things such as language, dialect, tone of voice to be
more similar to the conversation partner. Usually done to seek approval.

- Divergence- used by a person to emphasise differences between them and their

partner. Adjustment is based on the other person’s communication style. Used to
achieve distinctiveness.

- Overaccommodation - when someone tries to compensate for the difference in

linguistic ability. They are often perceived as rude, demeaning or patronising.

Online disinhibition effect

- Online disinhibition effect is the lack of restraint one feels when communicating
online in comparison to communicating in-person
- People feel safer saying things online which they would not say in real life
because they have the ability to remain completely anonymous and invisible
behind the computer screen
- For example, a group of students might bully a classmate online and then feel
emboldened to bully him or her in person
- Parasocial relationships meaning people feel more comfortable criticising
celebrities online
- John suler helped develop the theory
Case Study: Japan

Introduction
● High-context culture
● Words can have several meanings
● Communication relies heavily on facial expressions, voice tones & posture
● Verbal communication is not direct
● Tend to ask broad questions
● Respond ‘yes’ to ambiguous questions

Bowing
● Bowing is used as an indicator of respect
● The lower the bow the more respect conveyed
● The person in a lower social position should initiate the bow and bow deeper
than the other person
● The bow continues until the person of the higher social position stands upright

Facial expressions
● Japanese believe that a smile hides the real emotions on the face
● A smile might be used to hide embarrassment or pain
● Japanese people believe it is rude to appear overly emotional in public
● The face should be largely expressionless

Eye contact
● Eye contact is considered rude
● It is polite during a conversation to look at the ground or the air

The role of silence

● There are four facets of the meaning that silence can hold in a Japanese
conversation, according to academic Takie Lebra:
● Truthfulness - silence is favoured over the spoken word because enlightenment
cannot be achieved by discussing it. Silence communicates inner thoughts.
● Social Discretion - keeping silent helps a person to ‘keep face’ and not lose their
social standing in a conversation.
● Embarrassment - silence is an indicator of intimacy. It is considered embarrassing
for a couple to have to communicate about their feelings verbally.
● Defiance - silence isn’t usually used to convey defiance in Japan, but rather
politeness.
Communication at the workplace
- Suck in breath, Scratching head and looking confused all
- Normal to wait for the group to fall silent before speaking out
- Japanese people’s communication seeks to pursue harmony and avoid conflict
- A superior may in some cases shout at or harshly criticise an employee who is
lower in the hierarchy
- Avoids more conflict in a conversation
- Preserving wa (harmony) is the priority
- Criticism is usually a message for the entire group not targeting an individual
- If it smells bad put a lid on it

Major theories that explain differences between Japanese and Western

communication

1. Homogeneous society vs. heterogeneous society

In homo societies, people share basically the same values, beliefs, language and
customs, people do not have to define concepts. In hetero societies verbal
communication is key. It consists of people with different backgrounds etc.

2. Influence of religion
Oriental religions such as buddhism, confucianism, and Taoism all encourage passive,
quiet and modest ways of life. Christianity and Islam encourage more active and
agressive ways of life. This change in attitudes and behaviours can be quite forgein and
surprising to some.

3. Individualistic society vs collectivistic society

This theory is dominant among western scholars. Many western scholars believe that
communication styles are deeply related to what extent the society is devoted to
individualism or collectivism. Individualism or collectivism are not neutral concepts in
Western or non -Western societies.
 4. Human-relations society vs. ideological society

Similarities and differences in communication styles between cultures

Japan:
- More subdued expression
- High context culture
- Less direct speech
- ‘Speak one, understand ten’
- Rely more heavily on non-verbal communication
- Bowing
- Gift giving is polite
- Saying yes when unsure is polite
- Aim for harmony
- Eye contact is impolite
- Silence indicates intimacy/ being comfortable

Similarities:
- Some gestures are the same
- Show respect for authority (mostly)
- Both use slang
- Hierarchy influences communication
- Share hands in professional settings
- Facial expressions

Australia:
- Low context culture
- More direct speech
- Speech more important than non-verbal
- Everything is explained
- Aim for clarity
- Hierarchy does not affect speech
- Sharing opinions is valued
- Eye contact is polite
- Silence is uncomfortable- should be filled
- Conflict is okay
Cultural relativism
The idea that concepts are socially constructed and vary across cultures. Therefore,
individuals and groups must always view other cultures objectively and not judge them
using the values and norms of their own culture as a measure of right or wrong.

Normative cultural relativism - not just beliefs that differ, but moral facts themselves
differ between cultures

What are ways we can overcome cultural misunderstandings?

- Learn about the culture
- Having genuinely open body language
- Research
- Translator
- Have an open mind

END OF COURSE
enjoy