Overcoming Recurrent Droughts in Somaliland:
Identifying Possible Policies and Strategies
Author: Muse Jama Essa
MA Development Studies
Abstract
The drought is one of natural hazard that takes place in the
world, caused climate change and the human activities on the
earth. Somaliland is one of the horn Africa countries, which last
two years the drought occurs frequently and dramatically
affected the lives of the human being and their livelihood sources
of the urban and rural communities, as well as the economy and
natural environment. Somaliland has a high variable climate and
located in semi-desert region, which are more vulnerable to the
climate change, hence the recurrent drought situation intensified
by the interaction of multiple stresses, which took place at
various levels, and coupled with a low adaptive capacity among
the population. The central objective of this study is to identify
and examines relevant possible policies and strategies that could
be used to overcome the recurrent drought and also explore. How
the government and non-governmental institutions have
responded to droughts.
In this study qualitative approach was used, and this method
was chosen to deeply explore the possible policy and strategy to
overcome the recurrent drought of Somaliland and to find the
knowledge and new approach to mitigate impact of the droughts.
Therefore, the data were collected from the individual experts
and institutions, including government officials, national experts,
and local and international NGOs, academic institutions.
The outcomes of the study indicate, there was poor
coordination among drought stakeholders, the drought has
affected largely the lives of thousands of rural people and with
their livestock sources, to mitigate the drought risk, the most of
drought affected communities internally moved across the
borders of the country, the role of the internal and external actors
were limited, while the government of Somaliland with diaspora
and local communities have large participated in the
humanitarian support. The study of the finds that the capacity of
the community to respond the drought has limited and needed to
improve it, National Environmental Research and Disaster-
preparedness (NERAD). Its role has missed due to the
domination of presidential role and nominated a National
drought commission and this needed to strengthen role of
NERAD.
From the result of the recommendation there is a need to develop
effective national drought policy, which based on drought
preparedness, prevention and risk management, at the same time
the study identified the need for building effective national
coordination system and institutional administrative
arrangement that links public, private and CSOs, and
establishing strong ties among the local, district and national
level, to respond the drought in collectively.
I. INTRODUCTION
a) Background of the study
Somaliland has a high variable climate and located in a region
of exposed to vulnerable the climate change, recurrent drought
situation intensified by the interaction of multiple stresses, which
occurs at various levels, and coupled with a low adaptive
capacity among the population and impacted the livelihood of
rural communities in drought affected areas in Somaliland, as
well as the economy and natural environment, and it’s has
resulted rural communities in drought regions, the main source
of food and income for the rural pastoral population depend on
the livestock production, and that economy of Somaliland
(60_65%) from the livestock, while 60 percent of labor forces in
Somaliland involves in livestock related activities which shows
70% of the livelihood of the population depend on the livestock
production (Development M. o., 2016).
The recurrent drought in Somaliland has also affected the
environment, caused land degradation, desertification and loss of
biodiversity in the most drought affect areas are the most
common result of the drought (UNDP, 2017)
The drought across the region also reduced the trans-regional
migration and sales Drought affected communities, it’s reported
20% of these peoples cannot find their daily food requirement,
in September, 2016, Food and nutrition Analysis (FSNAU) in the
FOA, registered 935,000 up to 1.1 million within six months.
320,000 children weakened due to widespread of acute
malnourishments (H.Awed, Saed Ismail, 2017).
In 2015, local crop production mainly the cereal, which grows in
the GU session has 87% below the average production in the
previous years. The poor rain and drought condition has severely
affected the food security and livelihood of the people in the
drought affected regions in Somaliland. Researcher studies states
that those last two consecutive seasons (GU and Deyr) have
significantly below average rainfall in Somaliland have resulted
in failed crop production, depletion of grazing resources,
livestock mortality. pastoralist and agro-pastoralists who occupy
the vast majority in Somaliland are hardly meet basis water needs
during the current drought and the problem will most likely get
worse due to the climate change. (Gure, 2017, pp. 4-5)
The food insecurity had widespread across the affected areas,
and resulted acute food insecurity, mainly in the people who live
Eastern region, Awdal and sanaaga areas of Somaliland
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according to the seasonal assessment by FSNAU (FAO, 2016).
In the context of the drought, there are four perspectives on
drought; including meteorological, agricultural, hydrological
and socioeconomic drought. The recurrent drought in
Somaliland is mainly meteorological drought, usually related to
the measurement of the departure of precipitation from the
normal and the duration of the dry period. The drought severity
is dependent not only for the duration, but intensity and
geographical extent.
b) Statement of the Problem
Somaliland has a bimodal rainfall distribution. The first main
rainy season, GU, occurs between April and June while the
second, Deyr, is from August to November. The two dry seasons
are Jilaal and Hagaa and occur between December and March
and July and August respectively. There are three main climate
zones in the country: desert, arid and semiarid. Temperatures are
generally high throughout the year, with the maximum being
36°C to 38°C in the coastal areas the drought is a relative
phenomenon which refers to times of exceptionally low total
rainfall or poor distribution of rainfall in growing sessions.
According to the government the capacity to respond the natural
disasters, including the drought, the government has limited
knowledge and practical experience on building the climate
resilient planning and to implement the developed drought risk
management, the government have not effective capacity to
mitigate the drought impacts (MOPD, 2017).
The government responses and interventions subjected to the
drought is considerable and justifiable to weak, the government
do not allocated substantial resources to drought relief, there is
no national drought policy, therefore, the drought has significant
resulted the shocks at community and national levels. The lack
of both a drought policy and an operational definition of drought
have meant that public drought interventions have largely been
determined by ad hoc and sometimes political processes. In years
of lower than average rainfall, relief programs have been
mounted against a background of intense lobbying by various
interest groups using the humanitarian as political interest and
campaigns. In an effort to respond, a large number of different
approaches have been tried. Political pressure has also resulted
in the entire country being declared drought stricken when only
parts have been affected and not all similarly.
The problem of the study raised the questions related the
equity and efficiency of the recurrent drought responses from the
government of Somaliland and the long term policy and strategy
that could be used to respond the drought effectiveness, by
saving the lives of the people and their livestock, the drought has
affected thousands of people and their livelihood sources in the
rural areas of Somaliland, and this has resulted large scale of
crops failure and high number of livestock to dies with extensive
malnutrition and acute diseases, the drought affected community
internally immigrated across the borders of the country
searching the pasture an water (Somalia F. , 2017).
The traditional mechanisms used during the drought period to
reduce the risk of the drought were weak and government
institutions have limited capacity to respond the natural disasters,
rural communities have low level of education on the drought
risk management, the poor coordination amongst the
government actors, NGOs, private and diaspora people were
clearly visible during the drought responses due to lack of the
effective coordination and harmonized messages have resulted
large number of people to loss their livelihood sources (Nasir M.
Ali,& Kedir, 2017).
For the drought early preparedness, Somaliland has not effective
strategy of data collection and adequate data related on the
climate changes and the impacts of the previous drought in
Somaliland due to weak early warning system, the alert message
and information related on the drought have not effectively
disseminated to the communities, the government institutions
have not capacity to analysis the early warning system data
(MOPD, 2017)
There is lack of reliable data that emphasizes the magnitude of
the drought impacts, traditional coping mechanisms that were
used during the drought didn’t compromises the food security of
the drought affected and rural communities, the national food
and waters security strategy do not encourages and support the
pastoralists and farmers to reach a self- reliant. By responding
effective and efficient the recurrent drought in Somaliland there
is multiple factors that hinder efforts of the government,
including lack of a policy and plan strategies to address natural
disasters at national, regional and local levels, absence of
effective coordination office to establish relations with
stakeholders across the country. Weak institutional framework
responsibility for pre-planning to address natural disasters that
might affect the national and missing of national reserve centers
that could preserve national resources to donate the people
during the drought (Nasir M. Ali,& Kedir, 2017).
Therefore, this study examines recurrent droughts that frequently
hit Somaliland, its causes, and impact on the society, main
traditional coping mechanism adopted during the drought, role
of internal and external actors played drought mitigation, it’s also
identifies the possible polity and strategy to overcome the
recurrent drought in Somaliland.
II. THE OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The study identifies and examines relevant possible policies and
strategies that could be used to respond the impact of recurrent
drought in Somaliland. Specific objectives of the research are:
 To identify strategies and policy in place by the
government of Somaliland to respond the recurrent
drought.
 To explore how the government and non-
governmental institutions have responded to
droughts
 To review the effects of the drought on the livelihood
source.
 To propose the possible strategies and policy to
support mitigation of drought impact of future
III.Research Design
Qualitative research is used to combine a data from
observation, interview and document reviews and this gives the
valuable resource for the researchers on looking at variables in
the natural setting and interaction between the variables. Data
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collection of qualitative research is gathered through open ended
questions that provide undeviating citations and mostly the
interview is fundamental part of the inquiry.
IV. Data Collection
This study is used qualitative method of data collections, and this
method is chosen to deeply explore the possible policy and
strategy to overcome the recurrent drought of Somaliland and to
find the knowledge and new approach to mitigate impact of the
droughts. Therefore, for this study is adopted qualitative
V. THE SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY
Most of the country in the world has adapted in different
strategies and developed policy to respond the risk of the natural
disasters. In Somaliland, there is no effective policy and strategy
in place to mitigate the drought in current and future, while the
government and drought affected communities adopted a
different coping mechanism to respond the impact of the
drought. According to the effects on the lives of thousands of
people and their livelihood sources, including livestock and crop
production, it is needed policy and strategy to respond these
effects of the recurrent drought in Somaliland. Therefore the
study will identify a possible solution strategies and policy to
Address recurrent drought in Somaliland and it will add
some recommendation and suggestion for the existing literatures
about the drought in Somaliland. Moreover, this study will fill
the existing gaps of data about drought policy and strategies.
Finally the study is baseline for further study about drought and
will contribute accessible information that could be used by
researchers, academic student and government, international and
local organization.
Types of Drought
In order to develop strategies and policies to mitigate the risk of
recurrent drought in Somaliland, it is needed to identify what
type of drought occurs and magnitude of the drought. In regards
the concept of the drought, there are four main types of drought,
the first three types are referred as environmental drought while
others on (socio-economic) drought is considered a water
resources system drought (Loukas and Vasiliades, 2004) First
type of the drought is called Meteorological and caused, when
there is deficit of precipitation and leads drought conditions,
whereas soil moisture are deficit and this can effects the farmers
to loss the cultivations and reduce the product/ yield in the
agricultures (Huijgevoort, 2014, pp. 4-5),It also occurs when
there is a lack of precipitation over a large areas and for extensive
period of time, the definition of this drought is used comparison
to normal and average rainfall at particular place (NOAA, 2018).
Hydrological drought is the second type of drought causes the
most significant problem for society as surface and groundwater
reserves are generally used as a buffer to compensate for water
shortages for other type of drought; it’s also associated with the
effects of periods of rainfall shortfalls on the water level. The
third type is agriculture drought, caused by, when there isn’t
enough moisture to support averages crop production of farms
and grass production on rangeland, according to the concept of
drought, agricultural drought is difficult to define, as it involves
methodology of data collections, key informant interview was
designed, and data has emerged by asking a number of questions.
Data collection was undertaken through using the key informant
interview (KIIs) and desk review; the data were collected from
selected target expert individuals and Institutions in Hargeisa,
Somaliland. Purposive sample was used to capture a wide range
of information from diverse respondents (government officials,
National experts, and local and international NGOs, academic
institutions) and selected across factors as location, occupation,
and relevant experiences on this topic.
not only the range of water deficiency but its shortage in relation
to the plant’s needs (G, Abdulkadir, 2017).
Certainly, the socioeconomic drought is four types of the drought
and it’s associated with the failure of water resources systems to
meet the societal water demand, socioeconomic drought takes
place when the supply of economic goods (water) cannot meet
the demand for that product, and the cause of this shortfall is
weather related. Socioeconomic droughts occur when there is a
widespread and significant deficiency of rainfall (Loukas and
Vasiliades, 2004)
Drought in East Africa, Context
The drought happened in East Africa between July 2011 and
mid 2012 entirely affected these regions in East Africa
(OCHA, 2011). The drought caused a severe food crisis
across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya and it has
threatened the livelihood of 9.5 million people (UN, August,
2012). Thousands of people from Southern Somalia, fled to
neighboring Kenya and Ethiopia, where crowded, unsanitary
conditions, together with severe malnutrition led to led a
large number of deaths (Gordts, July, 2011).
The drought has resulted food crisis and primarily affected
the farmers in south Somalia rather than pastoralists in
Somaliland, in the consecutive years, lack of rain have led
40%–60% loss of livestock and failure of crops in some areas
and this has decreased the livestock production as well as
poor harvest of the land. Increase of cereal prices rose while
the market price of the livestock has fallen and reduced the
purchasing power of the local communities across the regions
(UN, August, 2011)
The changing the climate during the October to December
2016, the East Africa countries got a severely low level of
rain, while the earliest of the January 2017, much of East
Africa has continued dry and much hotter than normally, and
therefore, in other side, for the last seven years in East Africa
have seen a prolonged drought, which frequently hits, due to
the continuity of poor rainfall, the temperate in east Africa
countries was high compared to the earlier years (Carty, April
2017)
The report clarified that current crisis in East Africa
regions contributed by the people and existing policies, weak
government respond, chronic poverty, low international
action have also undermined the ability of the people to grow
and respond the drought instead of paying food. Changing the
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climate and increasing the global warning in the world,
indicates the pastoralists and smallholder farmers are more
likely at risk, its clearly shows these communities have lack
of resources to cope with the natural risk of farming, the
government have not provided the support to build their
capacity to mitigate the risk and improve their farming and
livestock production, these have made the drought affected
communities in the East Africa countries recover easily, and
become more vulnerable to the droughts (Carty, April 2017).
The Drought history of Somali peninsula
The Somali Peninsula in East Africa is estimated are about
750,000 sq Km, and much of the Surface area is marked in
Highland with average heights of 500m to 1,500m and
maximum Height of 2,406m in the Guban land, the climate
of these regions is sub equatorial and become tropical in the
north. It’s estimated the annual rainfall ranges from 100 mm
to 600 mm, while the Juba and Shebelle Rivers are different,
the Maritime regions of the peninsula are occupied by Somali
Communities in British Somaliland, Somaliland French and
Italian Somaliland and interior forms part of Ethiopia (soviet,
1979).
The changing the Somali region's environment was continued
actions; Archeology is a science which gives the
archeologists their real life and practices of ancient people
and animals that live in earlier in specific places on the earth.
It’s also used predict and forecasts how these people live in.
For example, last-Geel is an eminent place in Somaliland and
have a strong background of ancient people in Somaliland,
the pictures written on the wall on large stone indicates, the
real image of ancient Somali people for their practices and
how their lifestyle was, the picture of the cows shows that the
land of around the Laas-Geel was rangeland, and prosperity
of the land can be seen on the image of the cows. Moreover,
In the Somali regions, the drought comes from the eastern
regions, the movement of the people shows that human
dynamics, resulted by the drought, there is Somali proverb,
which say “If there was no drought in the east, I didn’t come”
in an aspect of the environment change, the Eastern Part of
Somali region is dryness compared the other regions, for
example, Puntland are dry land
Indeed, the droughts in the Somali peninsula have been part
for their life in many years ago and have left unforgettable
memories in Somali People’s minds, and have had significant
impacts on their lifestyle, economically, environmentally and
socially, However, the Somali people, are oral society and to
have unique culture, whenever the infrequent event
happened, they give names according to the impact of the
drought, these names have become the social stories of the
Somali people after the end of the droughts .The worst
droughts in Somali history, which have severely affected the
lives of millions of Somali people with their livestock was
known as Xarama-cune (eating the forbidden) happened in
1913-14. At this time the severe famine swept in the
pastoralist regions which has resulted disastrous losses of
lives and livelihood sources of these communities (Ismail,
Muna, 2017).
There were other droughts which commonly happened in the
Somali peninsula, which have different names and periods,
including, Adhi-gaba, Furuqle, Siige-case, Duumaale,
Gaadhi-gaadhi Saar, Daba-dheer, dhibii-jaale, soor iyo biyo
Waa, Hargo-cune, Qaylo-Weyn . Historically, the Somali
pastoralists have reserved pastureland, which they only used
whenever the dry sessions extended its period and people
closely in the drought session. These rangeland have not
become sustainable for further usage, while all lifestyles of
the pastoral communities have changed, establishment of
scattered villages in the grassland have resulted the
degradation of the land, clearing the plants and increased the
water reserves to be over utilized have also part of the main
drought causes. Moreover, increasing the population of the
Somali Regions and formation of Regional Administrations,
after the collapse of the central government, the land
management policy and environmental protection have
weakened, due to the increase of the civil wars among the
Somali communities, these have facilitated freely and unfair
of over utilization of the environment, increase of the global
warning due to the climate changes has also accompanied the
recurrent droughts in Somaliland regions.
Recently, the drought in Somaliland, rural communities in
drought affected regions in Somaliland have internally
displaced and moved the western regions across the border,
this resulted thousands of people from eastern regions
including Odwyne and Sanag to settle in Gabiley and
Wajaale while an estimated 70% of their livestock have lost.
Genesis of Drought in the Somali regions
Increasing the dryness and temperature of the Somali regions,
changing the frequency of the drought, the situation in Somali
regions getting worse due to existing the extreme weathers,
recurrent drought is getting worse for example, drought in
2010 to 2011 has resulted food crisis, which affected millions
and resulted in a famine that killed more than 250,000 people
in Somali regions (OCHA, 2017). The drought happened
earlier in Somali Regions were not consecutively happened,
due to the changing the environment and increasing land
degradations, deforestation and cutting the plant for charcoal
formation, biodiversity and overgrazing in the pasture areas,
increasing the number of populations and formation of
scattered villages in the rural areas could be the main result
of the drought incident to be more frequency closed. When
even the global warning and climate change increases, it
results in extreme weather conditions which lead consecutive
natural disasters, including drought, Earthquakes and heavy
rainfalls (storms) which destruct the life of human being and
livestock.
Droughts ensue whenever there is prolonged period of
rainfall deficiency for a session and usually when there is a
lack of precipitation, therefore, in the last two consecutive
years (2015–2017) the drought has severely affected the
pastoralist and farmers in west and eastern regions in
Somaliland, Puntland, south Somalia, and part of Ethiopia.
The drought has devastated effect on the livelihood sources
of these communities, it increased the price of goods and
service, and large number of livestock have died, as
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humanitarian organization reported during these years 1.4
million of people in Somaliland and Somalia have affected
by drought (Oxfam, 2017)
VI. RESEARCH FINDINGS
Effect of the drought on livelihood
Droughts ensue whenever there is prolonged period of
rainfall deficiency for a session and usually when there is a
lack of precipitation, therefore, in the last two consecutive
years(2015_2017) the drought has severely affected the
pastoralist and farmers in west and eastern regions in
Somaliland, Puntland, south Somalia, and part of Ethiopia,
the drought has devastated effect on the livelihood sources of
these communities, it increased the price of goods and
service, large number of livestock have death, as
humanitarian organization reported during these years 1.4
million of people in Somaliland and Somalia have affected
by drought (OCHA, 2017).
During the May, 2017, an estimated number of 739,000
people of drought affected communities have internally
displaced, while other reports suggesting 480,000 of people
have also displaced, 65% of these people were underage of
18, the children who are mostly effected community
members have been estimated more than one quarter
(195,000) were children under 5 years old respectively
(UNHCR, 2017).
The crop production has declined, which resulted that 89% of
families do not have good stock and faced food insecurity,
for the daily intake of the foods has reduced the number of
the times for food consumed, these has increased the tension
of the famine in the drought affected areas in Somaliland, the
report remark 10% of families suffered hunger. On the other
side, the children faced starvation and famine that led a large
number of children to malnutrition (Aid, 2015).The most of
the population of Somaliland depends on 60% of livestock
production on their livelihoods. Its estimated 30% of Gross
National Product (GNP) of Somaliland comes from the
livestock (Ministry of Planning and National Development,
2015).
The impact of the recurrent drought on the socioeconomic of
Somaliland people has resulted the losses of livelihood
sources, including crop and livestock production, in general,
it was estimated that 1.7 billion have been lost in between
November 2016 and June 2017 due to the drought. The price
of the commodities increased, which affected consumer
purchasing power, the level of the livestock exports declined
due to temporary ban by Saudi Arabia, the decline in the
value of export of the livestock has been severely affected the
local currency of Somaliland and has declined the purchasing
power, reduced the available resources in the country
(Somalia, UNDP, 2017) .
The drought induced water deficiency which affects
production, sales and business operations in a variety of the
economic sectors; therefore, the effect of drought categorized
direct primary, and indirect or secondary and tertiary effects.
The crop failures are become evidence for direct effects of
the drought on socioeconomics, while secondarily affected
related to the livestock death or weight reduction, and
intersectional linkage, the general welfare of the societies,
value added at factor cost during the drought period, and
household income are related to the tertiary effects of the
droughts (Dung et al, 2010).
In Somaliland and Somalia the drought has severely reduced
agriculture production; the impact of drought on the
agriculture and livestock sector including the losses of crop
and livestock related products have been estimated at USD
1.7 billion, while the damage caused to crops and from
decreased livestock were estimated at USD 350.7million.
The prices of livestock and livestock products declined
during the drought period and rapidly increased in off-take as
herders try to salvage the value of their herd and as they face
rising prices for fodder. Increasing pastoralist demands for
food and water have increased force the supply of livestock
into the market and driving the price down (Somalia, UNDP,
2017).
Traditional Coping Mechanism
Somali pastoralists have traditional coping mechanisms,
which they adopted during the dry sessions, they were
separated the herds (female and male) to minimize the
vulnerability of livestock to the drought, sheep are more
vulnerable to the extreme weather conditions compared to the
goats, goats are more clever than the sheep, they are very
active and mindful to seek a foods, these traditional coping
mechanism supported them to survive the drought and
mitigate the risk of the drought , they have preparation time
were Somali astronomy have responsible to forecast and
predict how the weather condition would be the next coming
session, if the weather conditions getting the worse, they
provided the warning message to the pastoralist to move
other areas where is plenty of water and pasture, these has
enabled them to protect their family and livelihood sources.
animal management plan was the most effective strategy
which pastoralists have used to protect herds to be vulnerable
to the drought, livestock management have prioritized, while
the current building villages have got to be the priority of
rural communities in Somaliland .
Drought affected regions in Somaliland have underlying
drought situations for last two years in consecutive period,
therefore, to lessen the impact of the drought, they have
developed the traditional coping strategies, Pastoralists
communities to find a pasture and water, they have walked
long distances (ICRC, March,2017)
However, adoption of coping strategies depends on the level
of drought risk and severity; the drought affected
community’s uses a different approach to mitigate the risk of
the drought. The pastoralist and farmers in the drought areas,
have different vulnerabilities, according to famines, for
instant the pastoralists in drought affected areas in
Somaliland are more likely to follow adaptive strategies and
available options to survive and protect their assets (al-
Ahmed, 2001). The government of Somaliland has a
developed Drought Management Policy and Strategy to
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respond the drought impact and reduce the risk of drought,
including contingency plans, and Drought Risk Reduction
Plan, and provided capacity building programs on the
drought affected communities to learn the drought risk
reduction mechanisms including farm and livestock
management tools supporting by the international NGOs.
During the drought, the abilities of the people to acquire a
food and water for their household and livestock, and the
environment doesn’t support no longer, they move from one
place to another in search of pasture and water for their
livestock and out to other areas, where there access to food
and water for their family. Drought effected people in rural
areas in eastern regions of Somaliland, the people migrated
from their land and moved to western regions of Somaliland,
accords the borders to Puntland, some people who lost most
their livestock joined their relatives in nearby districts in the
urban areas (MGOTH, April, 2017) Drought Committee, led
by religious leaders and the government has the humanitarian
support to respond the drought, while the government has
responsibility for coordinating the drought stakeholders to
save the lives of the drought affected communities in the
Eastern Regions of Somaliland (OCHA, 2017).
Challenges and Constrains encountering during drought
period, any natural disaster have its own challenges and
constraints faced by the community and government. The
biggest challenge during the drought was lack of capacity to
save the lives of the people and their livestock. This mainly
related to how to mitigate the risk of the drought. Somaliland
has national institution which is responsible, the early
warning system and natural disaster response, besides that,
the Somaliland government established a committee: the
drought relief national committee which consist of
government staffs and non-government leading some of most
famous sheikhs in Somaliland. These communities take
necessary and effective role, but there was growing concern
about how the relief activity was implemented. the most
common challenges in the drought period in Somaliland were
lack of effective strategies and policy towards mitigating the
risk of the drought; strategic plan to address the drought
impact at local levels, regional and national; weak capacity
of national institutions responsible for pre-planning and
mitigation to address the drought; absence of national reserve
centers which preserve national resources to sustain the
livelihood of the drought of affected communities (Nasir M.
Ali,& Kedir, 2017).
One of the most common challenges encountered during the
drought was the government which has not prepared an
effective contingency plan designed to respond the drought
and prevent their impacts. Moreover, the role of NERAD was
missing due to the domination of the presidential house and
elected national drought committed leading by religious
leaders (sheikhs), who have not had sufficient knowledge and
experience about the humanitarian support and drought
reduction managements. Indeed, there were a lack of
coordination among the drought respond stakeholders, they
have been working parallel which finally led them not to
save lives of the drought affected communities. The
government has used the humanitarian support as political
tools which are not going hand in hand with the humanitarian
charters. Furthermore and very important, unorganized
support were seen in the drought affected regions some
people gain more, while other getting less. The humanitarian
support materials also were not marched the priority needs of
the drought affected people. Mobilized resources and
collected fund have not transparent and accountable due to
missing the exact number of people supported.
The coping strategies adopted by the rural people are
undermined, the grazing and reserving land changed,
livestock were concentered for one place, and this resulted
the water points to become common place sighting resulting
in further soil erosion and water shortage (MOPD, 2017).
The was no resources allocated to drought happened, due to
lack of effective strategy to respond the drought, there was
limited humanitarian support to response the drought risk,
which they carried out by drought stakeholders leading by
national drought committee, a large number of drought
affected communities have not received sufficient
humanitarian supports, there was poor management and weak
coordination among the drought stakeholder, the much of
humanitarian support was based on the policies interest
Identifying Roles and Internal and External actors
Since 2016, the recurrent drought in Somaliland, affected the
lives of millions of people and their livelihood sources. The
government of Somaliland publically declared the severity of
the drought and submitted an appeal for support the drought
response, some international agency and local organizations
has responded the appeal, they have developed a
humanitarian response plan to save the lives of the drought
affected community and protect the most vulnerable people.
They strengthened the resilience’s and provided support of
basic service, including foods, water, nutrition and health
services, shelter and protections, they contributed the
conditional and unconditional cash transfers, education and
livelihood support (UNDP, Somalia Drought, 2017).
The NGO have role during the emergency, and they
participate in the life-saving, but mostly during the drought,
the NGOs in Somaliland both international and local have
limited role due to the government appeal related on the
sustainable development, which the government has
proclaimed that they have reached, but mostly damaged the
humanitarian support which the Somaliland has received
previous time. But, somehow the local NGOs and
international have role depended on how much fund they
received, but there was poor coordination among them, food
insecurity and malnutrition were common in drought affected
regions in Somaliland. international agencies adopted unified
response to drought, by providing an integrated package of
life-saving humanitarian support including, health service,
nutrition, and food support, they also provided water cases of
the communities and promoted the sanitation and hygiene
conditions. Equally important, children in drought affected
regions have dropouts their school and migrated into town;
they contributed to keep the children in schools and protect
6
them from separating their families, violence and abuse;
147000 vulnerable people in drought affect regions received
food assistance and nutrition support, cash based assistance
were also used to help the families to sustain their lives
(UNICEF, 2016).
The role of local actors have seen supporting the drought
affected community by providing humanitarian support and
responded to provide 260 trucks of 2080 cubic meters of
waters in 56 different villages and sub-villages under Sanag
region in Somaliland (Candlelight, 2017). The drought
affected communities were provided conditional and
unconditional cash which was intended to promote the local
communities to increases their local production through Cash
for Work Program, six months Emergency programmes were
implemented in the drought affected regions and provided
Shelter, Water, Food and Health service through Food
Voucher Programmes.
There is also another argument which states that the
international and local NGOs in Somaliland were not active
to participate in the humanitarian support for the drought
affected communities in the Eastern and western regions in
Somaliland, due to a decision from the government
proclaimed that Somaliland reached the sustainable
development stage and didn’t need any emergency
programmes, this has resulted the international communities
to respond at late time when the government of Somaliland
produced the Humanitarian Appeal, but it was remarkable the
role of the government and people of Somaliland played the
humanitarian support for the drought affected communities
in Togdheer, Sool and Sanag regions. Indeed, they provided
food health service, water and nonfood items, and it was
outstanding that the drought affected communities have
internally supported each other, by sharing water, pasture and
foods which has become also remarkable event during the
drought period in Somaliland 2017.
The Local NGOs carried out the assessments to identify the
magnitude of the drought and its impacts on the socio-
economic status of the drought affected communities. They
identified most vulnerable areas and existing priority needs,
and they provided the government accurate information
about the impact of the drought they also provided
rehabilitation programs for those who lost their livestock.
Children were also provided shelter and school programs.
Tackling the challenges of the drought and Way
forward
The drought mitigation process has two approaches,
structural and non-structural mitigation. In the structural
mitigation responses, the government provides an
appropriate crop to farmers and engineering development
projects such as sand, dams to harvest water during the rainy
session. In regards the non-structural mitigation, the
government develops a policy, knowledge development, and
functional practices to limit the impact of natural hazards.
Early warning system of the drought is more important;
improving the access to climate information to reduce the
effects of recurrent drought and could effectively facilitate
the preparedness and respond to the impact of drought to save
the vulnerable communities (Gure, 2017).
The Government can reinforce and Establish Effective
Coordination mechanism between the government, INGOs
and donors, this can minimize the duplications and
overlapping management of the drought responses, the
government should promote Responsible agency (NERAD)
to coordinate among the other drought stakeholders, by
implementing national policies and strategies on the disaster
mitigation and emergency preparedness. This will promote
the Government structure agencies and its hierarchy.
Moreover, the established National Drought Committee
should have experience and knowledge on Fundraising and
Citizen Engagement of drought Response Participation, the
committee should work with NERAD and provide all
financial support to conduct Humanitarian service.
Developing Socioeconomic and Environment Development
programs, building the capacities of the rural communities to
sustain their livelihood and environment protection will
increase the self-reliance of pastoralist’s communities,
establishing rangeland reserve controlled by the assigned
government agencies will easily mitigate the risk of the
recurrent drought and saves the lives of the people and their
livelihood sources. Moreover, promoting the water
catchment and soil management practices, restocking and
building effective early warning system and food storage
system at the community level, strengthening the skills and
knowledge of farmers and pastoralists to use the crop and
livestock management practices could strengthen and support
the capacity of the government to respond future Drought in
Somaliland.
Reduction of Community vulnerability to drought depend on
the development of sustainable Rangeland Management
Practices and policy, securing special grazing rights, water
development strategy and using appropriate range
management system and development of crop-livestock
linkage, besides that, the government can promote the
accumulation of fodder reserves for utilization during
drought period and this can fence reserves for emergency
grazing purposes. On the other side, the study suggests that
the government should increase the community mobilization
on the Protection of Plants and ecosystem, restricting of
charcoal and tree burning. The lifestyle of the pastoralist
community has changed and pastoralism will not be
sustainable, due to the climate change and environment
degradation, government could strengthen, the other sectors,
including mining, fishing, tourism, and agriculture (Agro-
business/technology), these can save the environment and
livelihood sources of the local drought affected communities,
and will facilitate the rangeland to recover.
There is also another argument suggesting the digging the
deep holes to reach underground waters, will not be part of
the solution of the recurrent drought, but it could accelerate
the existing extreme weather conditions, remaining plants
developed tap roots to reach the underground water due to
loss of the surface water on the land, and will no longer to
resist the drought condition, the environment will loss these
7
remaining plants. Alternatively, the government can promote
and increase the water catchment and protect the surface
water of the land, diversification of land usage, producing the
effective strategy related to the range land reservoirs.
Agriculture sector in Somaliland could be a possible solution
to improve the environmental condition and provide a time
rangeland to recover, this could be realized, when the
government enforce the implementation of the environmental
policy and strategy.
Building the capacity and provision of training of the
pastoralists and farmers will mitigate the impacts of the
droughts, government should reflect the lessons learning
from the previous droughts to respond effectively and easily
for the recurrent droughts. Furthermore and very important,
promoting the community education on the drought
responses and protection of the environment and livelihood
sources will minimize the risk of the droughts. While
building community mobilization and awareness raising on
alert of drought is also a very crucial strategy. Building
effective policy and strategy to protect the environment,
promoting water catchment, water and food storage for
saving the lives of the human being and their livestock
Building the Capacity and provision of training of the
pastoralists and farmers will mitigate the impacts of the
droughts, government should reflect the lessons learning
from the previous droughts to respond effectively and easily
for the recurrent droughts. Promoting the community
education on the drought responses and protection of the
environment and livelihood sources will minimize the risk of
the droughts. Building community mobilization and
awareness raising on alert of drought
The mitigation of the recurrent drought in Somaliland, the
government should allocate a budget to support the local
farmers to cultivate their land and pastoral communities to
improve their livestock health and management, this budget
should reflect the priority needs of the rural communities,
food national food storage is needed to establish and
distribute into the drought affected community, this can result
the prices of the local commodity to decrease, at same time
the government of Somaliland should build national capacity
development institute, to build the knowledge and skills of
farmers and pastoralist the crop and livestock management,
preparedness and response of the drought, for inclusive
participation of the national humanitarian support, the
government should add the national education curriculum the
drought mitigation and response courses.
Increasing the national service on the building of the basic
knowledge on the rural community to mitigate the drought
impacts, providing restocking for those lost their livelihood
sources; transformation of pastoralist community into agro-
pastoralist society will reduce the risk of the future drought,
building job creation in rural community and engaging them
to use the effective strategies and government policy to
mitigate drought impacts, the government should establish in
every region drought committee who are accountable to
NERAD, to increase accessibility of working in the far
regions.
Somaliland needs to build long time programme, which
related to the transformation of rural people to become agro-
pastoralist community, the climate change have impacted the
rural communities, recently pastoral community of
Somaliland has become sedentary community, who have
barkets, small villages, and small business in the rural areas,
therefore, its needed to build their capacity and knowledge to
adopt the climate change and respond it. This is showing the
life style of pastoralist society and how it has changed and
will not be sustainable to have herds. Therefore, the
government should build effective strategy and policy to
develop the rural communities in Somaliland to have basic
service including, water, education, health and job creation.
One the other side, Pro. Ahmed Ibrahim argue that, drought
affected communities have traditional coping mechanism,
which they used during the natural disasters especially the
drought, these mechanisms are become less effective and
insufficient to respond the drought risks recently , due to the
change of the land management system and increasing the
land degradations, government should teach the rural
community the land management system.
Moreover pastoralists are more vulnerable to drought
compared to farmers, lifestyles of pastoralist are not
sustainable, livestock have not defensible income and food,
and they are at the risk of food insecurity. Therefore,
transforming them into agro-pastoralist could empower them
to reach resourcefulness’s, and could led them to have new
job opportunities. This model of the social positive
transformation will increase the pastoral communities in
Somaliland to have reliable and sustainable food security.
Additionally, enhancing the community knowledge on land
and animal management could facilitate the government to
integrate different approach to response to the drought easily.
Role of the state
For the last two consecutive drought periods in Somaliland,
the Government response approach of the drought was
generally reactive and tends to focus on crisis Management,
the responses seen as untimely and poor coordinated and
linked unnecessary integrations. The People of Somaliland
have the knowledge and an experience to reduce the impact
of droughts through coping traditional mechanisms,
Somaliland is missing the national drought policy
framework. Without building the national drought policy will
continue the rural and urban people to be more vulnerable of
the recurrent droughts, therefore the government should build
an effective National disaster management policy and
strategy to improve the community resilience’s and
preparedness of the drought, this will significantly reduce the
loss of lives and livelihood sources of rural and urban
communities, and will provide government institutions a
framework for disaster risk management. It also will facilitate
National agencies to integrate disaster risk reduction and
national development plans and will provide National
Environment researchers and disaster preparedness authority
(NERAD) to develop national disaster preparedness, early
warning system and drought recovery plan and measurement
developing for these combined strategies will reduce the risk
8
and impacts of the drought, strengthening the National Media
to links their programs for the national forecasting centers to
public mobilization and sensitization information to the
community and government to make preparedness of the
drought. The media will support government to disseminate
disaster preparedness and management plans of drought.
Integration of Disaster preparedness and Management in
education curriculum of Somaliland will engage student to
learn disaster preparedness and management, this will
facilitate the student and youth to participate in the
humanitarian relief programs as volunteers to serve their
communities. The government should add National
education school curriculum of the disaster preparedness and
management. The government should developed Effective
and structural Impact Assessment Procedures, proactive Risk
Management Measures and Contingency plan increase the
Humanitarian efforts to respond the drought and this will
facilitate the rural communities to learn the preparedness
mechanisms of the drought and emergency responses to
reduce the risk of drought and save their families and
livelihood sources.
The government has developed Drought risk Management
Strategy to respond to climate shocks and manage disaster
and climate risks more proactively, the strategy was
developed July-September, 2017, while the government as
written in the DRMS, the government of Somaliland
commenced the Drought Impact and Needs Assessment
(DINA) in October 2017. The DINA was intended to
identifies drivers and the impacts of the recurrent drought in
Somaliland and outlines long-term solution that can prevent
the famine as result of the drought, after the developed this
assessment framework, the government also developed a
Recovery and Resilience Framework (RRF) to address the
needs identified by DINA, the assessment and recovery
Framework has established to guide the transformation form
Humanitarian efforts to recovery a long term development.
(Somaliland, Oct, 2017)
At institutional level, the government ministry have a short
term strategy to support the communities in Somaliland to
reach food security and this strategy empowers the farmers to
have effective skills and knowledge to promote their farms,
free hours to cultivate their land have provided, capacity
building and trainings on crop and livestock managements
were provided them to improve their productions, the
ministry provides quality seeds supported by the international
NGOs and baskets and dams have rehabilitated and provided
plastic to conserve the water .
Role of civil society
The CSOs in Somaliland have increased their post-1991,
when Somaliland regained its sovereignty from Somalia,
CSOs participate in the community development, peace
building process and promotion of the civic education and
political participation. They also enabled the citizens in
Somaliland to engage the government and community
development. During the last drought in Somaliland, the
CSOs have participated and played a very important role.
The magnitude of the drought affects has not been identified,
CSOs can promote the integration efforts, disaster responses
and humanitarian supports. The lessons learning from the last
droughts are very important to respond upcoming possible
drought in the future, this will enable the government and
communities to achieve high level of drought preparedness
and management, the documentation of past experiences and
impacts of the drought will also enable the drought affected
communities in rural and semi-urban regions in the country
to make adequate preparations to manage the risk of the
drought and documented data from the drought affected area
will the government to develop disaster mapping, early
warming and prediction system.
Building the public awareness, educating and training of the
communities before disaster strike, to ensure that the rural
communities are involved the disaster preparedness and
management, the CSOs should promote comprehensive
education and public awareness programs to encourage the
community to build their own drought preparedness and
response mechanisms as individuals and groups, this will
lead the risk of the drought to minimized and humanitarian
programmes to be effective an efficient implemented, and
community to understand the importance of the drought
preparedness and risk management.
The CSOs responded the drought through humanitarian
setting and developed strategies to ensure safety of the
drought affected communities, they can develop long and
short term programmes to build the capacity of communities
to respond the recurrent droughts in Somaliland, although
they have limited resources to do this, but they have really
supported the emergency response of the drought risk, They
should increase the community mobilization programs that
related to the environmental protection and effective land
management system. (MEDICINE, 2017)
Role of the communities
The local communities in Somaliland, who is mainly affected the
drought are more vulnerable and needed to capacitate to prepare
and respond the drought, however, the communities have roles
to protect the environment and protect plants, building the
knowledge and leadership of the community leaders in the
drought affect regions in Somaliland could minimize the
environmental degradation and soil erosion through community
mobilization and awareness raising about the Environment
protection, moreover, the increasing the knowledge of
Community in early warning system, drought risk identification
and possible traditional mechanisms they could use to response
the drought would led them to carry out their own initiative to
protect the environment
Although, Somali communities play great role, when it comes to
the natural disaster response, especially, at the time of drought
for supporting each other’s, however, community participation
in disaster risk management is very important and necessary for
inclusively participation to respond the risk of the drought, do
that community needed Drought early warning stations fully
furnished with facilities, that many people can get access of
drought warning information early, likewise, community should
9
built subcommittee at district level, who are trained to become study also found that government has developed drought impact
community drivers for drought risk planning and management, and needs assessment (DINA) on October, 2017. The DINA was
these community should create awareness among community intended to identify drivers and the impacts of the recurrent
members and importance of environmental protection and drought in Somaliland and outlines long-term solution that can
drought risk management, education of risk Management at the prevent the famine, after the developed this assessment
community level is a vital role for drought Mitigation, the framework, the government also developed a Recovery and
community is inimitable to drought vulnerability, and therefore Resilience Framework (RRF) to address the needs identified by
it’s needed to build their capacity, including drought risk DINA, the assessment and recovery Framework were established
identification, Monitoring and early warning in combination to guide the transformation form Humanitarian efforts to
with promoting their knowledge about the drought and how to recovery a long term development (Somaliland, 2018).
cope with stress caused by the drought
The study also find, that government has played the greatest role
The local government at the district level should promote the
in Humanitarian support to drought affected community in
environmental protection program lead by the communities to
Western and Eastern Regions of Somaliland, the government has
build their collaborations among the community; this will
established national drought Committee, leading by sheikhs,
enhance the community ownership and will minimize the land
according to their administration experiences to respond the
degradation and deforestations. The communities should learn
drought was very low, and resulted large number of drought
the sustainable land uses practices to protect the environment and
affected community to become more vulnerable to the drought
provide the land to recover and rangelands this will lead to the
due to poor management of humanitarian supports. Internal and
reduction of social erosion. The farmers should use drought-
external actors including, local and international organization
resistant crops that can provide food and fodder for their family
have participated in the efforts to address the impact of the
and livestock, this can reduce the risk of the drought, people and
drought and to save the lives of drought affected communities
livestock will not be vulnerable to the natural disaster.
through providing the humanitarian reliefs including, conditional
and unconditional cash, promoted the local communities to
VII. CONCLUSION
increase their local production through Cash for Work Program,
emergency programs, including shelter, water, food and health
Drought is a complex phenomenon and is generally viewed as
service through a food voucher program, the school feeding has
sustained and regional extensive occurrence of below average increased. The drought impacts on the livelihood sources, rural
natural water availability either in the form of precipitation, river communities have lost their assets in the form of crops and
runoff or ground water, Somaliland is one of the countries in the
livestock, this has resulted the water shortages and pastures,
horn of Africa which are highly vulnerable to the drought, the
which has threatened the lives of millions of people and their
drought in Somaliland have become frequently recurrent
livestock with high starvation.
phenomenon. This study is seeking to determine how Somaliland
can mitigate the impacts of recurrent drought in the future, by
The recurrent drought has eroded productivity and capacity of
identifying the possible policy and strategies to overcome the
the drought effected community to use possible coping
risk and impacts of the droughts. The qualitative research design
mechanisms. Extensive usage of the land, deforestation,
was used, semi-structured interviews and case study method
overgrazing, and soil erosion has been largely responsible for
were adopted, the data were collected mainly from the
increasing the vulnerability of the rural population to drought and
government institutions and others relevant organization who
famine. The efforts to address the drought risks, the government
have participated in humanitarian relief programs, including
and other stakeholders have adopted poor interventions that
non-government organizations and academic intuitions
make the thousands of people with their livestock to become
more vulnerable to the drought. Therefore, the thesis study
Therefore, the Study discovery, drought preparedness and early
revealed that the different interventions carried out through
warning system are the most significant challenges facing the
productive safety net interventions to increase risk management
country, effective and well structure national drought policy and
of the drought and saving lives of the human and their livelihood
strategy are not in place, ,thereby minimizing the impacts of the sources were adopted.
recurrent drought, although the government carried out different
interventions to address the drought risk, during the last two
The study reveals there is no effective data available about the
years(2016/2017), however, the drought affected communities
exact impact of the drought on the livelihood. The study
have lost their livelihood sources including crop and livestock,
confirmed existing the poor management of the land and the
these have resulted the decline of life stander of rural community
rapid urbanization in the rural villages, increasing the formation
and increased the level of famine, the loss of species diversity are
of the villages in the rural areas have generate physical
part of the impact of the drought on the environment.
vulnerability, declined the coping traditional and cultural assets
to mitigate the droughts, transformation of the lifestyle of the
There is no visible effective strategy and policy to respond
rural people by establishing scattered small villages have also
drought, however, by examining the existing policy and strategy,
increase the land degradation and social erosion, these were the
which government has in place, the study found that there is
main root causes of the recurrent drought in Somaliland.
Drought Risk Management strategy which could be used to
respond the drought risk in more proactively in the future, the

10
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