Application of a Hardware-in-the-loop DC/DC
Converter and Microgrid Simulation to a PEMFC
Martin Schultze, Christian Hähnel and Joachim Horn
Institute of Control Engineering, Department of Electrical Engineering
Helmut-Schmidt-University/University of the Federal Armed Forces Hamburg
Hamburg, Germany
Abstract—Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells are efficient
energy converters that convert chemical energy directly into elec-
trical energy. These units are suitable for dynamic applications
and can be used for stationary as well as mobile electrical power
generation. The field of application, however, predetermines the
type of electrical connection network, electrical storage devices
and electrical loads that the fuel cell is attached to. This study
puts the focus on the interaction of a physically available fuel cell
with the electrical application such as storage and consumers. As
an example, a microgrid connected through a DC/DC converter
to the fuel cell is realized by a Hardware-in-the-loop simulation
being linked to the fuel cell. The Hardware-in-the-loop simulation
is compared to the physical system consisting of the fuel cell and a
DC/DC converter. A model predictive control for electrical power
is presented. Experimental results of the Hardware-in-the-loop
simulation and the physical system are shown.
Index Terms—DC/DC Converter, Hardware-in-the-loop Simu-
lation, PEM Fuel Cell.
I. I NTRODUCTION
Due to their low emission of greenhouse gases and noise
polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are very
promising for future stationary as well as mobile and dy-
namic electrical power supply. PEM fuel cells are intensely
researched. Research topics cover amongst others modeling
and state estimation [1]–[3], health monitoring [4], [5] and
control algorithms [6]–[8] as well as applications such as for
autonomous robots [2] or for the automotive sector [1].
Coupling of a physically available fuel cell system to a
simulation environment is a novel topic and has not been
looked at so far. The simulation interacts with the physical
fuel cell system such that a Hardware-in-the-Loop-(HIL)-
simulation with a PEM fuel cell system is established. As
the real application being connected to the fuel cell would
experience, the simulation environment is influenced by the
fuel cell system on the one hand but also influences the
fuel cell system on the other hand. There is a bidirectional
communication between the physical fuel cell system and the
simulation environment. A HIL-simulation has the advantage
that the simulated application can be adapted or changed
quickly. For example, the same physical fuel cell could be
used to power a simulated car or to power a simulated micro-
grid with electrical consumers. This HIL-simulation provides a
tool to investigate specific application scenarios being applied
978-1-4673-8463-6/16/$31.00 
c 2016 IEEE
to a real fuel cell system without the need of providing these
application scenarios physically.
This paper develops such a HIL-simulation for a physically
available fuel cell system being connected to the simulation
of a constant 48V dc voltage micro-grid targeting on an
automobile application [9]. PEM fuel cells deliver a load
dependent dc voltage. To provide a constant dc voltage the fuel
cell is linked through a DC/DC converter to the dc electrical
grid or microgrid. By application of the HIL-simulation this
paper investigates the reaction on a physically available PEM
fuel cell connected to the electrical grid and consumers. In
this approach the electrical application connected to the fuel
cell is available through the simulation environment. As an
example the HIL-simulation comprises a DC/DC converter
and a micro-grid as shown in figure 1. A power management
strategy is assumed to be in place, managing the power flows
between fuel cell, electrical storage and the grid. The power
management system is assumed ideal and instantaneous, such
that the load current to the DC/DC converter can be set without
restriction and immediately.
PEM fuel cell stack and
DC/DC converter and electrical grid
controllable electric load
Ist Idc
dc power-
micro-
Pst Pdc manage-
grid
dc ment
Ust Udc
Ploss ideal,
storage immediate
Hardware Hardware-in-the-loop simulation
Fig. 1. Connection of a PEM fuel cell with the simulation of a DC/DC
converter and a micro-grid to form a Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL)-simulation.
During operation of PEM fuel cells a sufficient supply
of oxygen and fuel has to be ensured to avoid starvation
effects. Starvation can lead to damages of the fuel cell stack
[10]. Starvation effects occur during fast load transients if
the dynamics of oxygen or fuel supply does not suffice to
replenish oxygen and fuel in the amount needed. To reduce
the risk of starvation, the load transient gradient could be
limited. However, if the fuel cell is connected to the grid by
means of a voltage converter the current to be drawn from the
fuel cell stack cannot be set directly. Model predictive control
(MPC), which is an optimization based control strategy, has
the advantage of easily incorporating constraints on states and
inputs. So, limits on the current as well as its gradient can Urev that is diminished by activation losses Uact and ohmic
be included easily as constraints. MPCs have already been losses Uohm . Concentration losses are neglected as they play
applied to fuel cell systems [2], [8], [11]. To determine the a minor role in the operating range of the fuel cell used. The
accuracy of the HIL-simulation by comparing it to its real cell voltage depends on Ist , on the stack temperature Tst , on
physical counterpart, an identification of the DC/DC converter pO2 and the hydrogen partial pressure pH2 . Anode pressure
model is performed. Further, a nonlinear MPC (NMPC) for control motivates assuming a constant pH2 . Voltage loss Uact
electrical power is applied to the HIL-simulation. is modeled according to [14].
This paper is structured as follows. In Section II ’Fuel cell
Urev = 1.229 − 0.85 · 10−3 (Tst − 298.15) (7)
and converter model’ the models of the DC/DC converter and     
p 1 p
the fuel cell are presented. The HIL-simulation is presented 4.3 · 10−5 Tst ln
an O2
+ + ln
in section III ’HIL-simulation’. A nonlinear model predictive p0 2 p0
 (498/Tst )

control of converter power is presented and is applied to the e
Uact = ζ1 + ζ2 Tst + ζ3 Tst ln pO2 (8)
HIL-simulation in section IV ’NMPC of electrical power’. 5.08 · 10−6
The experimental setup and results are presented in section + ζ4 Tst ln (Ist )
V ’Experimental setup and results’. This section further com-
pares the HIL-simulation with its physical representation and The very thin polymer membrane is assumed sufficiently
results of the NMPC of electrical power are shown. Model hydrated and therefore is assumed to show a constant ohmic
and controller parameters are given at the end of this paper. resistance Rohm . Stack voltage Ust is gained as the sum of all
cell voltages in the stack assuming identical cells.
II. F UEL CELL AND CONVERTER MODEL
Models of the fuel cell system and the DC/DC converter Ust = ncells (Urev − Uact − Rohm Ist ) (9)
with an 48V output voltage are presented in the following. Parameters ζ1 , ζ2 , ζ3 , . . . ζ4 and Rohm have been identified
A. Model of the fuel cell stack and its periphery by a minimization of least square errors using experimental
The model of the PEM fuel cell stack describes the essential data. The electrical power Pst provided by the fuel cell stack
system dynamics and comprises the controlled supply of air is derived as follows.
mass flow Wmfc , stack cathode pressure pst and stack current Pst = Ust Ist (10)
Ist . The model is derived from the nonlinear model presented
in [12]. The dynamics are approximated as linear first order B. Model of the DC/DC boost converter
systems with time constants τmfc , τp and τI . Reference values The DC/DC converter takes the load dependent stack volt-
Wmfc,ref = Wmfc,ref (Ist ) and pst,ref = pst,ref (Ist ) are functions of age Ust that is lower than 48V and converts it into a constant
Ist . The load current drawn by the DC/DC converter at its fuel 48V dc voltage. The converter is controlled for output voltage
cell side is Ist,in , which results in the stack current Ist . and has a settling time much lower than the sampling time Ts
dWmfc 1 of the HIL-simulation. Therefore, the DC/DC converter can
= (Wmfc,ref − Wmfc ) (1)
dt τmfc be modeled as static. The converter model is derived from the
dpst 1 one presented in [15] and is gained by a balance of electrical
= (pst,ref − pst ) (2) power across the converter including the power loss Ploss . In
dt τp
dIst 1 this modeling approach Ploss depends on the converter output
= (Ist,in − Ist ) (3) power Pdc with pdc = Pdc /Pnom being the power normalized
dt τI
to the nominal power Pnom . Parameters a0 , a1 and a2 for
Air is modeled as 21% (vol.) oxygen (O2 ) and 79% (vol.) Ploss are identified by a least square error minimization using
nitrogen (N2 ). The oxygen partial pressure pO2 in the fuel cell experimental data. The converter draws a current Ist,in at its
stack is gained by a stationary analysis of the molar flows NO2 fuel cell side. The converter current at its grid side is Idc .
for O2 and NN2 for N2 . Molar flows are given in equations (5)
and (6). The chemical reaction consumes an oxygen mass flow Pac = 48V · Idc (11)
that is proportional to Ist and the number of cells in the stack  
Ploss = a0 + a1 pdc + a2 p2dc Pnom (12)
ncells . MO2 and MN2 are the molar masses, F is the Faraday
constant and xO2 = 0.23 is the oxygen mass fraction in air. Ist,in = (Pac + Ploss )/(Ust ) (13)
 
NO2 III. HIL- SIMULATION
pO2 = pst (4)
NO2 + NN2 A power supply system consisting of a PEM fuel cell, a
1 Ist DC/DC converter and an electrical grid is represented by a
NO2 = xO2 Wmfc − ncells (5)
MO2 4F HIL-simulation. In this approach the DC/DC converter and
1 the electrical grid, that is approximated by an immediate
NN2 = (1 − xO2 )Wmfc (6)
MN2 controllable electric load, are simulated. The HIL-simulation
An introduction to modeling the cell voltage can be found is connected to the physically available PEM fuel cell, which
in [13]. Cell voltage results from the reversible cell voltage is connected to a controllable electric load. This load takes
the current reference Il,ref . The current value Ist,in returned by
the HIL-simulation is applied as Il,ref to the physical load. To
determine the current Ist,in the DC/DC converter simulation
model requires the measurement of the stack voltage Ust
according to equation (13). The DC/DC converter current
Idc is the input to the HIL-simulation, whose output is the
converter electrical power Pdc . A block diagram of the HIL-
simulation clarifying the interconnections between physical
fuel cell system and simulation model is shown in figure 2.
HIL-simulation
DC/DC
Simulation Fuel Cell and Load
converter
current Idc Pdc
DC/DC Il,ref electric
converter Ist,in load
stack voltage Ust
Fig. 2. Block diagram of the HIL-simulation depicting the interaction between
physical PEM fuel cell system and DC/DC converter simulation model.
The HIL-simulation is established on a standard PC con-
nected to the fuel cell system by an Ethernet network and is
realized in MATLAB as a computer program, whose sequence
is shown in figure 3. After an initialization step for opening
data communication with the fuel cell system, the HIL-
simulation runs in a loop for every time step k until the
stop criterion is reached. Within the loop measurements are
taken, the DC/DC converter current Idc is determined e.g. by a
control algorithm or feedforward control, the DC/DC converter
is simulated and the current result is applied to the physical
fuel cell at the end of the sampling time step. Afterwards,
data communication is closed. Control algorithms are applied
at the step ’Feedforward Control or Controller’. The fuel cell
system is operated at a sampling time of Ts =100ms. The HIL-
simulation is bound to the cycle time Ts as it requires fuel cell
system measurements as shown in figure 2.
Initialization
time step k: repeat until stop criterion
Measurement
stack current Ist(k), stack voltage Ust(k),
pressure pst(k), temperature Tst(k),
mass flow Wmfc(k)
sampling time Ts
Feedforward Control or Controller
gain DC/DC converter current Idc(k)
Simulation of DC/DC converter
model inputs are Idc(k) and Ust(k),
model output Ist,in(k) will be applied as
Il,ref(k+1)=Ist,in(k) during next time step
Application at Fuel Cell
set current Il,ref(k+1) for next time step
End
Fig. 3. Computer program of the HIL-simulation.
IV. NMPC OF ELECTRICAL POWER
In model predictive control (MPC) an optimal control
problem with finite time horizon is solved. Its solution is
an optimal control sequence, whose first element is applied.
The current system state that is gained through measurement
or state estimation serves as initial condition for the MPC.
After every sampling time step the time horizon is shifted
by one time step and the procedure is repeated. MPC has
the advantage of incorporating limitations on states and inputs
as constraints. Nonlinear constraints and a nonlinear system
DC/DC model lead to nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC)
converter [16]. An introduction to NMPC can be found in [17]. Often,
power Pdc an analytical solution of the NMPC’s optimization problem is
impossible to find. Numerical methods are then used to solve
the optimization problem. One method is sequential quadratic
programming (SQP). The NMPC presented in the following
is designed for the system comprising the PEM fuel cell, the
DC/DC converter and the micro-grid. The NMPC prescribes
the current Idc such that the converter electrical power Pdc
follows the reference Pref and that constraints on stack current
(14), current (15) and its gradient (16) are satisfied. The NMPC
can be considered a part of the power management system. In
a scenario with load changes at the grid side that would lead
to stack current rates exceeding its limit, the NMPC would
have to take into account that the energy delivered by the
storage must be compensated by energy delivered to it during
long term operation. This could be done by incorporating the
storage model into the NMPC. In this study, however, current
rates at the grid side are chosen such that the fuel cell current
rate does not violate the stack current rate limit. Thus, the
power management will be neglected in the following.
Ist,min ≤ Ist ≤ Ist,max (14)
Idc,min ≤ Idc ≤Idc,max (15)
d
−ΔIdc ≤ Idc ≤ ΔIdc (16)
dt
A. System model for the NMPC
The NMPC system model has states x = [x1 x2 x3 ]T
with x1 = Wmfc , x2 = pst , x3 = Ist and the output variables
y = [y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 ]T with y1 = x1 , y2 = x2 , y3 =
x3 , y4 = Ust and y5 = Pdc . An ideal and immediate power
management that manages power flows between the grid and
an electrical storage unit is assumed as shown in figure 1. So,
the current Idc at the grid side can be set directly. Control
variable is u = Idc and the system equations are as follows.
ẋ = f (x, u)
y = h (x, u) (17)
B. Approximation of the initial state by prediction
The NMPC calculation output is performed during a cycle
[t t + Ts ]. The result is applied at the next sampling time
t + Ts . NMPC needs the current system state x(t). To avoid a
delay of one sampling time Ts the system state for time t+Ts is
approximated by prediction using the input u(t). The predicted
state is delivered to the NMPC as x(k = 0) = x(t + Ts ).
Prediction is done by a 1st order explicit Euler scheme.
C. Optimization problem formulation
The NMPC has a finite time horizon of N time steps. To
gain the state and output values for every time step over the
horizon, the time-continuous system model (17) is discretized
over N time steps with a sampling time Ts by numerical time
integration using a 1st order explicit Euler scheme. The states
of the time-discrete model (18) are x(k) = x(t + (k + 1)Ts ).
x(k + 1) = F (x(k), u(k))
y(k) = H(x(k), u(k)) (18)
For the prediction over a horizon of N time steps Ts
N control variables are set. These are summarized in the
vector u = [u(0), u(1), . . . , u(k), . . . , u(N −1)]T . In addition
to the initial state discretization leads to N state vectors
x(k) = [x1 (k), x2 (k), x3 (k)]T with three states each leading
to a total of N + 1 state vectors. Further, N + 1 output vectors
y(k) = [y1 (k), y2 (k), y3 (k), y4 (k), y5 (k)]T with five out-
puts each are gained. The prediction horizon length is N ·Ts . A
follow-up control of electrical converter power Pdc according
to the reference Pref is built. Moreover, sudden changes in
stack current Ist should be avoided. These requirements are
translated into the optimization criterion J(u). To determine
the change in stack current from step k = 0 to step k = 1,
the stack current x3 (k = 0) prescribed in the previous run is
taken. The optimization criterion is shaped by q1 and q2 .
N
 N
 electric load. As an example for its application, the NMPC
2 2
J(u) = q1 (y5 (k) − Pref ) + q2 (x3 (k) − x3 (k − 1))
k=0 k=1
(19)
The limitations (14) - (16) are translated into constraints
of the optimization problem. The gradient of current Idc is
approximated by finite differences. The optimization problem
to minimize the objective function J(u) underlies the system
dynamics and the constraints and is defined as follows.
min J(u) (20)
u
x(k + 1) = F (x(k), u(k))
Ist,min ≤ x3 (k) ≤ Ist,max (k = 1, 2, . . . , N )
Idc,min ≤ u(k) ≤ Idc,max (k = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1)
u(k) − ũ∗
−ΔIdc ≤ ≤ ΔIdc (k = 0)
Ts
u(k) − u(k − 1)
−ΔIdc ≤ ≤ ΔIdc (k = 1, 2, . . . , N − 1)
Ts
The optimization problem (20) is solved by the SQP-
algorithm solnp [18] in MATLAB (The MathWorks). For a
fast convergence the initial guess for the next time step is
derived from the solution as [u(1), . . . u(N −1), u(N −1)]T .
The solution of (20) is the control input vector u∗ , whose first
element u∗ (0) is applied. This values will be used as ũ∗ for
the optimization problem (20) in the next sampling time step.
D. Applying the NMPC to the HIL-simulation
The NMPC is included into the HIL-simulation scheme as
shown in figure 4. Its output is the input to the HIL-simulation.
Further, the NMPC takes the system state measurement and
current electrical converter power. According to the computer
program sequence shown in figure 3 the NMPC is called by
the block ’Feedforward Control or Controller’. Its output Idc
is fed to the simulation of the DC/DC converter.
HIL-simulation
DC/DC converter DC/DC
power reference Simulation FC+Load converter
Pref Idc Pdc power Pdc
DC/DC
NMPC
converter Ist,in
stack voltage Ust
system state x
Fig. 4. NMPC of converter electrical power applied to the HIL-simulation.
V. E XPERIMENTAL SETUP AND RESULTS
The HIL-simulation of the DC/DC converter is applied
to the PEM fuel cell system. The PEM fuel cell stack, the
fuel cell test environment, the DC/DC converter and the test
conditions are described in the following. The results of the
HIL-simulation will be compared to the results of the real
counterpart comprising fuel cell stack, DC/DC converter and
of converter electrical power will be applied to the HIL-
simulation and experimental results will be shown. The fuel
cell stack in its test environment, the DC/DC converter and
the controllable electric load are shown in figure 5.
1 Fuel Cell
Stack
2 DC/DC
1 converter
3 Controllable
Electric load
2
2
3
Fig. 5. Experimental setup: 4.4kW PEM fuel cell stack “PM200” [19], DC/DC
boost converter “DCDC24/48/5000” [20] and controllable electric load.
A. PEM fuel cell stack
The fuel cell stack used throughout the experiments is
a “PM200” stack manufactured by Proton Motor Fuel Cell
GmbH, Germany [19]. The fuel cell stack has 48 cells and
can provide up to 4.4kW of electrical power in overload op-
eration. The stack is operated without external humidification
of oxygen and hydrogen and can be used in mobile, stationary Due to deviations of the DC/DC converter model from the real
and marine applications. The fuel cell stack is supplied with unit, the HIL-simulation slightly differs from the experiment.
dry and compressed ambient air and pure hydrogen. At the Besides that, the HIL-simulation shows very good agreement
stack outlet, hydrogen is dehumidified by a separator and to the experiment conducted with the real system.
recirculated by an H2 pump to the stack inlet to increase
the efficiency of hydrogen usage. Due to the steady flow of 100
dc/dc current Idc
hydrogen through the stack anode side, water is removed from 80 stack current Ist (HIL)

current in A
stack current Ist (real)
the anode. This reduces the risk of blocking the reactive sites
60
by water. The steady flow of air through the stack cathode
side takes out water and reduced the risk of flooding the 40
cathode. Hydrogen and air mass flows are supplied by mass 20
flow controlled valves (MFC). The anode side purge valve 50

voltage in V
periodically opens to purge the anode in order to vent nitrogen 45 dc/dc voltage Udc (HIL) stack voltage Ust (HIL)
that diffuses from the cathode to the anode. Hydrogen is dc/dc voltage Udc (real) stack voltage Ust (real)
40
stored in a pressurized tank. The exhaust valve at the cathode 35
side is used for cathode pressure control. Anode and cathode 30
pressures are controlled for by an underlying pressure control. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
time in s

Fig. 7. Experimental results of the HIL-simulation and the real system

H2 pump consisting of PEM fuel cell [19], DC/DC converter [20] and electrical load.

PEM heat purge

tank MFC fuel cell stack exchanger sep. valve
3000
H2
2500
power in W

2000
air dc/dc power Pdc
1500 power reference Pref
compressor cooling exhaust stack power Pst (HIL)
pump valve 1000
100
dc/dc current Idc
Fig. 6. Experimental setup of the PEM fuel cell. stack current Ist (HIL)
80
current in A

Ist,min = 25A
60 Ist,max = 130A
The fuel cell stack can be operated in its normal range of
operation of stack currents of 25A to 130A. Stack currents 40 Idc,min = 20A
Idc,max = 80A
below 20A are only used for start-up and shut-down. Usage 20
of stack currents of 130A - 150A are restricted to 5% of the
1
current gradient

the entire stack operating time. Stack current should rise and
dIdc/dt in A/s

ΔIdc = 1A/s
fall with a maximum of 5A/s. Anode and cathode pressures 0.5
of up to 1.7bar are possible. The stack temperature is between 0
-0.5
48◦ C and 60◦ C. Reference values for pressures, temperatures
-1
and mass flows depend on the actual stack current value.
50
voltage in V

B. DC/DC converter 45 dc/dc voltage Udc (HIL)

40 stack voltage Ust (HIL)
A DC/DC boost converter “DCDC24/48/5000” of Zahn
35
Electronics Inc., U.S. for a power transmission of 5kW is
30
optionally connected to the fuel cell stack. The converter has 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
an internal control for a dc output voltage, that is set to time in s
48V. This converter has been used to parametrize the DC/DC Fig. 8. Experimental results of the NMPC applied to the HIL-simulation.
converter model and is used to compare the results of the
HIL-simulation to its physical counterpart.
D. Experimental Results of the NMPC
C. Experimental results of the HIL-simulation Staying within the operational limits of the fuel cell during
The HIL-simulation is compared to the real system con- transients is difficult due to the DC/DC converter’s nonlin-
sisting of the fuel cell, the DC/DC converter operating at earity. The NMPC is a powerfol control technique to achieve
48V output voltage and the micro-grid represented by an this. The NMPC of converter electrical power with N = 25 for
electrical load. The HIL-simulation runs at a sampling time of a prediction horizon of 2.5s is applied to the HIL-simulation.
Ts = 100ms and experimental results are shown in figure 7. The limitation on converter current is set to ΔIdc = 1A/s such
that the stack current gradient stays within 5A/s. Reference TABLE I
values Pref for the electrical power are 1500W, 2000W and S TATES AND MODEL PARAMETERS
2500W. Experimental results are shown in figure 8. The Variable Description Unit
NMPC is successfully applied to the HIL-simulation. Due Wmfc air mass flow kg/s
to converter power losses the converter electrical power is Wmfc,ref air mass flow reference Wmfc,ref = kg/s
1.7 · 10−3 Ist2 + 0.9203Ist + 24, 3189
below the fuel cell stack power. The constraints on converter
4, 6417 · 104
current gradient, stack and converter current are satisfied. The pst cathode pressure Pa
converter electrical power follows its reference value with very pst,ref cathode pressure reference Pa
high accuracy. The NMPC calculation is completed within pst,ref = 1.2 · 105 + 1.25 · 103 (Ist − 30)
1.013 · 105 ≤ pst,ref ≤ 1.7 · 105
70ms such that a real time control algorithm is realized. Ist stack current A
Ist,in DC/DC converter current at fc side A
VI. C ONCLUSIONS AND O UTLOOK Idc DC/DC converter current at grid side A
pO2 oxygen partial pressure Pa
This paper presents a HIL-simulation of the DC/DC- pH2 hydrogen partial pressure Pa
converter and micro-grid applied to a physical fuel cell system. pH2 standard pressure 1.013 · 105 Pa
The micro-grid is approximated by an electric load. The HIL- NO2 oxygen molar flow mol/s
NN2 nitrogen molar flow mol/s
simulation is compared to its physical counterpart consisting of Urev reversible cell voltage V
the PEM fuel cell, DC/DC converter and electric load. More- Uact activation loss V
over, the HIL-simulation is used as a target for a nonlinear Uohm ohmic loss V
Ust stack voltage V
model predictive control (NMPC) of the converter electrical Tst stack temperature K
power. The NMPC system model consisting of the fuel cell Pst stack power (el.) W
system and DC/DC converter is presented. Experimental re- Pdc DC/DC converter power (el.) W
sults of the HIL-simulation and the NMPC are shown. Ploss DC/DC converter loss (el.) W
Pnom nominal power (el.) 5000W
In future research at the Institute of Control Engineering τmfc time constant of air supply (MFC) 1.80s
the HIL-simulation will be extended by electrical storage τp time constant of cathode pressure 0.50s
devices and further architectures of micro-grids. Additionally, τI time constant of stack current 0.01s
xO2 oxygen mass fraction in air 0.23
constraints for the stack current gradient can be introduced.
MO2 oxygen molar mass 3.1998 · 10−2
kg/mol
R EFERENCES MN2 nitrogen molar mass 2.8013 · 10−2
kg/mol
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Systems: Principles, Modeling, Analysis and Feedback Design”, Springer, 2004.
C/mol
[2] J. Niemeyer, “Modellprdiktive Regelung eines PEM-Brennstoffzellensystems” (in
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[3] M. Schultze and J. Horn, “State Estimation with Time Delay and State Feedback ζ1 stack voltage parameter 1.0768
Control of Cathode Exhaust Gas Mass Flow for PEM Fuel Cell Systems”, 2013 ζ2 stack voltage parameter −3.2885 · 10−3
IEEE European Control Conference (ECC), pp. 3560-3565, 2013. ζ3 stack voltage parameter −2.2012 · 10−4
[4] N. Fouquet, C. Doulet, C. Nouillant, G. Dauphin-Tanguy and B. Ould-Bouamama,
ζ4 stack voltage parameter 6.1705 · 10−5
“Model based PEM fuel cell state-of-health monitoring via ac impedance measure-
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[5] M. Jouin, R. Gouriveau, D. Hissel, M. C. Pera and N. Zerhouni, “Prognostics a0 DC/DC converter parameter 8.994 · 10−3
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[6] A. Y. Karnik, J. Sun, A. G. Stefanopoulou and J. H. Buckland, “Humidity and
Ts sampling time 100ms
Pressure Regulation in a PEM Fuel Cell Using a Gain-Scheduled Static Feedback
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