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Foods 12 02893
Foods 12 02893
Article
Chemical Composition, Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Actions
of Oregano (Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum) Essential Oil
against Salmonella Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes
Sonia Kolypetri 1, Dimitra Kostoglou 1, Anastasios Nikolaou 2, Yiannis Kourkoutas 2 and Efstathios Giaouris 1,*
1 Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Hygiene, Department of Food Science and Nutrition,
School of the Environment, University of the Aegean, 81400 Myrina, Lemnos, Greece
2 Laboratory of Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics,
School of Health Sciences, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece
* Correspondence: stagiaouris@aegean.gr; Tel.: +30‐22540‐83115
Abstract: Essential oils (EOs) are plant mixtures that are known to present strong bioactivities,
including a wide antimicrobial action. Biofilms are microbial sessile structures that represent the
default mode of growth of microorganisms in most environments. This study focused on the
antimicrobial action of the EO extracted from one of the most representative oregano species, that
is, Origanum vulgare (subsp. hirtum), against two important foodborne pathogens, Salmonella enterica
(serovar Typhimurium) and Listeria monocytogenes. For this, the minimum inhibitory concentrations
of the EO against the planktonic and biofilm growth of each bacterium were determined (MICs,
MBICs), together with the minimum bactericidal and biofilm eradication concentrations (MBCs,
MBECs). The EO was also analyzed for its chemical composition by gas chromatography—mass
spectrometry analysis (GC‐MS). The influence of EO exposure on the expression of some important
virulence genes (hly, inlA, inlB and prfA) was also studied in L. monocytogenes. Results revealed a
strong antibacterial and antibiofilm action with MICs and MBICs ranging from 0.03% to 0.06% (v/v)
Citation: Kolypetri, S.; Kostoglou, and from 0.06% to 0.13% (v/v), respectively. The application of the EO at 6.25% (v/v) for 15 min
D.; Nikolaou, A.; Kourkoutas, Y.;
resulted in the total eradication of the biofilm cells of both pathogens. The EO was mainly composed
Giaouris, E. Chemical Composition,
of thymol, p‐cymene, γ‐terpinene and carvacrol. The 3 h exposure of L. monocytogenes planktonic
Antibacterial and Antibiofilm
cells to the EO at its MBIC (0.06% v/v) resulted in the significant downregulation of all the studied
Actions of Oregano (Origanum
genes (p < 0.05). To sum, the results obtained advocate for the further exploitation of the
vulgare subsp. hirtum) Essential Oil
against Salmonella Typhimurium and
antimicrobial action of oregano EO in food and health applications.
Listeria monocytogenes. Foods 2023, 12,
2893. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Keywords: oregano essential oil; foodborne pathogenic bacteria; minimum inhibitory and
foods12152893 bactericidal concentrations; biofilms; minimum biofilm eradication concentration; GC‐MS; gene
expression; RT‐qPCR; virulence; food safety
Academic Editors: Gary Dykes
Received: 8 June 2023
Revised: 29 June 2023
Accepted: 28 July 2023 1. Introduction
Published: 29 July 2023
The genus Origanum L. comprises several species which differ in morphology and
chemical characteristics, with most of them being originated in the Mediterranean region
[1]. One of the most notable species is Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum, which is a widely
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. used aromatic plant in foods, feeds, cosmetics, and daily care products, especially due to
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. its content in essential oil (EO), mainly rich in carvacrol and thymol [2]. An increasing
This article is an open access article number of studies have examined various bioactivities of O. vulgare EO, including strong
distributed under the terms and antimicrobial action against various bacteria and fungi [3]. Such bioactivities may,
conditions of the Creative Commons however, differ between the EO of the same species due to differences in chemical
Attribution (CC BY) license composition which in turn are due to parameters such as the soil and climate conditions
(https://creativecommons.org/license of plant growth, cultivation method, harvesting period, anatomical part of the plant used
s/by/4.0/).
for extraction and method used to extract the oil [4].
Foods 2023, 12, 2893. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12152893 www.mdpi.com/journal/foods
Foods 2023, 12, 2893 2 of 14
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Bacterial Strains and Preparation of Their Working Cultures
The bacterial strains that were used in this study were S. enterica str. FMCC_B137,
which was kindly provided by Prof. George‐John Nychas (Agricultural University of
Athens, Athens, Greece), and L. monocytogenes str. AAL 20107, which was kindly supplied
by Dr. Nikolaos Andritsos (Athens Analysis Laboratories S.A., Microbiology Laboratory,
Metamorfosi, Greece). The strain of S. enterica belongs to serovar Typhimurium; it is an
epidemic strain of phage type DT193 and was originally isolated from a human
salmonellosis outbreak [25]. The strain of L. monocytogenes belongs to serovar 1/2b and
Foods 2023, 12, 2893 3 of 14
was originally isolated from a mixed green salad [26]. Before use, both strains were
maintained frozen at −80 °C in BHI broth (Lab M, Heywood, Lancashire, UK) containing
15% v/v glycerol. When needed, each strain was streaked on Tryptone Soya Agar (TSA;
Oxoid, Thermo Fisher Specialty Diagnostics Ltd., Hampshire, UK) and incubated at 37 °C
for 24 h (preculture). Working cultures were prepared by inoculating a single colony from
each preculture into 10 mL of fresh TSB (Condalab, Torrejón de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain)
and then incubating at 37 °C for 18 h. The final concentration of each working culture was
ca. 109 CFU/mL and its purity was always confirmed by streaking on TSA and incubating
it at 37 °C for 24 h.
2.2. O. vulgare EO
The EO that was used in this work was extracted from dried plant material by hydro‐
distillation procedure as previously described [27] and was kindly donated by Dr.
Nikolaos Paterakis, owner of the essential oil production and trading company Aegean
Organics (Agios Dimitrios, Lemnos, Greece). The year of harvest was 2022. Besides
oregano, this company produces EOs and decoctions of various other aromatic plants that
are all grown under a certified organic culture. Upon receipt, the EO was kept in a dark
glass vial in the refrigerator (4 °C).
2.3. Determination of Minimum Inhibitory and Bactericidal Concentrations of EO against
Planktonic Bacteria (MICs, MBCs)
The MIC of the EO against the planktonic growth of each bacterial strain was
determined following the broth microdilution method as previously described [27]. In
brief, ten different concentrations were tested for the EO which were prepared by
successive two‐fold dilutions in TSB and ranged from 0.5 to 0.001% v/v (a stock solution
of the EO at 1% v/v was initially prepared in TSB also containing 9% v/v ethanol). Then,
360 μL of each of those dilutions were placed in duplicate in the wells of a sterile 100‐well
Bioscreen honeycomb plate (Oy Growth Curves Ab Ltd., Turku, Finland), and inoculated
with the tested bacteria so as to have an initial concentration of ca. 104−5 CFU/mL. The plate
was incubated at 37 °C for 24 h in the Bioscreen Co Pro instrument, which was adjusted to
record the absorbance of the contents of each well every 30 min at 600 nm (A600 nm). Pure
sterile growth medium (TSB) was used as a negative control (NC). For each bacterial
strain, the MIC of the EO was calculated as its lowest concentration, resulting in no
increase in absorbance with respect to the NC. To determine the MBC, 10 μL of broth
cultures were aspirated from all the non‐growth wells of the MIC assay and spotted (in
duplicate) on TSA plates, which were then incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. For each bacterial
strain, the MBC of the EO was determined as its lowest concentration that reduced the
initial inoculum by more than 99.9% (no appearance of colonies). Each experiment was
repeated three times starting from independent bacterial cultures.
2.4. Determination of Minimum Biofilm Inhibitory Concentrations (MBICs)
The MBIC of the EO against the biofilm growth of each bacterial strain was
determined following the crystal violet (CV) staining method as previously described [27].
In brief, eight different concentrations were tested for the EO which were prepared by
successive two‐fold dilutions and ranged from 0.25 to 0.002% v/v. These dilutions were
done in the respective growth medium for each strain (see below). Each bacterium was
left to form biofilm on 96‐well polystyrene (PS) microtiter plates (transparent, flat, Cat.
No. 30096, SPL Life Sciences, Gyeonggi‐do, Korea) for 96 h in the presence of each EO
concentration. For that assay, biofilm formation took place under the optimum (biofilm‐
maximizing) conditions for each strain (with respect to medium, time and incubation
temperature), as these had been previously determined [27]. Thus, S. Typhimurium was
grown in 1/10 diluted TSB (dTSB) at 20 °C, whereas L. monocytogenes was grown in BHI
broth at 37 °C. For both bacteria, the growth medium was renewed at 48 h of incubation.
Foods 2023, 12, 2893 4 of 14
At the end of incubation, the accumulated biomasses were quantified through their
staining with CV (0.1% w/v) and subsequently measuring absorbance at 590 nm (A590 nm).
For each bacterial strain, the MBIC of the EO was determined as its lowest concentration
that completely inhibited biofilm formation (biomass accumulated did not significantly
differ from the negative control). Each experiment was repeated three times starting from
independent bacterial cultures.
2.5. Determination of Minimum Biofilm Eradication Concentrations (MBECs)
The MBEC of the EO against the already 96 h preformed biofilms of each bacterial
strain was determined as previously described [27]. In brief, five different concentrations
were tested for the EO which were all prepared in sterile distilled water (dH2O) by
successive two‐fold dilutions and ranged from 6.25 to 0.39% v/v. Each EO disinfection
solution was left to act against the biofilm cells for 15 min at room temperature. For each
disinfection treatment, the survivors were enumerated by plate counting on TSA
following their removal from surfaces through scratching (with a plastic pipette tip). For
each bacterial strain, the MBEC of the EO was determined as its lowest concentration
leading to at least six log reductions of the biofilm population compared to that of the
negative control (dH2O also containing 10% v/v ethanol). Each experiment was repeated
three times starting from independent bacterial cultures.
2.6. Chemical Analysis of EO (GC‐MS)
Oregano EO was diluted in pure hexane (1:9) and the mixture was then chemically
characterized by GC‐MS analysis on a 6890N system (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara,
CA, USA) equipped with an HP‐5MS column (30 m, 0.25 mm inner diameter, 0.25 μm film
thickness) (Agilent Technologies) and coupled with a 5973Network mass detector
(Agilent Technologies), as previously described [27].
2.7. Sublethal Exposure of Planktonic L. monocytogenes Cells to EO and RNA Extraction
L. monocytogenes bacteria from the final 18 h working culture were used to inoculate
10 mL of sterile BHI broth at 1:100 dilution (so as to have an initial concentration of ca. 107
CFU/mL). The new culture was incubated at 37 °C for 6 h and its cells were then collected
by centrifugation (5000× g for 10 min at 4 °C) and the obtained pellet was subsequently
suspended in 4 mL of quarter‐strength Ringer’s solution (Lab M). That freshly saline
cellular suspension was aliquoted in two Eppendorf® tubes (2 mL in each one) and
centrifuged (5000× g for 10 min at 4 °C). One of the two bacterial pellets was then
suspended in 1 mL of the EO solution (0.063% v/v; equal to the MBIC), while the second
pellet was suspended in 1 mL of dH2O to be used as the untreated control sample. The
dH2O of the control sample also contained absolute ethanol at 0.56% v/v. This latter was
the concentration that existed in the EO solution (and was used to disolve the oil). Both
samples were incubated in a heating dry block for 3 h at 37 °C (sublethal EO exposure)
and were then immediately centrifuged (5000× g for 10 min at 4 °C). Supernatants were
discarded and each pellet was washed with dH2O through an additional centrifugation
step (5000× g for 10 min at 4 °C) to remove any EO residues. Washed pellets were then
suspended in 1 mL of RNAlater™ Stabilization Solution (AM7021, Invitrogen™, Thermo
Fisher Scientific, Carlsbad, CA, USA) and incubated overnight at 4 °C. Next day,
RNAlater™ Solution was removed by centrifugation (5000× g for 10 min at 4 °C) and each
bacterial pellet was then resuspended in 100 μL of TE buffer (10 mM Tris‐HCl, 1 mM
EDTA; pH 8) also containing 2.5 mg/mL lysozyme (native, chicken egg white, 4403,
Calbiochem®, Merck KGaA) and incubated at 37 °C for 10 min. Following this enzymatic
digest of the bacterial cell walls, the resulting homogenates were directly used for RNA
extraction using the NucleoSpin® RNA Mini Kit (740955, MACHEREY‐NAGEL GmbH &
Co. KG, Düren, Germany).
Foods 2023, 12, 2893 5 of 14
2.8. cDNA Synthesis and qPCR
The cDNA synthesis was executed starting from 500 ng of each RNA sample (i.e.,
exposed and not exposed to the EO) using PrimeScript™ RT reagent Kit (RR037A, Takara
Bio Inc., Shiga, Japan), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Each cDNA template
was then used as substrate in qPCR prepared using the FastGene® IC Green 2 × qPCR
Universal Mix (LS4005, NIPPON Genetics EUROPE GmbH). Four virulence genes of L.
monocytogenes were selected (hly, inlA, inlB and prfA) for this analysis, which was done as
previously described [28]. Two reference (internal control) genes (tuf, gap) were included
in each assay for the normalization of the qPCR data. Each experiment was repeated three
times starting from independent bacterial cultures and each reaction was performed in
triplicate.
2.9. Statistics
Biofilm plate counts (CFU/cm2) were transformed to logarithms before means and
standard deviations were computed. The derived data on biofilm biomasses (A590 nm),
planktonic absorbances (A600 nm), and biofilm populations (log10 CFU/cm2) were all
submitted to analyses of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s multiple range post hoc
honestly significant difference (HSD) tests for mean comparison, using the statistical
software STATISTICA® (StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA). In ANOVA, the dependent
variables were the biofilm biomasses (A590 nm), planktonic absorbances (A600 nm) and biofilm
populations (log10 CFU/cm2), while the categorical factor was always the treatment (EO
concentration). Regarding gene expression, the data derived from a total of 108 reactions
were analyzed. These were the result of six different cDNA samples (i.e., one bacterial
strain × two treatments (exposed and not exposed to the EO) × three biological repetitions)
× six genes (four targets plus two references)/sample × three technical replicates/gene. For
each bacterial strain and target gene, unpaired two‐tailed Student’s t‐tests were applied
to check for any significant difference in gene expression (expressed as log2(fold
difference)) between the two treatments. These tests were performed using the relevant
function of Excel® module of the Microsoft® Office 365 suite (Redmond, WA, USA). For
all statistical analyses, significant differences were reported at a p level of <0.05.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Antimicrobial Actions of O. vulgare EO against Planktonic and Biofilm Cells
The minimum inhibitory and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MICs, MBCs) of
O. vulgare EO against the planktonic cells of S. Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes were
initially determined. The MICs were found equal to 0.06 and 0.03% v/v against S.
Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes, respectively (Table 1; equal to 0.55 and 0.27 mg/mL,
respectively). No differences between the MICs and MBCs were observed, indicating the
strong bactericidal action of the EO.
Table 1. Antibacterial (MIC and MBC values) and antibiofilm (MBIC and MBEC values) actions of
O. vulgare EO against S. Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes strains expressed as either EO
percentages by volume (% v/v) or μL/mL.
Antibacterial Action Antibiofilm Action
Bacterial Species MIC 1 MBC 2 MBIC 3 MBEC 4
% (v/v) μL/mL % (v/v) μL/mL % (v/v) μL/mL % (v/v) μL/mL
S. Typhimurium 0.06 0.6 0.06 0.6 0.13 1.3 6.25 (= 104.2 × MΒC) 62.5
L. monocytogenes 0.03 0.3 0.03 0.3 0.06 0.6 6.25 (= 208.4 × MΒC) 62.5
1 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration; 2 Minimum Bactericidal Concentration; 3 Minimum Biofilm
Inhibitory Concentration; 4 Minimum Biofilm Eradication Concentration.
Oregano EO, such as many other EOs, may present multiple modes of action against
microbial cells. The reader is referred to specialized reviews on the mode of actions of EOs
Foods 2023, 12, 2893 6 of 14
for more info [1,2]. Many other studies have in the past analyzed the antimicrobial action
of O. vulgare EOs against planktonic bacteria. For instance, Mazzarrino et al. (2015)
determined the MICs of Italian O. vulgare EO against Salmonella spp. and L. monocytogenes
and found values ranging from 0.6 to 1.2 μL/mL [29]. Assiri et al. (2016) determined the
minimal lethal concentration (MLC) of O. vulgare EO from Saudi Arabia against S.
Enteritidis and L. monocytogenes and found values equal to 0.16 and 0.32 mg/mL [30].
Elansary et al. (2108) found MIC and MBC of Egyptian O. vulgare EO against L.
monocytogenes equal to 0.40 and 0.83 mg/mL, respectively [31]. Barbosa et al. (2020) found
maximum sublethal concentration (MSC) of Brazilian O. vulgare EO against S. Enteritidis
equal to 0.13 mg/mL [32]. Torabian Kakhki et al. (2020) found MIC and MBC of Iranian O.
vulgare EO against L. monocytogenes equal to 1.28 and 2.56 mg/mL, respectively [33].
Solarte et al. (2020) determined the MIC of Spanish O. vulgare EO against one reference S.
Typhimurium strain and two porcine isolates equal to 0.31 mg/mL [34]. It is clear that the
EO from the Greek organically cultured oregano plants tested in the current study
presents strong antimicrobial action that is similar or even superior to that previously
described for O. vulgare EOs from some other countries.
Following the calculation of the MICs and MBCs of the O. vulgare EO against the
planktonic S. Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes bacteria, we determined its minimum
biofilm inhibitory concentrations (MBICs) against the biofilm growth of those bacteria.
This is because both pathogens are known to form robust biofilms on various surfaces
(both food‐contact and non‐food‐contact ones) that display increased tolerance to
antimicrobial agents and other stresses [35,36]. The protocol we followed to form biofilms
had been previously optimized to maximize the sessile growth by each of these two
bacterial strains [27]. However, and despite that optimization, the determined MBICs
were still quite small and equal to 0.13 and 0.06% v/v against S. Typhimurium and L.
monocytogenes, respectively (Table 1). This indicates the ability of the O. vulgare EO to
efficiently inhibit biofilm formation by the tested pathogens at very low concentrations
and thus its high antibiofilm potential. Figure 1 presents the biofilm biomasses (A590 nm)
accumulated on the PS surface for each one of the eight tested EO concentrations (0.25–
0.002% v/v). The densities of the surrounding planktonic suspensions (A600 nm) found in the
same wells at the time of sampling (96 h) are also shown for each treatment (as dotted
curved lines). It is worth noting that in the case of L. monocytogenes, the application of the
EO at its MBIC (0.06% v/v) resulted in the total inhibition of biofilm formation, whereas
the surrounding planktonic cells were still able to multiply, although to a lesser extent
compared to the positive control (Figure 1B). This is quite interesting since it probably
indicates that the observed inhibition of biofilm formation should not be a sole result of
the reduced growth rate of the bacteria (before and after their attachment to the surfaces),
but it could also be associated with the inhibition of some other biofilm‐specific
mechanisms, such as intercellular interactions and aggregation, motility, production of
extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), altered gene expression etc. It is indeed known
that various phytochemicals and plant extracts may display antivirulence abilities and
anti‐quorum sensing behavior upon their application at sub‐MICs [37,38]. Such targeted
antibiofilm action at sub‐MICs is believed to limit the possibilities of the bacteria to
develop resistance [39].
Foods 2023, 12, 2893 7 of 14
c c c c c 0.25
c
A 4.0
3.5
0.2
Planktonic culture (A600 nm)
3.0
b
Biofilm (A590 nm)
2.5 0.15
2.0
0.1
1.5
1.0
0.05
0.5 a a
a
0.0 0
c c 0.7
B 4.0
c
0.6
3.5
c bc
Planktonic culture (A600 nm)
3.0 0.5
Biofilm (A590 nm)
2.5
b 0.4
2.0
0.3
1.5
0.2
1.0 a
0.1
0.5
a a a
0.0 0
0.25% 0.125% 0.063% 0.031% 0.016% 0.008% 0.004% 0.002% PC NC
Treatment
Figure 1. Biofilm formation (A590 nm) by S. Typhimurium (A) and L. monocytogenes (B) strains on the
PS surface of the 96‐well microtiter plates, in the presence of eight different O. vulgare EO
concentrations (two‐fold dilutions ranging from 0.25 to 0.002% v/v). The bars represent the mean
values ± standard deviations. The accumulated biofilm biomasses of the positive (PC) and negative
control (NC) are also shown. For each bacterial strain, the MBIC of the EO (resulting in the total
inhibition of biofilm formation) is indicated by the vertical arrow. The absorbances of planktonic
suspensions (A600 nm) found in the same wells at the time of sampling (96 h) are also shown for each
treatment (dotted curved lines). The bars of standard deviations of the planktonic means were
omitted for clarity. In each graph (bacterial strain), mean biofilm values followed by different
superscript letters (abc) differ significantly (p < 0.05).
Besides the determination of the MBICs, we also determined the Minimum Biofilm
Eradication Concentrations (MBECs) of O. vulgare EO against the 96 h preformed biofilms
of each target pathogen. Results revealed that the oil needed to be applied at 6.25% v/v to
destroy the biofilm communities of both pathogens (Figure 2). Undoubtedly, this is a quite
high concentration that clearly denotes the great recalcitrance of biofilm cells. This is
however not surprising since it is well known that the inclusion of bacteria in biofilm
structures can greatly increase their tolerance and resistance to biocides, including known
antibiotics [40,41]. Thus, in the current experimental setup, O. vulgare EO needed to be
applied more than one hundred times more than its MBC to kill S. Typhimurium biofilm
cells, while in the case of L. monocytogenes biofilm cells, the required increase in
concentration was even more spectacular (more than two hundred times more than its
MBC) (Table 1). Another probably interesting observation is that a dose‐response
Foods 2023, 12, 2893 8 of 14
behavior does not seem to exist in the case of the killing of biofilm cells (Figure 2). This is
more evident in the case of L. monocytogenes where the application of O. vulgare EO at
0.39% v/v provoked a ca. five‐log reduction in the number of biofilm cells, whereas the
further ten‐fold increase of the EO concentration to 3.13% v/v did not further improve its
killing action. The reasons lying behind this last observation are not known but we
speculate that these may be somehow related to the presence of EPS and/or the complex
biofilm tertiary structure [42,43]. A similar behavior has been previously observed in
another similar older study of our group where an increase in the concentrations of sage
and spearmint EOs from 5% to 15% v/v did not improve their efficiency against
Staphylococcus aureus biofilm bacteria [44].
10
A
9
8 d A d S. Typhimurium
Biofilm (Log10CFU/cm2)
7
L. monocytogenes
6
5 bc
c
4 B B
ab
B a
3 B
1
detection limit e C
(0.21 log10 CFU/cm2) 0
before NC 0.39% 0.78% 1.56% 3.13% 6.25%
disinfection EO concentration (% v/v)
after disinfection
Treatment
Figure 2. Biofilm populations (log10 CFU/cm ) found in the wells of the 96‐well microtiter plates for
2
the two bacterial strains (S. Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes) before and after disinfection with
the O. vulgare EO. For each bacterial strain, the EO was tested in five different concentrations, two‐
fold dilutions ranging from 0.39 to 6.25% v/v. The biofilm population of the negative disinfection
control (NC; sterile distilled water also containing 10% v/v ethanol) is also shown. The bars represent
the mean values ± standard deviations. For each bacterial strain separately, mean values followed
by different superscript letters differ significantly (p < 0.05). For each bacterial strain, the MBEC of
the EO (resulting in more than six log reductions of its biofilm population with respect to that of the
NC) is indicated with the vertical arrow. The detection limit of the plate counting method (0.21
log10CFU/cm2) is indicated with the horizontal dashed line.
A few other studies have been published in the previous years testing the antibiofilm
efficiency of O. vulgare EO against biofilm formation and/or preformed biofilms of
Salmonella spp. or L. monocytogenes. In such a study, Čabarkapa et al. (2019) tested the
effectiveness of O. vulgare EO against planktonic and biofilm cells of two strains of S.
Enteritidis [21]. In that study, O. vulgare EO demonstrated (as expected) a significant
antimicrobial action against the planktonic cells (MIC/MBC = 0.16/0.31 μL/mL).
Supplementation of EO at concentration 0.25xMIC caused 50% inhibition of biofilm
formation for both the tested strains, while its supplementation at 2xMIC resulted in 90%
inhibition of their biofilm formation. Contrary to our results, the study on the effectiveness
of EO on eradication of preformed 48 h‐old biofilms indicated that biofilm reduction
occurred in a dose‐dependent manner over time (the time of exposure ranged from 15 to
60 min). In another study, Di Vito et al. (2020) compared the in vitro antibiofilm
effectiveness of Italian O. vulgare EO against 29 strains of Salmonella spp. isolated from
poultry and pig farms belonging to two serotypes (S. Typhimurium and S. Infantis) [45].
O. vulgare EO was active on the disaggregation of mature biofilms of both serotypes, but
no inhibiting activity was exerted on biofilm formation. Soni et al. (2013) evaluated EOs
Foods 2023, 12, 2893 9 of 14
of thyme and oregano and their antimicrobial phenolic constituent carvacrol for their
ability to inhibit biofilm formation and inactivate preformed Salmonella biofilms [46]. The
presence of nonbiocidal concentrations of thyme oil, oregano oil and phenolic carvacrol
at 0.006 to 0.012% v/v suppressed Salmonella spp. biofilm formation two‐ to four‐fold, but
could not completely eliminate biofilm formation. Treatment of 1‐day‐old biofilms with
thyme oil, oregano oil or carvacrol at 0.05 or 0.1% v/v significantly reduced the amount of
preformed biofilms. In a recent study, Vidaković Knežević et al. (2023) determined the
antibiofilm activity of O. vulgare EO from Serbia against five L. monocytogenes strains [47].
The MIC values of oregano EO ranged from 0.09 to 0.72 μL/mL. The exposure of 48 h‐old
L. monocytogenes biofilms on PS to the oregano EO at its MBC (2xMIC) for 48 h reduced L.
monocytogenes biofilm biomasses in the range of 42.9% to 78.6%. Desai et al. (2012) tested
oregano EO for its ability to eliminate L. monocytogenes biofilms on PS and stainless steel
(SS) surfaces [48]. For 1‐day old biofilms of mixed L. monocytogenes strains produced at 22
oC on PS microtiter plates, only 0.1% v/v of EO was needed to eliminate 7 log CFU per
well. On the SS coupons, 0.5% v/v was adequate to completely eliminate 4‐day‐old
biofilms at 7 log CFU per coupon. However, in that older study, the EO was left to act for
24 h against the preformed biofilms, something that probably explains its high efficiency.
In our study, we chose a short exposure time (15 min) to try to imitate a short
disinfection/biocidal protocol that could be applied in the food industry and/or clinical
settings.
3.2. Chemical Composition of O. vulgare EO
The GC–MS analysis of the O. vulgare EO revealed the presence of 28 compounds
representing 98.1% of the total oil (Table 2). The EO was mainly composed of the
monoterpenes thymol (31.5%), p‐cymene (23.7%), γ‐terpinene (13.9%), and carvacrol (8%).
All these compounds are commonly found as main constituents of O. vulgare EOs and
contribute to their bioactivities [2,3,49]. However, in most other studies, the EOs are
mainly composed of carvacrol, whereas the EO analyzed in the current study was mainly
composed of thymol. This is not strange since some other studies have also described O.
vulgare EOs of thymol chemotypes [50–54].
Table 2. Chemical composition of O. vulgare EO, as characterized by GC‐MS analysis.
Foods 2023, 12, 2893 10 of 14
γ‐Terpinene
1070 13.9
(1‐methyl‐4‐(1‐methylethyl)‐1,4‐cyclohexadiene)
α‐Terpinolene
1095 0.3
(1‐methyl‐4‐(1‐methylethylidene)‐cyclohexene)
Linalool
1123 0.1
(3,7‐dimethyl‐1,6‐octadien‐3‐ol)
Borneol 1183 0.4
Terpinen‐4‐ol
1191 0.7
(4‐methyl‐1‐(1‐methylethyl)‐3‐cyclohexen‐1‐ol)
α‐Terpineol
1209 0.1
(α,α‐4‐trimethyl‐3‐cyclohexene‐1‐methanol)
1‐methoxy‐4‐methyl‐2‐(1‐methylethyl)‐benzene 1262 0.8
Thymol 1341 31.5
Carvacrol
1346 8.0
(2‐methyl‐5‐(1‐methylethyl)‐phenol)
Caryophyllene 1439 0.8
α‐Caryophyllene 1475 0.1
β‐Bisabolene
((S)‐1‐methyl‐4‐(5‐methyl‐1‐methylene‐4‐hexenyl)‐ 1532 0.1
cyclohexene)
Caryophyllene oxide 1610 0.1
Total 98.1
LRI: Linear retention index.
3.3. Effect of O. vulgare EO on Virulence Gene Expression of Planktonic L. monocytogenes Cells
The expression of the four target genes (hly, inlA, inlB, and prfA) by the planktonic L.
monocytogenes bacteria following their sub‐lethal exposure to the O. vulgare EO is shown
in Figure 3. All the studied genes were significantly downregulated following the
exposure of the cells to the EO at its MBIC (0.06% v/v). This is an intriguing result and
seems to agree with and is probably related to the inhibition of biofilm formation that was
noticed for that EO concentration (Figure 1B). Interestingly, in a previous study of our
group, all these four genes were found to be significantly overexpressed when the same
L. monocytogenes strain (AAL 20107) was left to form biofilm on a PS surface [28]. The hly
gene encodes in L. monocytogenes the hemolysin Listeriolysin O (LLO) which is crucial in
the manifestation of listeriosis by boosting the cell‐to‐cell spread and thus successful
dissemination of the pathogen during infection [55]. Both inlA and inlB genes encode in L.
monocytogenes for important surface proteins that are known to interact with distinct host
receptors to cause infection of human cells and crossing of the intestinal, blood–brain or
placental barriers [56]. PrfA encodes in L. monocytogenes for the master regulator of
virulence that controls the expression of multiple virulence factors that altogether
facilitate the transition from extra‐ to intracellular environments [57]. Rather in agreement
with our results, some other previous studies have shown the involvement of all these
four genes in attachment, sessile growth, and biofilm formation by L. monocytogenes [58–
61]. In addition, the reduced expression of hly and prfA genes in L. monocytogenes following
exposure to some other EOs has been shown in some other previous studies as well [62–
64].
Foods 2023, 12, 2893 11 of 14
log2 (fold difference)
1
‐1
*
* *
‐2
*
‐3
hly inlA inlB prfA
gene
Figure 3. Relative quantification (log2(fold differences)) of the expressions of the four target genes
(hly, inlA, inlB, and prfA) by the planktonic L. monocytogenes bacteria following their sub‐lethal
exposure to the O. vulgare EO at its MBIC (0.06% v/v). Each bar represents the mean ± standard errors
(n = 9). The statistically significant differences in genes’ expressions between the two treatments
(exposed and not exposed to the EO) are indicated with asterisks (*) (p < 0.05).
4. Conclusions
Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum EO, extracted from organically cultivated plants on
the Greek island of Lemnos was found to present strong antimicrobial and antibiofilm
actions against two important foodborne pathogenic bacteria (S. Typhimurium and L.
monocytogenes). Its application at 0.13% v/v and 0.06% v/v was sufficient to inhibit biofilm
formation by S. Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes, respectively, whereas this needed to
be applied at 6.25% v/v (for 15 min) to eradicate the preformed biofilms of the same
species. The EO was mainly composed of thymol, p‐cymene, γ‐terpinene and carvacrol.
The sub‐lethal exposure of L. monocytogenes planktonic cells to the EO at its MBIC (0.06%
v/v) resulted in the significant downregulation of four important virulence genes (hly,
inlA, inlB, and prfA). To sum, the results obtained advocate for the further exploitation of
the antimicrobial action of oregano EO in food and health applications. Future studies
could be conducted on some such applications. In addition, the specific mode of action of
this EO against microbial cells could be tested by applying either the crude extract or some
of its individual components.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.G.; methodology, D.K., A.N. and E.G.; validation, S.K.,
D.K. and A.N.; formal analysis, S.K, D.K., A.N. and E.G.; investigation, S.K. and A.N.; resources,
Y.K. and E.G.; data curation, D.K., A.N. and E.G.; writing—original draft preparation, E.G.;
writing—review and editing, A.N., Y.K. and E.G.; visualization, D.K. and E.G.; supervision, D.K.
and E.G.; project administration, E.G.; funding acquisition, Y.K. and E.G. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available upon reasonable request
form the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: We thank George‐John Nychas (Agricultural University of Athens, Greece) for
providing us with S. enterica str. FMCC_B137, and Nikolaos Andritsos (Athens Analysis
Laboratories S.A., Microbiology Laboratory, Metamorfosi, Greece) for providing us with L.
monocytogenes str. AAL 20107. We also thank Nikolaos Paterakis from Aegean Organics for
providing us the oregano essential oil.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Foods 2023, 12, 2893 12 of 14
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