International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186

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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping

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Finite element simulation of residual stresses induced by the

dissimilar welding of a P92 steel pipe with weld metal IN625
A.H. Yaghi a, *, T.H. Hyde b, A.A. Becker b, W. Sun b
a
Manufacturing Technology Centre (MTC), Pilot Way, Ansty Business Park, Coventry CV7 9JU, UK
b
Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Residual stresses induced by the fusion arc-welding of steel pipe joints in power generation plants are a
Received 29 November 2011 concern to the industry. Residual stresses are induced by the process of welding due to the extreme
Received in revised form nature of thermal cycles during the process. Welding is essential in the construction of high-grade steel
10 July 2013
pipelines, used as a conduit for steam at high temperature and pressure. The integrity and endurance of
Accepted 11 July 2013
the welded pipes are necessary for the safe operation in power plants, which may be compromised by
the presence of residual stresses. The finite element (FE) method is an effective tool for the prediction of
Keywords:
residual stresses in such components, as long as the material behaviour can be accurately modelled. This
P92 steel pipe
Finite element simulation
paper reports the FE simulation of residual stresses, due to the arc-welding of a P92 steel pipe mainly
Residual stress using a nickel-based alloy (IN625) as a dissimilar weld material. The structural analysis part of the FE
IN625 weld method of determining the residual stress field in the welded pipe is described and the results presented
Martensite and discussed. Two user-defined subroutines have been used in the FE structural analysis to simulate the
Austenite way the different phases of steel evolve during welding, including their differing plastic and hardening
behaviour, derived from uniaxial tensile material testing carried out over a wide range of temperature.
Thermal-expansion, including the effects of solid-state phase transformations in P92, has also been
numerically modelled in the two subroutines, one of which prescribes two phases of P92 steel (tempered
martensite and austenite) while the other assumes three phases (tempered martensite, austenite and
untempered martensite).
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
High-grade steels are used in the construction of pipelines in
fossil-fuel power generation plants in the UK and other countries
worldwide to improve their efficiency and reduce CO2 emission, at
the same time maintaining a high level of safety. The process of
fusion arc welding is an integral part in the construction of such
steel components, with potential adverse effects on their structural
integrity. The pipes are responsible for carrying steam at high
temperature and pressure during service, and therefore they are
made of steels with high resistance to creep and the corrosive ef-
fects of steam. Since its development in Japan in 1991, P92 steel has
become a common material in such pipes. The material used for
welding the pipes together or to other components of different
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: anas.yaghi@the-mtc.org (A.H. Yaghi), thomas.hyde@
nottingham.ac.uk (T.H. Hyde), a.a.becker@nottingham.ac.uk (A.A. Becker), w.sun@
nottingham.ac.uk (W. Sun).
types of steel is usually either consumable P92 steel with a very
similar chemical composition or a consumable nickel-based alloy
also having strong resistance to creep and corrosion. P92, also
known as NF616 in Japan, which is a 9e12% Cr ferritic steel that has
been developed for high temperature applications, has been
modified from its predecessor P91. Molybdenum, Mo, in P91
(9Cr1Mo) has been partially replaced by Tungsten, W, to produce
P92 (9Cr2W), thereby increasing its creep strength by approxi-
mately 30% [3] P92 has proven suitable for piping and headers in
power plants at temperatures up to around 625
C [9] High-grade
steels are developed in general with the intention of improving
the efficiency of electricity generation, leading to a reduction in CO2
emission. Better efficiency is achieved by utilising high-grade steels
that safely allow higher operating-temperatures.
P92 steel pipes in power plants usually exist in the tempered
martensitic steel state. The process of fusion arc welding applied to
join the pipes involves extreme thermal cycles, which not only alter
the microstructure of the fusion zone (FZ) and heat affected zone
(HAZ) in the pipe material but also induce residual stresses which
can exceed the yield stress of the material at certain places. Without

0308-0161/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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174 A.H. Yaghi et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186

mitigating the magnitude of residual stresses through an expensive either from literature or from uniaxial tensile testing of the various
procedure of post-weld heat treatment (PWHT), welding residual materials and their phases over a wide range of temperature. The
stresses can have a serious adverse effect on the integrity and effects of different material and modelling parameters on residual
endurance of the welded components. The relatively-fine-grain stresses have been identified and quantified.
region of the HAZ, farthest away from the weld, has at its bound-
ary what is referred to as the intercritical region, separating the 2. Pipe and weld geometry and specifications
HAZ from the rest of the parent pipe material. The intercritical re-
gion experiences partial austenitic transformation during welding The reported P92 steel pipe was prepared and welded at Doosan
because it forms the boundaries corresponding with the austenitic Babcock, Renfrew, UK. The material of the pipe before welding is
transformation temperature range. The fine-grain region of the tempered martensite. The pipe has been welded with Inconel weld
HAZ is the site of possible type IV cracking due to cumulative creep filler rods.
damage during service, which is considered to be the region at
most risk of creep fracture. The FZ and HAZ in P92 before any PWHT 2.1. Pipe and weld geometry
usually have a mixture of tempered and untempered martensites;
PWHT, which is usually applied to welded martensitic pipes, will The modelled P92 pipe has been circumferentially butt-welded
temper all the martensite anew. Bearing this in mind, the consid- by depositing Inconel weld metal to form 36 weld beads. Prior to
eration of residual stresses in welded steel pipes is evidently due in welding, the P92 pipe was cut into two halves and the ends pre-
structural integrity and safety assessments of steam pipelines in pared for joining, a photograph of which is shown in Fig. 1.
power plants, particularly to look into feasible ways of reducing The two halves of the pipe were joined with a circumferential
adverse peak stresses. The determination of such residual butt-weld. The geometry and dimensions of the welded P92 pipe, as
stresses can be effectively delivered by applying the finite well as the welding sequence, are shown in Fig. 2. The welded pipe
element (FE) method, assuming that the required material prop- has an outside diameter of 355 mm and a total length of 700 mm.
erties for the numerical simulation are in hand and that the phys-
ical processes during welding can be successfully captured and 2.2. Pipe and weld metal specifications
modelled [e.g Ref. [15]].
The reported work in this paper describes the FE simulation of The two halves of the P92 pipe were joined together using
the fusion arc welding of two halves of a P92 steel pipe with nickel- Inconel weld material. The first weld pass was deposited using
based alloys used as the weld material. In power generation plants, Inconel 82 (IN82), having the manufacturer’s brand name UTP
nickel-based alloys are sometimes used to weld different types of A068HH. Weld passes 2 to 36 were deposited using Inconel 625
steels together. In the research reported in this paper, the alloys (IN625), having the manufacturer’s brand name NIMROD 625 KS.
were used to weld two halves of the same material, in order to The chemical compositions for the parent and weld materials,
investigate residual stresses induced by dissimilar welding. The shown in Table 1, were originally provided by the manufacturer.
resulting microstructural zones and residual stresses of the FE
simulation are presented and discussed. The FE simulation com-
2.3. Welding procedure
prises a thermal analysis and a sequentially-coupled structural
analysis. The former has been reported in a previous publication by
The two halves of the pipe were axisymmetrically aligned and
the authors [16]. Residual stresses are determined by the FE
held in large metal vices at the start of the welding procedure. The
structural analysis, which is described in detail here. The com-
right-hand side was released after the third weld pass had been
mercial software package used for the FE simulation is Abaqus [1].
completed, and the left-hand side remained fixed throughout the
The different phases of P92 (martensite and austenite) have been
process of welding, as can be seen in Fig. 3.
modelled in the structural analysis through user-defined sub-
The first weld pass was deposited by tungsten inert gas (TIG)
routines. One subroutine assumes that phase transformations take
welding using IN82 rods of 2.4 mm diameter, during which argon
place in a step fashion at mid-point in the transformation tem-
gas was applied to shield the weld from atmospheric gases. Weld
perature range, fully and completely transforming the material
passes 2 to 36 were deposited by manual metal arc (MMA) welding
from one phase to the other. This subroutine allows for the exis-
tence of two phases of P92, namely tempered martensite and
austenite. The other subroutine tracks the fraction of all the ex-
pected phases of P92, and hence it allows for a gradual trans-
formation from one phase to another over the transformation
temperature range. Moreover, the second subroutine accounts for
the three phases in the FZ and HAZ of P92, namely tempered
martensite, untempered martensite and austenite, which has been
made possible by calculating the fraction of each phase from the
cyclic temperature history throughout the FE model.
The P92 pipe has been circumferentially butt-welded by
depositing 36 weld beads, each making a full circle, the first of
which being deposited at the bore and made of IN82, and the
remaining 35 beads being made of IN625. The mesh for the FE
model of the dissimilar welded pipe has been generated from two-
dimensional (2D) axisymmetric elements, with suitable mesh
refinement, considered to give sufficiently accurate residual
stresses for such a simulation [15] The welded pipe is described as
dissimilar to reflect the dissimilarity between the Inconel welding
metals and the P92 steel pipe or parent material. The material
property data employed in the FE reported work have been derived Fig. 1. P92 pipe before welding.
 A.H. Yaghi et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186
Fig. 2. Sketch of weld bead sequence showing overall weld dimensions.
using IN625 filler rods, having a diameter of 3.2 mm for weld passes
2 and 3 and the remaining passes having a diameter of 4.0 mm. The
welding start and stop points, i.e. the locations where the deposi-
tion of a weld bead begins and ends, were kept more or less at the
same angular positions for all the weld beads. For each weld bead or
pass (once around the circumference) there were six sets of start
and stop points.
The pipe during welding was heated by an electric blanket on
both sides, as can be seen in Fig. 3, to keep the preheat and inter-
pass temperatures for the TIG welding of the first pass between
100
C and 150
C, as recommended by literature [5] and for the
MMA welding of all the other passes between 200
C and 250
C [9].
3. Finite element simulation of the welded pipe
The finite element (FE) method can be an effective and efficient
tool in predicting residual stresses for welded metal components,
when it is used to its full potential. It is attractive for being able to
predict residual stresses and deformations throughout a modelled
component, internally as well as at the surface. It also provides
results which can vary with relatively small distance from one point
to another in the modelled component, depending on the refine-
ment of the mesh of elements generated to model the component,
and therefore it is expected to accurately determine results even
when they are associated with sharp changes and large gradients,
as long as the FE mesh of the model has sufficient refinement. A
significant increase in mesh refinement results in a substantial
increase in computing time, and hence it requires good experience
to be able to select a suitable mesh refinement, obtaining suffi-
ciently accurate results without requiring excessive computing
time. A challenging part for an experienced FE analyst, however,
still remains to be the ability to determine a complete set of ma-
terial property data for the FE simulation which is truly represen-
tative of the physical and mechanical material behaviour under the
prevalent conditions; the challenge for an FE analyst, just as much,
Table 1
Chemical composition of the pipe and weld materials [16].
Fe C Mn P S Si
P92 Bal 0.10 0.45 0.015 0.002 0.45
IN625 1.48 0.03 0.76 0.005 0.005 0.33
IN82 0.80 0.01 3.00 e e 0.10
175
is about capturing all the physical processes that are relevant to the
generation of residual stresses.
The FE method has been applied to the pipe in this study to
determine the residual stress field due to welding, adopting the
solid-mechanics approach. The solid-mechanics method models
the local thermo-mechanical behaviour of the weld structure,
paying special attention to the heat source, the accuracy of which
relies on the theoretical and empirical parameters describing the
weld pool size and shape. With this approach, the FE simulation of
the process of dissimilar welding of the pipe comprises a thermal
analysis and a sequentially-coupled structural analysis. An alter-
native to this approach is the thermodynamics method, which re-
lies on the conservation of mass, momentum, and heat together
with the latent heat and surface tension boundary conditions to
represent the physical phenomena of the molten weld pool and
thermal behaviour of the HAZ. The former, which was reported in
detail by the authors in a previous publication [16], determined the
temperature history throughout the welded pipe model; the ther-
mal results were validated by a comparison with measured tem-
peratures by five thermocouples attached to the pipe surface at
different locations. The weld fusion zone and HAZ in shape and size
were as expected. In the current structural analysis study, the same
temperature history has been used as input data and the residual
stresses determined as output data by using the computed tem-
peratures to induce thermal expansion through a user-defined
subroutine, which specifies the coefficient of linear thermal
expansion (CTE) for different materials and phases, under different
conditions. The effects of solid-state phase transformations
(austenitic and martensitic) in P92 on residual stresses have been
incorporated in the FE simulation by primarily modifying the CTE in
the subroutine to allow for the volume change in the material
during phase transformations. Also, the material yield stress and
hardening modulus have been specified in the subroutine, allowing
for the different materials and phases. Transformation plasticity
[14] which takes place during martensitic transformation of P92,
Cr W Mo V Nb N B Al Ni
8.62 1.86 0.33 0.21 0.076 0.047 0.003 0.019 0.27
21.9 e 8.67 e 3.340 e e e Bal
20.0 e e e 2.700 e e e Bal
176 A.H. Yaghi et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186
Fig. 3. P92 pipe during welding.
has also been accounted for in the subroutine by reducing the yield
stress during transformation by a prescribed value.
The FE simulation of the welded pipe has been performed using
2D axisymmetric elements. Although a 2D simulation, at best, can
only capture the quasi-steady-state of the actual real welding
process and miss out on the welding start and stop effects, it
nevertheless can be achieved with a relatively fine FE mesh, which
can predict residual stresses with sufficient accuracy around the
circumference of the welded pipe at locations away from the start
and stop points [15]. Had a three-dimensional (3D) FE simulation
been attempted, it would have been based on a much coarser 3D FE
mesh, significantly compromising the accuracy of results, even with
a comparatively larger size FE model (more degrees of freedom),
requiring prohibitively large computing time as higher accuracies
were attempted. A 3D simulation would, however, detect the ef-
fects of welding start and stop procedure around the circumfer-
ence. With this in mind, 2D axisymmetric elements have
exclusively been employed throughout the reported FE simulation.
Axisymmetric simulations of the welding of steel pipes have been
reported in previous publications [2,4,8] to predict residual stresses
with sufficient accuracy, the first of which making comparison with
a 3D simulation.
3.1. FE model
The FE mesh in the thermal and structural analyses is identical.
The weld pass sequence in the FE model is exactly the same as that
in the actual weld, as can be seen when Figs. 2 and 4 are compared.
Although the shapes of the FE passes are rather square compared to
the actual weld beads, the resulting thermal contours emerge
rounded and realistic, as reported in the thermal analysis [16]
which describes in detail how the resulting isothermal contours
model the expected shapes and sizes of the fusion zone and HAZ.
An attempt has been made, however, to make the final layer closer
in shape to the actual weld beads, since this is not unduly
complicated to achieve. The FE mesh of the welded pipe model is
shown in Figs. 5 and 6. The periphery of the weld region is high-
lighted with a thick black line in Fig. 5, and the Type-IV region,
which is towards the edge of the HAZ (on the parent metal side), is
highlighted in red (in web version). It can be seen in Fig. 5 that the
mesh is refined in the weld region and HAZ and that it becomes
gradually coarser as it moves away from the weld, as shown in
Fig. 6, in which the axis of symmetry of the pipe and the constraints
at one end are also shown. The complete 2D axisymmetric FE mesh
Fig. 4. Weld pass sequence in the FE model.
comprises 9022 nodes and 2919 elements. The element type used
throughout the structural analysis is an eight-node continuum
solid biquadratic axisymmetric stress/displacement quadrilateral
with reduced integration, given the name CAX8R in Abaqus. The
elements in the FE mesh forming each weld pass are assigned a
group name so that each pass can effectively be deposited inde-
pendently during the simulation.
The level of FE mesh refinement has been based on similar
published simulations of circumferentially butt-welded P91 steel
pipes of comparable dimensions [13,15] Accordingly, the FE mesh,
with the depicted refinement in Figs. 5 and 6, is assumed to deliver
residual stresses with sufficient accuracy.
3.2. Material properties
The FE structural analysis requires a large set of material prop-
erty data over the full range from room temperature to 1200
C,
which is the maximum temperature allowed in the structural
analysis. The temperature-dependent material properties, required
to be defined in the structural analysis, are the yield stress, elastic
and hardening moduli, CTE and Poisson’s ratio.
Three different materials are involved in the FE simulation of the
welded pipe: P92 steel, IN82 and IN625. During welding, P92 steel
is expected to have one of three different phases or a mixture of any
of them, depending on the temperature history of each point in the
model. The three P92 phases are tempered martensite, austenite
and untempered martensite. Prior to welding, the P92 pipe is
entirely tempered martensite. This is the usual condition of the
pipe when it is supplied by the manufacturer. When martensite
experiences temperatures between 830
C and 924
C, it transforms
into austenite. In other words, austenitic transformation begins at
830
C and completes at 924
C. When the material rapidly cools
down following the deposition of a weld bead, austenite transforms
into untempered martensite during the martensitic transformation,
starting at 400
C and ending at 100
C. The martensite remains in
the untempered state unless it is reheated to a temperature above
650
C, at which it begins to temper; tempering of martensite
completes at 780
C.
Uniaxial tensile testing on ridged specimens, machined from the
modelled P92 and IN625 materials, has been conducted to deter-
mine the material stress-strain behaviour. The ridged uniaxial
tensile specimens [6] each with a total length of 130 mm and gauge
length and diameter of 50 mm and 10 mm respectively, were
loaded in a Mayes axial-loading servo-hydraulic universal testing
machine under uniaxial tension with an approximate strain rate of
1  103 s1. The P92 specimens were machined from the modelled
 A.H. Yaghi et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186
Fig. 5. FE mesh showing the weld, HAZ and part of the pipe.
P92 pipe, existing in the tempered martensitic phase. Some of these
specimens were then subjected to heat treatment to fully produce
austenite or untempered martensite, before the uniaxial tensile
testing. To produce an austenitic specimen, the P92 specimen was
heated in a furnace to 1000
C and kept there for around 20 min for
a uniform temperature distribution, before cooling the specimen to
the uniaxial test temperature, the lowest of which, for an austenitic
uniaxial test, was 400
C. To produce an untempered martensitic
specimen, the P92 specimen was heated to 1050
C and kept there
for around 20 min before quenching it in oil at room temperature,
producing a cooling rate similar to that occurring in the real weld
beads soon after being deposited. The untempered martensitic
specimen is then either kept at room temperature or taken up to a
higher temperature in order to conduct the uniaxial testing. The
IN625 specimens were obtained from a weld pad, specifically
produced for that purpose by depositing, on a plate, many layers of
the same IN625 material used for welding the pipe. The specimens
were then tested under uniaxial tension over a range of
temperatures.
From the uniaxial tensile tests, the stress-strain behaviour, over
a range of temperatures, of tempered martensitic P92, austenitic
P92, untempered martensitic P92 and IN625 is shown in Figs. 7e10
respectively. The figures have been produced using the engineering
stresses and strains. From these results, and after changing the
engineering stresses and strains into true stresses and strains, the
yield stress, as well as the elastic and hardening moduli, has been
determined for the different materials and temperatures. Figs. 11e
13 depict the elastic modulus, 0.2% yield stress, and hardening
modulus respectively, of IN625 and the three phases of P92, against
temperature. Piecewise polynomial equations have been fitted to
the plots in Figs. 12 and 13, and the equations have been incorpo-
rated in the user-defined subroutines for the FE structural analysis.
The elastic modulus values over the full temperature range have
been inserted directly in the input file of the structural analysis. The
Fig. 6. Complete 2D axisymmetric FE mesh.
177
polynomials in Figs. 11e13 have been extrapolated, as shown,
where there is lack of experimental data. Poisson’s ratio has been
obtained from published literature. Although the value of Poisson’s
ratio can slightly vary with temperature, in either direction
depending on the methods of fabricating the metal, a constant
value of 0.3 has been used for IN625 [10] and 0.3 for P92 based on
the reported value for P91 [15]. The limited data available for IN82,
and since IN82 has only been used to deposit the first weld bead,
the material property data for this material, used in the FE simu-
lation, has been based on those of IN625 as well as other data
available in literature. The ratio between the tensile strength of
IN82 [11] and that of IN625 [10] is 0.7. Hence, the yield stress and
hardening modulus of IN82 have been equated to 0.7 times those of
IN625. The elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio have been assumed
to be the same for IN82 and IN625. The polynomials in Figs. 11e13
have values at 1200
C that allow the FE simulation to numerically
converge.
The CTE against temperature, without the effects of P92 phase
transformations, have been obtained from literature for P92 [9] and
IN625 [10] and it has been assumed to be the same for IN82 as that
of IN625. The data have been plotted and presented in Fig. 14.
Polynomial equations have been fitted to the data in the figure, and
where there is lack of data points, at either end of the IN625 graph,
the extrapolated parts of the curve are also shown. The equations
have been incorporated in the FE subroutine, thereby facilitating
thermal expansion in the FE model to induce thermal stresses, the
remnants of which, at the end of welding, are termed residual
stresses. Before incorporating the P92 CTE equation in the sub-
routine, however, the equation has to be modified by including the
effects of phase transformations, which is described in the
remaining part of this section.
Austenitic transformation of P92 starts at 830
C, on heating,
and ends at 924
C. Volumetric decrease in the material results from
the transformation and is mostly linear over the corresponding
178 A.H. Yaghi et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186
Fig. 7. Stress-strain behaviour of P92 tempered martensite under uniaxial tensile
loading over a range of temperatures.
temperature range of 94
C. A very similar material, P91 steel, has an
austenitic transformation temperature range from 820
C to 920
C
and was reported in previous publications to experience linear
volumetric decrease over the temperature range of 100
C [4,13,15]
The strain change corresponding to the volumetric decrease was
specified as 0.229. By assuming an equal austenitic transformation
volumetric decrease for P91 and P92, the strain change corre-
sponding to the volumetric decrease in P92 is found to be 0.244,
which is obtained by dividing 0.229 by 94/100. This is the value
which is used to linearly modify the P92 CTE equation over the 94
C
temperature range corresponding to the austenitic transformation.
The effect of austenitic transformation on residual stresses is much
smaller than that of martensitic transformation, as the former occurs
at much higher temperatures and is mostly followed by further
heating or even melting. More details on the method of incorpo-
rating the effects of phase transformations in FE simulations can be
found elsewhere [4,13].
A similar approach has been adopted to allow for the effects of
martensitic transformation, which is known to have much larger
effects on residual stresses in comparison with austenitic trans-
formation [13,15]. Martensitic transformation during the welding of
P92 occurs when the metal rapidly cools down soon after the
deposition of a weld bead. Untempered martensite begins to
emerge from the transformation of austenite into martensite at
400
C. Martensitic transformation continues at a slowing rate until
the temperature reaches 100
C, at which the transformation is
virtually full and complete. The rate of martensitic transformation
is expected to follow the KoistineneMarburger function [4,13,15].
Fig. 8. Stress-strain behaviour of P92 austenite under uniaxial tensile loading over a
range of temperatures.
Fig. 9. Stress-strain behaviour of P92 untempered martensite under uniaxial tensile
loading over a range of temperatures.
Dilatometric testing on P92 by Japan Power Engineering and In-
spection Corporation has revealed that the total volumetric strain
due to full martensitic transformation is 0.80%. The same value for
P91 is reported in literature as 0.75% [4] which indicates the simi-
larity of material behaviour between P91 and P92. The Koistinene
Marburger function can represent martensitic transformation,
including its rapidly-declining rate, but because of its exponential
nature it does not allow the transformation to reach completion at
100
C. Therefore, in order to achieve complete transformation at
100
C, a small correction factor (1.038) is multiplied by the func-
tion; the modified function against temperature is shown in Fig. 15.
Hence, the modified strain change of the FE model due to
martensitic volumetric increase is given by
Dεmartensitic ¼ 9:137  105  DT  ef0:011ð400:0TÞg (1)
where T is the current FE nodal temperature in
C and DT is the
temperature change in a numerical increment. This expression for
the strain change is added to the P92 thermal expansion equation
in the subroutine, thereby accounting for the effect of material
volumetric increase during martensitic transformation. The strain
increment due to thermal loading is given by
Dεthermal ¼ CTE  DT (2)
The strain change per time increment due to both thermal
loading and volumetric change, during martensitic transformation,
is given by
Fig. 10. Stress-strain behaviour of IN625 under uniaxial tensile loading over a range of
temperatures.
 A.H. Yaghi et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186
Fig. 11. Elastic modulus of P92 and IN625 against temperature.
Dεtherþmart ¼ Dεthermal þ Dεmartensitic
Further details on solid-state phase transformations and the
numerical simulation of their effects can be found in published
literature [4,13].
Martensitic transformation involves shear and is displacive in
nature, and therefore, unlike austenitic transformation, it induces
transformation plasticity. Transformation plasticity can be defined
as the permanent deformation experienced by steel, induced by
solid-state phase transformation at lower external stress than the
yield stress of the material, which otherwise would not have
occurred [14]. A practical and approximate approach, to account for
the effects of transformation plasticity on residual stresses in FE
simulations, is to assume that transformation plasticity produces a
mechanical effect on the stresses and strains equivalent to that
induced when the yield stress of the material is reduced by a certain
value over the phase transformation temperature range. This value
for P91 has been reported as 30 MPa [7,8]. The same value was used
for P91 FE simulation by the authors in a previous publication [15].
The FE simulation of P92 reported here has been performed slightly
differently, i.e. as will be explained in the following subsection.
Therefore, the value of the corresponding reduction in the yield
stress has accordingly been modified to a value of 50 MPa. The
effect of transformation plasticity on residual stresses, however, is
negligible in comparison to the other effects of transformation,
particularly volumetric increase, as will become evident from the
residual stress results presented later.
Fig. 12. 0.2% yield stress of P92 tempered martensite, P92 austenite, P92 untempered
martensite and IN625 against temperature.
179
Fig. 13. Hardening modulus of P92 tempered martensite, P92 austenite, P92 untem-
pered martensite and IN625 against temperature.
(3)
3.3. FE structural analysis and user-defined subroutines
The structural analysis is the part of the FE simulation where the
temperature history is taken from the results of the thermal anal-
ysis to be converted into corresponding thermal stresses and strain,
the final set of which at the completion of welding comprise re-
sidual stresses and strains. The input data in the structural analysis
are specified in the input file of the analysis and also in the user-
defined subroutine. In the input file, the FE mesh details of the
simulated model are specified first, followed by material properties
in the form of values for the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio
against temperature, ranging from room temperature to 1200
C,
for P92, IN82 and IN625, followed by boundary and initial condi-
tions, and concluded by a number of steps corresponding to the
deposition of the weld beads, in which the source of the effective
load is specified, in this case being the temperature history from the
output data of the preceding thermal analysis of the FE simulation.
The complete FE mesh, modelling both the pipe and weld, exists
from the start of the FE simulation. To allow the elements of the
weld to be “mechanically insignificant” until the moment of
deposition, their temperature is kept at 1200
C until the time of
deposition, at which point in time the temperature is allowed to
follow the temperature history obtained from the thermal analysis.
This is achieved through a user-defined subroutine. The yield stress
and elastic and hardening moduli of the weld material at 1200
C
are so low that the weld elements are not capable of sustaining any
Fig. 14. CTE of P92 and IN625 against temperature.
180 A.H. Yaghi et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186
Fig. 15. Fraction of P92 martensite against temperature according to the modified
Koistinen-Marburger relationship during martensitic transformation.
significant stresses until they cool down. This technique of
manipulating the weld temperature history, in the structural
analysis, to stay hot until the time of deposition is called “element
birth”. The temperature in the structural analysis is truncated at
1200
C to allow the analysis to converge numerically. The sub-
routine not only manipulates the temperature data for each time
step of the structural analysis, it also prescribes the yield stress,
hardening modulus and CTE.
The structural analysis has been conducted by following two
different methods. The first, which is the simpler of the two, is
based on a subroutine named Sub-STP in the current study and is
similar to a previously reported FE simulation of a welded P91 pipe
[15]. The subroutine assumes that when P92 undergoes austenitic
and martensitic transformations it does so with a complete step
change from one phase to another at a temperature at which the
two phases are expected to co-exist in equal proportions. During
austenitic transformation, both phases upon heating are expected
to equally coexist at a temperature of 877
C, midway in the
transformation temperature range, since the transformation is
linear. During martensitic transformation, both phases on cooling
are expected to equally coexist at a temperature of 340
C, which is
much closer to the transformation start temperature of 400
C than
the transformation end temperature of 100
C, reflecting the
exponential nature of the transformation. Although, during phase
transformations, the change in the yield stress and hardening
modulus in P92 in Sub-STP takes place as a complete step change
from one phase to the other, nonetheless the CTE, in the same
subroutine, is made to vary gradually as the temperature changes
and phase transformations occur, which is important for the
convergence of the numerical solution. Another feature about Sub-
STP is that it assumes that the martensitic phase in P92 is always
tempered, which may explain why the peak predicted residual
stresses in some small regions in the HAZ are lower in magnitude
than those predicted by the second method, base on a subroutine
named Sub-FRN.
The second method of conducting the structural analysis has the
same input file as the first. The difference in the two methods lies in
the ability of Sub-FRN to model the fraction of each phase of P92
and to determine the fraction of tempered martensite and
austenite, as well as untempered martensite, at any point in time,
according to the temperature history of the model. Sub-FRN allows
the yield stress and hardening modulus to be calculated in the
subroutine in proportion to the fractions of the three phases of P92.
Sub-FRN is expected to predict more accurate residual stresses in
comparison to Sub-STP, since Sub-FRN accounts for the three
possible phases of P92 steel rather than just two phases, although it
is difficult to predict the exact time when tempering occurs in the
martensite, as this depends not only on temperature but also on the
period of time elapsing at that temperature.
3.4. Phase transformation results and residual stresses
The results of the FE structural analysis of the welded pipe,
presented here, comprise firstly the fractions of P92 prevalent
phases obtained from Sub-FRN, secondly, residual stress contours
in the weld region, HAZ and adjacent parent material obtained from
both Sub-STP and Sub-FRN, and, thirdly, residual stresses along the
centre weld line (WCL) and also along a line through the Type-IV
region (see Fig. 5) at the right-hand side of the pipe, obtained
from both Sub-STP and Sub-FRN. The results plotted along the latter
line are denoted by the term “HAZ edge”. The results plotted along
the WCL start from the centre of the weld just below the weld
crown and end at the centre of the weld just above the first weld
bead as shown by the green line (in web version) in Fig. 5.
The phase fractions, presented in the form of contours in Fig. 16,
are those of the P92 untempered martensite, prevailing at the
completion of welding, when the pipe has cooled down to room
temperature. The fraction of austenite is not shown, as it is equal to
zero at the end. Obviously, the weld region in the figures should be
ignored, since phase fractions apply to P92 only. It should be noted
that, at room temperature, the fractions of tempered and untem-
pered martensite add to a value of 1.0 anywhere in the parent
material, including the HAZ. The phase fraction contours in Fig. 16
show that there are small regions of untempered martensite
through the thickness of the pipe wall at the HAZ, corresponding to
the thermal cycles from the multipass welding process. The figure
also shows that there are larger regions of untempered martensite
in the HAZ, two at the outside surface and two at the pipe bore, on
both sides of the weld, indicating that these regions have not been
tempered by sufficient reheating due to the welding thermal cycles.
The residual stresses presented in the paper comprise hoop and
axial stresses at the completion of welding, when the FE model is at
room temperature. Residual stress contours are presented in
Figs. 17e22. Figs. 17 and 18 respectively depict residual hoop and
axial stresses obtained using the subroutine Sub-STP. Sub-STP
simulates IN82, IN625, P92 tempered martensite and P92 austenite.
By referring to the stress-strain behaviour of IN625 and the two P92
phases simulated in the Sub-STP, in Figs. 7, 8 and 10, it can be seen
that the stress magnitudes in the stress contours of Figs. 17 and 18
are consistent with the modelled material mechanical behaviour,
remaining within 750 MPa. The peak values of the residual stress
results typically exceed the yield stress in magnitude and approach
the tensile strength of the modelled materials.
Fig. 16. P92 untempered martensitic fraction at the end of welding at room
temperature.
 A.H. Yaghi et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186 181

Fig. 17. Residual hoop stress obtained using Sub-STP. Fig. 19. Residual hoop stress obtained using Sub-FRN.

when it goes through martensitic transformation [13] which is also

Residual stress contours obtained by using the subroutine Sub-
responsible for the undulating residual hoop stress profile in the
FRN are presented in Figs. 19 and 20, which depict hoop and axial
HAZ and its vicinity. The effect of volumetric increase during
stresses respectively. Sub-FRN simulates IN82, IN625, P92
martensitic transformation is expectedly more pronounced when
tempered martensite, P92 austenite and P92 untempered
the simulated material has higher values of yield stress and tensile
martensite, the last of which has much higher magnitudes of yield
strength, which is demonstrated by having the P92 untempered
stress and tensile strength compared to the other simulated phases
martensite simulated in Sub-FRN, and which is shown in the highly
and materials, which can be noted by referring to the stress-strain
compressive regions of Fig. 19 and to a lesser degree in Fig. 20.
behaviour of untempered martensite in Fig. 9. At certain locations,
A comparison between Sub-STP and Sub-FRN has been made
the residual stress contours in Figs. 19 and 20 are significantly
possible by altering Sub-FRN to make it as similar to Sub-STP as
higher in magnitude than those shown in Figs. 17 and 18. The
possible. This has been achieved by replacing the material prop-
magnitude of the residual hoop stress contours depicted in Fig. 20
erties of the P92 untempered martensite in Sub-FRN with those of
approaches the tensile strength of IN625 within the weld region
the P92 tempered martensite. This is denoted by XUMR, and hence
and it approaches the yield stress of P92 untempered martensite
the subroutine is named Sub-FRN-XUMR. Although modifying Sub-
within the HAZ and its vicinity in the parent material. The yield
FRN-XUMR in such a way makes the material property data the
stress of the modelled materials can be referred to in Fig. 12.
same in Sub-FRN-XUMR and Sub-STP, there remains a difference
It is observed from Figs. 17e20 that high tensile stresses tend to
between the two subroutines which is that the simulated phases
occur near the outside surface of the welded pipe, which is typical
undergo a gradual transformation in Sub-FRN-XUMR but a com-
of relatively thick-walled welded pipes [12] Large tensile stresses
plete (step) transformation in Sub-STP. Hence, the results obtained,
are considered to be detrimental for the integrity of such a
following the modification of removing the untempered martensite
component, and in general PWHT is applied to substantially reduce
from Sub-FRN-XUMR, are expected to be comparable to those of
the magnitude of the large tensile residual stresses induced by
the other two subroutines but not identical.
welding. Figs. 17 and 19, which present residual hoop stress con-
Residual hoop and axial stress contours obtained using Sub-
tours, clearly demonstrate that there is discontinuity in the hoop
FRN-XUMR can be seen in Figs. 21 and 22 respectively.
stress profile where dissimilar materials meet, i.e. at the interface
Comparing Figs. 17 and 18 with Figs. 21 and 22 respectively dem-
between the weld metal and parent material. Further, the two
onstrates that the residual stresses provided by Sub-STP and Sub-
figures also demonstrate that there is a region at the outside surface
FRN-XUMR are very similar, with the exception of the residual
of the HAZ and its vicinity with a residual stress profile which is
hoop stress in a small region, on either side of the weld, near the
reduced in magnitude to neutrality or to a compressive value. This
outside surface of the HAZ and its vicinity, which has relatively
is due to the volumetric increase experienced by the P92 material
higher tensile and compressive peak values in Fig. 21.

Fig. 18. Residual axial stress obtained using Sub-STP. Fig. 20. Residual axial stress obtained using Sub-FRN.
182 A.H. Yaghi et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186
Fig. 21. Residual hoop stress obtained using Sub-FRN-XUMR.
Residual stresses for the FE model of the welded pipe under
different simulation conditions have been plotted along two lines,
the WCL (the green line (in web version) in Fig. 5) and HAZ edge
(the right-hand side red line in Fig. 5). Figs. 23e26 and Figs. 27e30
depict residual stresses along the WCL and the HAZ edge respec-
tively. The graphs presented in the figures are obtained from the FE
structural analyses with different minimum material yield stress
values at 1200
C, ranging between 50 MPa and 100 MPa,
depending on their ability to converge and provide a stable nu-
merical solution. The default value for the minimum yield stress for
all the simulated materials has been set to 50 MPa.
Residual hoop and axial stresses for three cases are presented in
Figs. 23 and 25 respectively. Stresses denoted by FRN-YS75, FRN-
YS75-XUMR, and STP-P92YS60 have been respectively obtained
using Sub-FRN (simulating three P92 phases including untempered
martensite) with minimum yield stress of 75 MPa, Sub-FRN-XUMR
(simulating only two P92 phases) also with minimum yield stress of
75 MPa, and Sub-STP with minimum yield stress for P92 of 60 MPa;
in the last case, the default value of 50 MPa applies to the simulated
weld material. Figs. 23 and 25 mainly demonstrate that the
different subroutines give similar results along the WCL, and it can
be deduced from the two figures and from the previous stress
contour figures that the subroutines give similar stress results in
the weld region.
Figs. 24 and 26 respectively present residual hoop and axial
stresses for five cases. Stresses denoted by STP-P92YS60, STP-
P92YS100, STP-YS100, STP-P92YS60-XTRP, and STP-P92YS60-ANN
have been obtained using Sub-STP with minimum yield stress for
P92 of 60 MPa in the first, fourth and fifth cases, of 100 MPa for P92
in the second case, and of 100 MPa in general in the third case. The
Fig. 22. Residual axial stress obtained using Sub-FRN-XUMR.
Fig. 23. Residual hoop stress against distance along the WCL, starting from the bottom
of the weld crown and ending near the bore, using three different subroutines.
fourth case (XTRP) excludes the effect of martensitic trans-
formation plasticity. The fifth case (ANN) prescribes a temperature
of 1200
C at which the plastic strain is reset to zero. This is
reasonable to assume at melting, and therefore the selection of
1200
C for annealing is an approximation necessary since the
temperatures are truncated at 1200
C. Another necessary
approximation for annealing to be successfully performed has been
the resetting of the hardening modulus for all the simulated ma-
terials to zero at any temperature higher than 750
C. Figs. 24 and
26 demonstrate that the effects of minimum yield stress, trans-
formation plasticity and annealing is insignificant along the WCL.
This applies to the weld region in general. A small discrepancy in
the stress results can be observed, at a few locations, when the
minimum yield stress is set at 100 MPa for all the materials.
The graphs of residual stresses against the WCL in Figs. 23e26
are repeated against the HAZ edge in Figs. 27e30 in exactly the
same order. Figs. 27 and 28 clearly show that, at the outside surface,
the residual stresses at the HAZ edge are substantially different for
Sub-FRN and Sub-STP. This is expected since the untempered
martensitic mechanical properties (incorporated in Sub-FRN) are
most relevant in the P92 material experiencing the last few welding
thermal cycles, i.e. at the outside surface of the HAZ to a depth of 2
or 3 mm below the weld crown, which is approximately equivalent
to the depth of one weld layer.
The graphs of stresses along the HAZ edge demonstrate that the
numerical solutions exhibit oscillations which usually occur where
Fig. 24. Residual hoop stress against distance along the WCL, starting from the bottom
of the weld crown and ending near the bore, using five different subroutines.
 A.H. Yaghi et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186
Fig. 25. Residual axial stress against distance along the WCL, starting from the bottom
of the weld crown and ending near the bore, using three different subroutines.
there are phase transformations. For this reason, these graphs have
been produced by applying three-point averaging to the stress
values. It is also why the stresses along the WCL appear to be much
smoother, bearing in mind that the Inconel weld metal does not
have phase transformation.
The effect of martensitic transformation on residual stresses has
been well established and documented [e.g Ref. [13]]. The largest
effect is attributed to the volumetric increase of the material during
the transformation. In this paper, the effect of transformation
plasticity has been shown to be much smaller. The effect of varying
the yield stress and tensile strength during phase transformation is
expected to be significant. In an attempt to quantify the effect of
varying the yield stress and tensile strength, a new set of material
stress-strain behaviour over the full temperature range has been
prescribed for the weld material. The new set is obtained experi-
mentally by allowing uniaxial tensile test specimens of IN625 to
harden during PWHT at 760
C for 3 h before testing them under
uniaxial tensile loading. The experimental stress-strain results are
presented in Fig. 31. The engineering yield stress and tensile
strength of IN625 at room temperature due to PWHT hardening
have increased from 491 MPa and 751 MPa to 512 MPa and 785 MPa
respectively, as can be seen when comparing Figs. 10 and 31, which
is a 4.3% and 4.5% increase respectively. The IN625 material before
PWHT will be denoted by “AsWelded” in the following figures and
the hardened IN625 will be denoted by “PWHT”.
Fig. 26. Residual axial stress against distance along the WCL, starting from the bottom
of the weld crown and ending near the bore, using five different subroutines.
183
Fig. 27. Residual hoop stress against distance along the HAZ edge (right-hand side),
from the outside surface to the bore, using three different subroutines.
The resulting residual stresses are depicted in Figs. 32 and 33
along the WCL and HAZ edge respectively. The residual stresses
in the figures are similar except the residual hoop stress along the
WCL which is generally higher for the hardened IN625. In partic-
ular, the peak hoop stress along the WCL, due to the harder me-
chanical properties of IN625, increases from around 440 MPa to
around 500 MPa, an approximate increase of 14%, which is rather
significant. Therefore, it is deduced that peak residual hoop stresses
in general are expected to significantly increase with an increase in
yield stress and tensile strength of the simulated material.
4. Discussion
The process of fusion welding for joining steel pipes in power
generation plants induces residual stresses in the weld region as
well as the HAZ and its vicinity. The magnitude of the residual
stresses, due to intense welding thermal cycles, usually exceeds the
yield stress of the involved materials in some locations and can
even approach their tensile strength. The possible adverse effects of
such stresses on the structural integrity and mechanical perfor-
mance of the welded pipes usually necessitate the application of
PWHT, which is a challenging and expensive process. The ability to
numerically simulate welding residual stresses can be highly ad-
vantageous for design purposes, material selection, safety assess-
ments and reviews of welding procedures. With this in mind, the
Fig. 28. Residual hoop stress against distance along the HAZ edge (right-hand side),
from the outside surface to the bore, using five different subroutines.
184 A.H. Yaghi et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186

Fig. 31. Stress-strain behaviour of IN625, after PWHT, under uniaxial tensile loading
over a range of temperatures.
Fig. 29. Residual axial stress against distance along the HAZ edge (right-hand side),
from the outside surface to the bore, using three different subroutines.
Two main techniques have been described in the paper. The first
allows for two phases of P92 steel (tempered martensite and
paper has described the numerical simulation of residual stresses,
austenite), in addition to the weld materials (IN82 and IN625), and
due to the dissimilar welding of two halves of a P92 steel pipe, by
it assumes a step change in the material yield stress during phase
applying the FE method, in particular the FE sequentially-coupled
transformations. The second allows for three phases of P92 (adding
structural analysis.
untempered martensite) and calculates the yield stress according to
The FE method of simulating residual stresses has been exper-
the calculated fraction of each phase. This has been achieved
imentally validated in the similar welding of a P91 pipe, described
through a user-defined subroutine in Abaqus. The determined re-
in a previous publication by the authors [15] The method has been
sidual stress results are similar in both techniques with the
modified for the simulation of dissimilar welding by adjusting the
exception of residual hoop stress in the HAZ and its vicinity near
elements at which the heat flux is applied in the thermal part of the
the outside surface. The discrepancy there is attributed to the
FE analysis. This has been described and validated in a previous
relatively high yield stress of untempered martensite, where, in the
publication [16] by comparing the simulated temperature results
last few weld passes in P92 near the outside surface, the material
with thermocouple temperature measurements. Based on the
does not have the chance to become tempered from reheating
temperature results of the FE thermal analysis, the FE sequentially-
during the multipass welding. The experimental validation of the
coupled structural analysis has been performed and described in
predicted FE residual stresses will be the subject of another pub-
this paper. One of the main challenges of successfully determining
lication by the authors in the near future.
FE residual stresses is to procure accurate mechanical property data
It has been well established in literature [e.g Refs. [13,15]] that
for the simulated materials. For this purpose, the simulated mate-
the volumetric martensitic increase has the largest effect of phase
rials, including their different phases, have been experimentally
transformations on residual stresses, turning some regions from
tested, under uniaxial tensile conditions, to determine their stress-
being high in tension to high in compression. The effect on residual
strain behaviour. The FE analysis has been performed using a 2D
stresses of altering the yield stress and tensile strength of the
axisymmetric FE mesh, which has been reported to successfully
simulated material has been demonstrated in the reported results
predict residual stresses in a welded P91 pipe away from welding
of the current paper. A discrepancy of approximately 14% in the
start and stop locations [15] The advantage of using a 2D axisym-
peak tensile hoop stresses has resulted from 4.3% and 4.5%
metric model lies in the ability to have a highly refined FE mesh,
respective increases in the yield stress and tensile strength of the
which is necessary to simulate sharp residual stress profiles
modelled materials.
accurately.

Fig. 32. Residual hoop and axial stresses against distance along the WCL, starting from
Fig. 30. Residual axial stress against distance along the HAZ edge (right-hand side), the bottom of the weld crown and ending near the bore, using either as-welded or
from the outside surface to the bore, using five different subroutines. hardened IN625 yield stress and tensile strength.
 A.H. Yaghi et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 111-112 (2013) 173e186
Fig. 33. Residual hoop and axial stresses against distance along the HAZ edge (right-
hand side), from the outside surface to the bore, using either as-welded or hardened
IN625 yield stress and tensile strength.
Bearing in mind the thermo-mechanical nature of fusion
welding, the FE modelling of welding-induced residual stresses has
revealed that they are most sensitive to specific material properties.
In particular, these are the yield stress, hardening modulus,
martensitic volumetric strain and CTE. The latter property can
usually be obtained from published literature. The yield stress and
martensitic volumetric strain have particularly large effects on re-
sidual stresses and should be modelled precisely for accurate FE
results. For this reason, the two properties should be obtained from
experimental material data if they are not available from reliable
sources. Finally, the hardening modulus is important inasmuch as it
has an influence on the yield stress of the material. The hardening
modulus, in the modelling of fusion welding of steel, is usually
relevant in the first 10% of strain in the material, above which this
property can be neglected, as the plastic strain during the cooling of
the modelled material is usually confined to the same range of
values.
Other parameters also have an influence on the magnitude and
shape of the residual stress field. The size of beads, for example, is
largely governed by the performance of welders and their ability to
deposit uniform beads. The bead-to-bead undulating profile of re-
sidual stresses, shown in the reported residual stress graphs along
the WCL, is caused by the thermal cycles corresponding to the
deposition of the weld beads. This undulating effect is also caused
by martensitic volumetric reductions taking place in the HAZ,
which is shown in the residual stress graphs along the HAZ. This
phenomenon was described in a previous publication [13] which
compared residual stress profiles having phase transformations
either incorporated in the FE simulation or excluded from it,
demonstrating that phase transformations were responsible for the
undulating effect. Finally, it is also worth mentioning that the
sensitivity of the FE analysis to the thermal material properties is
limited, as any resulting inaccuracy would be adjusted for by
modifying the prescribed heat flux to produce more representative
isotherms. Further details can be found in the thermal analysis
previously reported [16].
5. Conclusions
 The paper has described the numerical simulation of residual
stresses, due to the dissimilar welding of two halves of a P92
steel pipe, by applying the FE method, in particular the FE
sequentially-coupled structural analysis.
185
 Two main techniques have been described in the paper. The
first allows for two phases of P92 steel (tempered martensite
and austenite), in addition to the weld materials (IN82 and
IN625), and it assumes a step change in the material yield
stress during phase transformations. The second allows for
three phases of P92 (adding untempered martensite) and cal-
culates the yield stress according to the calculated fraction of
each phase.
 Residual hoop and axial stresses have been depicted
throughout the pipe wall thickness, at the weld and HAZ as
well as their vicinity, for a variety of numerical conditions. They
have also been plotted along the WCL and the HAZ edge.
 The effects on residual stresses of either modelling trans-
formation plasticity or prescribing annealing at high temper-
atures in the FE structural analyses have been shown to be
negligible.
 It has been found that there are very high tensile stresses in the
welded pipe not far from the outside surface of the weld and
HAZ.
 The experimental validation of the predicted FE residual
stresses will be the subject of another publication by the au-
thors in the near future.
Acknowledgement
We would like to acknowledge the support of The Energy Pro-
gramme, which is a Research Councils UK cross council initiative
led by EPSRC and contributed to by ESRC, NERC, BBSRC and STFC,
and specifically the Supergen initiative (Grants GR/S86334/01 and
EP/F029748) and the following companies; Alstom Power Ltd.,
Doosan Babcock, E.ON, National Physical Laboratory, Praxair Sur-
face Technologies Ltd, QinetiQ, Rolls-Royce plc, RWE npower,
Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery Ltd. and Tata Steel, for their
valuable contributions to the project.
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