1.

describe adequately quantitative sampling procedure

and sample..

The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis is called statistical power. It suggests that indeed
there is a relationship between the independent and dependent variables of the research study. The
ideal statistical power of a research study is 80%. With the statistical power, it will be used to identify
the sufficient sample size for measuring the effect size of a certain treatment. The level of difference
between the experimental group and the control group refers to effect size.

If the statistical power tells that relationship between independent and dependent variables,
the effect size suggests the extent of the relationship between these two variables. Henceforth, the
higher the effect size, means the greater the level difference between the experimental and control
groups. For example, your research study reveals that there is a difference in the pretest and posttest
scores of the students in the given anxiety test after implementing a psychosocial intervention. With
the effect size, you will have an idea of how small or large the difference is.

Probability Sampling in Quantitative Research

Simple Random Sampling. It is a way of choosing individuals in which all members of the
accessible population are given an equal chance to be selected. There are various ways of obtaining
samples through simple random sampling. These are fish bowl technique, roulette wheel, or use of
the table of random numbers. This technique is also readily available online. Visit this link
https://www.randomizer.org/ to practice.

Stratified Random Sampling. The same with simple random sampling, stratified random sampling
also gives an equal chance to all members of the population to be chosen.

However, the population is first divided into strata or groups before selecting the samples. The
samples are chosen from these subgroups and not directly from the entire population. This
procedure is best used when the variables of the study are also grouped into classes such as gender
and grade level.

You can simply follow the steps from this given example:

A population of 600 Junior High School students includes 180 Grade 7,

160 Grade 8, 150 Grade 9, and 110 Grade 10. If the computed sample
size is 240, the following proportionate sampling will be as follows.
The number of members per subgroup is divided by the total accessible
sample size. The percentage result of members per subgroup will be multiplied from
the computed total sample size. After obtaining the sample size per strata, then
simple random sampling will be done for the selection of samples from each group.

Sample Size per Subgroups

180/600 = .30x 240 = 72 Grade 7 students

160/600 = .27x 240 = 65 Grade 8 students
 150/600 = .25x 240 = 60 Grade 9 students
110/600 = .18x 240 = 43 Grade 10 students
100% 240 respondents

Cluster Sampling. This procedure is usually applied in large-scale studies,

geographical spread out of the population is a challenge, and gathering information
will be very time-consuming. Similar to stratified random sampling, cluster
sampling also involves grouping of the population according to subgroups or
clusters. It is a method where multiple clusters of people from the chosen
population will be created by the researcher in order to have homogenous
characteristics.
For example, a researcher would like to interview of all public senior high
school students across Mindanao. As a researcher cluster will be selected to satisfy
the plan size. In the given example, the first cluster can be by region, the second
cluster can be by division, and the third cluster can be by district.
Another way of doing cluster sampling is illustrated on the figure on the
right side.
Systematic Sampling. This procedure is as simple as selecting sample s every nth
(example every 2nd, 5th) of the chosen population until arriving at a desired total
number of sample size. Therefore the selection is based on a predetermined
interval. Dividing the population size by the sample size, the interval will be
obtained. For example, from a total population of 75, you have 25 samples; using
systematic sampling, you will decide to select every 3 rd person on the list of
individuals.

2. Constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability

In constructing the research instrument of the study, there are many factors to be considered. The
type of instrument, reasons for choosing the type, and the description and conceptual definition of
its parts are some of the factors that need to be decided before constructing a research instrument.
Furthermore, it is also very important to understand the concepts of scales of research instruments
and how to establish validity and reliability of instruments.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

Concise. Have you tried answering a very long test, and because of its length, you just pick the
answer without even reading it? A good research instrument is concise in length yet can elicit the
needed data.

Sequential. Questions or items must be arranged well. It is recommended to arrange it from

simplest to the most complex. In this way, the instrument will be more favorable to the respondents
to answer.

Valid and reliable. The instrument should pass the tests of validity and reliability to get more
appropriate and accurate information.
 Easily tabulated. Since you will be constructing an instrument for quantitative research, this factor
should be considered. Hence, before crafting the instruments, the researcher makes sure that the
variable and research questions are established. These will be an important basis for making items in
the research instruments.

Ways in Developing Research Instrument

There are three ways you can consider in developing the research instrument for your study.
First is adopting an instrument from the already utilized instruments from previous related studies.
The second way is modifying an existing instrument when the available instruments do not yield the
exact data that will answer the research problem. And the third way is when the researcher made
his own instrument that corresponds to the variable and scope of his current study.

Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research

Likert Scale. This is the most common scale used in quantitative research. Respondents were asked
to rate or rank statements according to the scale provided.

Example: A Likert scale that measures the attitude of students towards distance learning.

Strongly Strongly
Items Agree Disagree
Agree Disagree

There would be difficulty in

communicating our concerns to our
teacher.

There would be many distractions

when learning at home than in school.

Semantic Differential. In this scale, a series of bipolar adjectives will be rated by the respondents.
This scale seems to be more advantageous since it is more flexible and easy to construct.

Example: On a description of an active student in school activities.

Pleasant 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant

Enthusiastic 5 4 3 2 1 Not
Enthusiastic

Competent 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent

Another important consideration in constructing a research instrument is how to

establish its validity and reliability.

Types of Validity of Instrument

Face Validity. It is also known as “logical validity.” It calls for an initiative judgment of the instruments as it “appear.”
Just by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it is valid.

Content Validity. An instrument that is judged with content validity meets the objectives of the study. It is done by
checking the statements or questions if this elicits the needed information. Experts in the field of interest can also
provide specific elements that should be measured by the instrument.

Construct Validity. It refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical construct of the study.
It is concerning if a specific measure relates to other measures.

Concurrent Validity. When the instrument can predict results similar to those similar tests already validated, it has
concurrent validity.

Predictive Validity. When the instrument is able to produce results similar to those similar tests that will be
employed in the future, it has predictive validity. This is particularly useful for the aptitude test.

Validity

3.Data Collection Instruments

• Accurate and systematic data collection is critical to conducting scientific research. •
Data collection allows us to collect information that we want to collect about our study
objects.
• Depending on research type, methods of data collection include: documents review,
observation, questioning, measuring, or a combination of different methods.

Questionnaire
• A questionnaire is a data collection instrument consistent of a series of questions and other
prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. The questionnaire was
invented by Sir Francis Galton.

Steps required to design and administer a questionnaire

1. Defining the Objectives of the Study

2. Define the target respondents and methods to reach them.
3. Questionnaire Design
4. Pilot Testing
5. Questionnaire Administration
6. Results Interpretation

A. Defining the Objectives of the Study

• A questionnaire should allow us to collect the most complete and accurate data in a logical
flow. – This is done in order to reach reliable conclusions from what we are planning to observe.

• A well-designed questionnaire should meet the research goal and objectives and minimize
unanswered questions—a common problem bound to many surveys.

b. Define the target respondents and methods to reach them • The researcher should clearly
define the target, study populations from which she/ he collects data and information.
• Main methods of reaching the respondents are: personal contact, group of focus interview,
mail /Internet-based questionnaires, telephone interview.

c. Writing the Questionnaire

• Before writing the questionnaire researcher should decide on the questionnaire content.
• Each question should contribute to testing one or more hypothesis/ research question
established in the research design.
Questions could be:
• Open format questions that are without a predetermined set of responses.
• Closed format questions that take the form of a multiple-choice question.

d. Questionnaire pilot testing

• The major challenge in questionnaire design is to make it clear to all respondents.
• In-order to identify and solve the confusing points, we need to pre-test the questionnaire.
• During the pilot trial: the questionnaire participants should be randomly selected from the
study population.
2. Interview
• Interviews consist of collecting data by asking questions.
• Data can be collected by listening to individuals, recording, filming their responses, or a
combination of methods.
There are four types of interview:
• Structured interview
• Semi-structured interview
• In-depth interview, and
• Focused group discussion
2.1. Structured interview
• In structured interviews the questions as well as their order is already scheduled.
• Your additional intervention consists of giving more explanation to clarify your question
(if needed), and to ask your respondent to provide more explanation if the answer they
provide is vague (probing).
2.2. Semi-structured and in-depth
• Semi-structured interviews include a number of planned questions, but the interviewer
has more freedom to modify the wording and order of questions.
• In-depth interview is less formal and the least structured, in which the wording and
questions are not predetermined. This type of interview is more appropriate to collect
complex information with a higher proportion of opinion-based information.
 2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of interview
Advantages:
•Collect complete information with greater understanding. •It is more personal, as
compared to questionnaires, allowing us to have higher response rates. •It allows more
control over the order and flow of questions. •We can introduce necessary changes in the
interview schedule based on initial results (which is not possible in the case of a
questionnaire study/survey)

Disadvantages:
•Data analysis—especially when there is a lot of qualitative data.
•Interviewing can be tiresome for large numbers of participants
. •Risk of bias is high due to fatigue and to becoming too involved with interviewees. .
3. Focus group discussion
• Focus group is a structured discussion with the purpose of stimulating conversation
around a specific topic.

• Focus group discussion is led by a facilitator who poses questions and the
participants give their thoughts and opinions.

• Focus group discussion gives us the possibility to cross check one individual’s opinion
with other opinions gathered.

• A well organized and facilitated FGD is more than question and answer session.

• In a group situation, members tend to be more open and the dynamics within the group
and interaction can enrich the quality and quantity of information needed.

Indeed, designing the research methodology in quantitative research is quite challenging. At this
point, it is assumed that you are now ready to present your written output. You need to consider
the parts of your research methodology; these are:

4. Summarizing data
The two main ways of summarizing data are by using tables and charts or graphs.

Tables
 Simplest way to summarize data
 Data are presented as absolute numbers
or percentages

Tables:
Most tables show a frequency
Frequency distribution distribution, which is a set of
Set of categories with numerical counts categories with numerical counts. Here,
you the year as the category and the
number of births as the numerical
count.
 Relative frequency
Another common way to summarize data is with
number of values within an interval relative frequency – which is the percentage of
total number of values in the table x 100 the total number of observations that a Another
common way to summarize data is with relative
frequency – which is the percentage of the total
number of observations that appear in that
interval.
It is computed by dividing the number of values
within an interval by the total number of values
in the table, then multiplying by 100 to get the
percentage.
In this table, you see the proportion of the total
number of births between 1990 and 1929 (132)
by 10-year intervals.
The calculation for the first relative frequency is:
35/132 = 0.265 x 100 = 26.5 (approx 27%).

Charts and graphs

Although they are easier to read than tables, charts provide less detail. The loss of detail
may be replaced by a better understanding of the data.

 Charts and graphs are used to portray:

 Trends, relationships, and comparisons
 The most informative are simple and self-explanatory

Use the right type of graphic

• Bar charts are used to compare data across
categories.
• Line graphs are used to display trends over time.
• Pie charts show percentages or the contribution
of each value to a total.

Bar chart
Comparing categories
 6
% o f new enrollees

4
tested for HIV

Now let’s interpret this

chart. You will note that we have
added the target for the number of
2 new enrollees tested for HIV. The
target is to test 50% of new enrollees
0 at each site in each quarter. We see
that sites 1 & 3 have met their

er 1 er 2 er 3 er 4 targets, but that site 2 has not; it is at

art art art art Site 1

30% new enrollees tested.

Qu Qu Qu Qu Site 2
Months Site 3

A stacked bar chart is often

used to represent
components of a whole and
compare the wholes (or
multiple values).

A line graph should be used to display

trends over time. While bar charts
A line
also aregraph
usefulshould
for be used to time
showing display trends
trends, line graphs are particularly are useful
over time. While bar charts also
usefulforwhen
showing timeare
there trends,
manylinedata
graphs are
particularly useful when
points. In this case, we have four there are many
data data points.
points In this
for each case, we have four data
clinic.
points for each clinic.
Here, you see the number of clinicians
Here, you
working see the
in each number
clinic of clinicians
during years
working in each clinic during
1–4. You will note the asterisk in the years 1–4.
title. This asterisk clarifies the title. This
You will note the asterisk in the
asterisk
definition of clarifies
clinical totheinclude
definition
bothof clinical to
include both
doctors and nurses. doctors and nurses.
 A pie chart displays the contribution of
each value to the total. In pie charts, the
values always add up to 100.
In this case, we used the chart to show the
contribution of patients enrolled each
quarter to the total enrollment for the
year. For example, the first quarter
contributed the largest percentage (59%)
of enrolled patients.

Interpreting data

 Adding meaning to information by making connections and comparisons and exploring

causes and consequences
Data interpretation is the process of making sense of the information.
It allows us to ask: What does this information tell me about the program

Bivariate Data Analysis

Bivariate analysis allows you to study the relationship between 2 variables and has many
practical uses in the real life. It aims to find out whether there exists an association between the
variables and what is its strength. Bivariate analysis also allows you to test a hypothesis of
association and causality. It also helps you to predict the values of a dependent variable based
on the changes of an independent variable.

5.Planning your Data Analysis

Before choosing what statistical test is appropriate for your research study it is important to
determine what statistical formation is applicable to your current study. In immersing yourself
into planning your data analysis, you have to decide what basic descriptive statistical technique
you are going to use. Although this technique does not give you the degree of association or
effect between variables, this will help you to code and simply tabulate your data.
Descriptive Statistical Technique provides a summary of the ordered or sequenced
data from your research sample. Frequency distribution, measure of central tendencies (mean,
median, mode), and standard deviation are the sets of data from descriptive statistics.
Inferential Statistics is used when the research study focuses on finding predictions; testing
hypothesis; and finding interpretations, generalizations, and conclusions. Since this statistical
method is more complex and has more advanced mathematical computations, you can use
computer software to aid your analysis.

You also have to identify types of statistical analysis of variable in your quantitative research. A
univariate analysis means analysis of one variable. Analysis of two variables such as
independent and dependent variables refers to bivariate analysis while the multivariate
analysis involves analysis of the multiple relations between multiple variables.
Furthermore, selecting what test to use is basically done by identifying whether you will
use parametric test or non-parametric test. As these were already discussed in your Statistics
and Probability subject, a summary of what to consider is presented below:

Points to Consider Type of Test

Interval or Ratio
Scale
Ordinal or Nominal Scale
30 or more per group
Sample Size
Fewer than 30
Normal Distribution
Distribution of Data Data deviates from Normal
Distribution
Parametric Tests
Non-parametric Tests
Parametric Tests
Non-parametric Tests
Parametric Tests
Non-parametric Tests

In addition, in choosing statistical techniques in quantitative research, the purpose or objective

of the research study should be considered.

Test of Relationship between Two Variables

➢ Pearson’s r (parametric)
➢ Phi coefficient (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous variables)
➢ Spearman’s rho (non-parametric for ordinal variable)
Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from One Group
➢ T-test for dependent samples (parametric)
➢ McNemar change test (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous variables) ➢
Wilcoxon signed-rank test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)
Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from Two Different
Groups
➢ T-test for independent samples (parametric)
➢ Two-way chi-square (non-parametric for nominal variable)
➢ Mann-Whitney U test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)
Test More than Two Population Means
➢ Analysis of Variance or ANOVA (parametric)
Test the Strength of Relation or Effect or Impact
➢ Regression (parametric)
Research Design
Research Population and Sample
Sampling Procedure
Research Instruments
Validity and Reliability of Instruments
Research Intervention (if applicable)
Data Collection Procedure
Data Analysis
6. Draws conclusions from research findings , Formulates recommendations,. make
recommendations based on conclusions.

Conclusions represents inferences drawn from the findings of the study. The number of
conclusions coincide with the number of specific findings. It should not contain any number or
measurements. if there are tested hypothesis in the study, the rejection or acceptance of
hypotheses are placed under conclusions. Since the conclusion is the final result. It should give
the final impression and it should summarize the learnings from the study. It leaves the reader
in no doubt that you have answered the questions posed in your paper. It is a wrapped-up of the
entire project and its completeness.

STRATEGIES FOR WRITING AN EFFECTIVE CONCLUSION

Conclusions are intertwined with the introduction. Example: Introduction
◦Reproductive health education is one area of research that should be tackled in schools. High
school students should be exposed to innovative ways of disseminating and communicating
issues or reproductive health education of high school students shall be the focus of the study.
Example: Conclusion ◦The high school student respondents are not fully aware and
have little knowledge in reproductive health education on the following areas: social and gender
related issues, family planning and other clinical services.
Conclusions are inferences and generalizations are base upon the findings. Example:
Based on a research study on “Factors Affecting the Career Choices of High School students” two
conclusions can be drawn from the findings of the study. Conclusion 1: Males prefer technology-
based courses while females prefer business-related course. Conclusion 2: There is a significant
difference between the career choices of male and female high school respondents.
Conclusions should be specifically answer the questions posted in the “Statement of
the Problem” of your research study. Example 1: If the profile of the respondents will be used to
test for variation on other measures, here are some examples of possible conclusions.
◦Conclusion 1: Majority of the respondents are aged 12-16 and mostly are males. ◦Conclusion 2:
Respondents of the study are mostly Catholics. ◦Conclusion 3: Among the profile of the
respondents, age and gender are significantly related to achievement in mathematics.
Conclusions should be specifically answer the questions posted in the “Statement of
the Problem” of your research study. Example 2: If the problem raised in a research study
entitled “Reading Difficulties of First Year High School Students” were. ◦Conclusion 1: The
student respondents had problems in the following areas of English reading test, vocabulary,
sentence structure and reading comprehension. ◦Conclusion 2: Profile of the student
respondents such as gender and mental ability are significantly related to the reading difficulties
of the student respondents.
Conclusions should contain facts or actual results from the inquiry or research
study. Conclusions should never be based from implied or indirect implications of the findings.
Example 1: In a research study on the “Evaluation of Mainstreaming Special Education (SPED)
for Visually Impaired of Deped, results indicated that teachers are not majors of SPED and that
the facilities are inadequate to support the program.
Other Guidelines in Writing Conclusions
1. Conclusions should be clearly, concisely and briefly stated.
2. Conclusions should be original and accurate.
3. Conclusions should not introduce new arguments, new ideas or information not related to
your research study.
4. Conclusions should leave the reader with an interesting final impression.
5. Conclusions should refer only to the subjects or population of your research study.
6. Conclusions should contain categorical statements. Refrain from using words like perhaps or
maybe or those words that would imply unresolved issues.
7. Conclusions should not contain apologetic statements for unresolved problems in the study.

FORMULATING RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations typically play a vital portion of a research study. Formulating
recommendations is easy, provided the findings and conclusions have been fully explained and
completed. Recommendations are based on the findings of the study. They should not be based
on your own beliefs or biases. They should not be too broad to lose its relevance to the exact
topic of your research study.
Characteristics of Recommendations
1. Relevance to the study ◦-it should be related to your study.
2. Logical Reasoning. ◦-it should be well thought with valid reasons.
3. Feasibility and attainability ◦-it is practical, workable and achievable.

Purposes of Recommendation
1. Policy recommendations. ◦Example: Teachers should be encouraged to conduct research work
and collaborate with other teachers in the preparation of modules, guides and other
instructional materials.
2. Recommendations for Future Research directions. ◦Example: More research on the effects of
playing computer games must be conducted in the future.
3. Recommendations to some problems discovered in the research study. Example: Hire more
qualified teachers in the area of science and technology.
4. Recommendations for improvement or change
5. There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a good practice