Plants range from green algae, bryophytes (mosses, liverworts and hornwort), through

seedless plants (ferns), gymnosperms (characterized by production of naked seeds; eg

conifers, pine), to angiosperms (characterized by production of enclosed seeds).
Depending on height, tenderness of stem, branches and their life cycle, plants may be
classified into growth habits of herbs, shrubs, trees, climbers and creepers. Growth habit is
a result of genetic factor as well as environmental factors.

Herbs

- Herbs are short-sized plants with soft, green, delicate stems without woody tissues.

- They complete their life cycle within one or two seasons.

- Generally, they have few branches or are branchless.

- Herbs contain enough nutritional benefits, including vitamins and minerals, to make
them a part of a healthy balanced diet.

- Tomato, wheat, paddy, grass and bananas are a few examples of herbs.

Shrubs

- Shrubs are medium-sized, woody plants taller than herbs and shorter than a tree.

- Their height usually ranges from 6m to 10m tall.
- Their features include bushy, hard, and woody stems with many branches.
- Although stems are hard, they are flexible but not fragile.
- The lifespan of these plants usually depends on the species. 

eg Rose, jasmine, lemon, tulsi, and henna are some of the common shrubs around us.

Trees

- Trees are big and tall plants.

- They have very thick, woody and hard stems called the trunk.

- This single main stem or the trunk gives rise to many branches that bear leaves,
flowers and fruits.

- Some trees are branchless like coconut trees; i.e., they have only one main stem which
bears leaves, flowers, and fruits all by itself.

- The lifespan of a tree is very long. i.e., for several years. Banyan, mango, neem,
cashew, teak and oak are some examples of trees.

In addition to these three categories of plants, there are two more types which need some
support to grow. They are specifically called climbers and creepers.

Climbers

- Climbers are much more advanced than creepers.

- They have a very thin, long and weak stem which cannot stand upright, but they can
use external support to grow vertically and carry their weight.
- These types of plants use special structures called tendrils to climb.

eg pea plant, grapevine, sweet gourd, money plant, jasmine, runner beans, green peas,
etc.

Creepers

- Creepers, as the name suggests, are plants that creep on the ground.
- They have very fragile, long, thin stems that can neither stand erect nor support all
their weight.
- Examples include watermelon, strawberry, pumpkin and sweet potatoes.

To date, over 300,000 plant species have been identified. However, botanists believe that
there are still tens of thousands of unidentified species yet to be discovered. Humans rely on
plants. Directly or indirectly, plants provide food, shelter, clothing as well as many other
necessities.

 Practical uses of plants

o Plants are used as food
o Plants are used in the industries
o Paper is made from trees and plants
o Some plants help us make shelters
o Plants are used in cosmetic industry
o Plants are used as fuel
o Plants are used in medicine
 Use of medicinal plants today
o Medicinal plants are used as chemicals
o Medicinal plants are used in science
o Medicinal plants are used as living structures
o List of Common medicinal plants
 Symbolic uses of plants
o In art
o In literature and film
o In mythology and religion

Practical uses of plants

Plants are used as food

Plants are used as food

Plants make starches and sugar for their own growth. These starches are also rich in the
fundamental nutrients required by humans. Hence, we consume the stored starch as food. 

Firstly, humans consume cereals or food grains. Cereals are seeds of plants from the grass
family. We use cereals like rice, wheat, maize, millet, barley, gram, jowar, etc to prepare a
variety of dishes. Seeds of some other plants find uses as pulses. For example, pea, green
gram, yellow gram, lentil etc. Some seeds are oily. Therefore, we extract the oil from the
seeds for our daily use. Some oily seeds include coconut, peanut, sesame etc. People use
some seeds like almonds, raisins, chestnuts etc as dry fruits.

Apart from the seeds, plants store starch in the roots and fruit as well. Humans consume roots
of radish, carrot, beet etc. We also eat the fruits produced. For example, mango, apple,
orange, grapes etc. Furthermore, fruits are generally eaten raw and are rich in minerals and
vitamins. 

Some plants also give us vegetables. Potato, onion, tomato, ladyfinger, bean, cauliflower,
pumpkin etc. are some of the vegetables we consume. Vegetables are rich in iron, vitamins as
well as other minerals.

Lastly, we also obtain spices from plants. People have used spices in cooking for ages to
make the dish taste better. They even help preserve the food for longer. Some examples are
pepper, cumin, ginger, garlic, cardamom, thyme, clove, rosemary, cinnamon, etc. Cash crops
like tea and coffee are also staple beverages in any person’s diet. In some parts of the world,
especially Asia, seaweeds, a form of algae, are an essential component of a person’s diet. 

Plants are used in the industries

Plants grown as industrial crops are required for manufacturing a wide variety of products.
Nonfood products include natural dyes, pigments, resins, alkaloids, waxes, tannins and cork.
Flowers and leaves are used to produce rich natural dyes to colour clothes. Structural
materials, as well as fibres from plants, are used to manufacture clothing as well as in
construction. For example, wood is not only used to make buildings, we also use it to create
furniture, boats as well as musical instruments. Fibres from the cotton, flax, ramie plant as
well as synthetic fibres like rayon (derived from plant cellulose) are spun into threads and
used to sew clothes to cover the human body. 

Paper is made from trees and plants

aper is made from trees

Another essential product obtained from lant is paper. Used in daily life, paper is over 4,500
years old. The ancient Egyptians were the first to prepare paper from the fibrous stems of
plants like papyrus. In AD 100, the Chinese invented the method of manufacturing paper that
is still used to this day. The collected plant fibres are placed in water to make pulp. The water
is removed and the pulp is pressed and dried to yield a thin sheet of paper. 

Some plants help us make shelters

The shelter is crucial for human survival. In most parts of the world, shelter is made out of
wood. Furniture is also commonly crafted from wood. Walls are often covered with paper or
paints.
Plants are used in cosmetic industry

Plants are also used in the cosmetic and beauty industry. They are used in the manufacture of
different products like body scrubs, shampoo and conditioners among others. In addition,
crushed flowers and fruits can be used to make products like blush, lipstick as well as a lip
balm that are used to beautify the face. Flowers of certain plants are also used to make
perfumes. Some examples include rose, jasmine, lavender etc. The essential oils present in
them have a rich and alluring scent. Furthermore, flowers are also used to make garlands and
for other decorative purposes.

Plants are used as fuel

Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fuels used daily for heating and cooking. Each originated
from plants and other organisms that lived on the planet a thousand years ago. After the
organisms died, their remains were buried deep underground, where pressure and heat
converted them to fossil fuels. Peat, which is formed from partially decayed plant material
buried in wetlands, is also commonly used as fuel. 

Wood is still burned for heat in many cold countries, and charcoal, formed from incompletely
burned wood, is used in many tropical countries where other fuels are unavailable or
expensive. Additionally, charcoal is also popular for outdoor cooking.

Plants are used in medicine

Through the ages, people have discovered that certain plants could relieve their aches and
pains. In fact, most medicine men, as well as physicians in ancient times, were experts on
plants. The study of botany in America as well as Europe has its beginnings in medicine.
Now, hundreds of medicines are derived from different parts of a plant. This includes both
traditional medicines used in Ayurveda as well as chemical substances purified from plants
for use in modern medicine. The different plants in medicine include,  

Five most essential functions of Leaf

The leaves perform three main functions such as manufacture of food, interchange of gases
between the atmosphere and the plant body and evaporation of water. Some of the functions
are described below. The functions of modified leaves are not dealt as they carryon spe-
cialised functions as discussed earlier.

A. Manufacture of food

It is the primary function of green leaves. The process is called photosynthesis by which leaf
manufactures food material in the presence of sunlight and green pigment- chlorophyll
present in the leaf. The preparation of food material takes place out of water and carbon
dioxide obtained from the soil and the air respectively.

B. Interchange of gases

It takes place both for respiration and photosynthesis. There are numerous, minute openings
present on the leaves, called stomata, through which gaseous exchange takes place between
the atmosphere and the plant body.

C. Evaporation of water

Water absorbed by the root hairs of the plant is evaporated from the leaf surface during the
day time. It generally takes place through the stomatal openings. The phenomenon is known
as transpiration. This process allows the plant to absorb water and minerals from the soil
and conduct the same to the top of the plant.

D. Storage of food

Fleshy leaves of Indian aloe, Portulaca and fleshy scale leaves of onion store food materials
and water for the future of the plants. Fleshy and succulent leaves of xerophytic plants grow-
ing in desert area always store a huge quantity of water, mucilage and food materials.

E. Vegetative propagation

Leaves of Bryophyllum, Begonia and Kalanchoe produce buds by means of which they give
rise to new plants by vegetative propagation. In these cases when leaf lamina touches the
ground, the leaf margin at point produces roots and form a bud that grows into a new plant.

Stems in Plants: Function, Types and

Anatomy
The stem is the ascending part of the plant formed by the elongation of the plumule of the
embryo. It bears leaves, branches and flowers.

It is generally erect, strong and usually grows away from the soil (negatively geotropic).
There are several plants in which the stem is weak and it either trails on the ground or twines
around a support.

Stems are differentiated into regions called nodes. Leaves and branches arise from nodes. The
portion between the nodes is called the Internode.

The growing apex of the stem is covered by numerous, tiny, developing leaves and is called
the apical bud. Buds also arise in the axils of leaves; they are termed axillary or Lateral buds.
These buds give rise to branches or flowers.

Plants have been classified on the basis of the height and strength of stem and their life- span.
Herbs are small plants with a soft stem. Medium-sized plants with woody stems that branches
profusely from the base and attain a bushy appearance are called Shrubs.
Trees have a stout and tall trunk with profuse branching. Plants which complete their life
cycle within one season are termed annuals such as agricultural crops (rice, groundnut etc.).
Biennials complete their life cycle in two seasons (radish, cabbage).

Plants that usually survive for a number of years and produce flowers and fruits during
specific seasons are termed perennials (mango, apple etc.).Besides bearing branches, leaves
and flowers, stems perform other functions such as presentation, vegetative propagation and
storage of reserve food.

Functions of stem:

Primary or main functions:

1. It supports and holds leaves, flowers and fruits.

2. Leaves are borne on stem in such a fashion that they are able to carry on the important
function efficiently just like to receive the light and to carry on the gaseous exchange.

3. The stem conducts the water and minerals from roots to leaves and fruits.

4. Stem bears flowers and fruits in position to facilitate the processes of pollination and
fertilization.

Secondary or Accessory functions:

1. Perennation

2. Storage of food

3. Photosynthesis

4. Vegetative propagation

5. As climbers

There are three types of stem: Underground stem, Aerial stem and Sub- aerial stem.

Primary and Secondary Functions of Roots | Plants

Primary or Main Functions of Roots:

1. Anchorage:

Roots take part in fixation of the plant and supporting the aerial shoot system.

2. Absorption of Water:

Roots absorb water from soil.

3. Absorption of Minerals:

Roots absorb mineral salts from soil.

4. Prevention of Soil Erosion:

Roots hold the soil particles firmly to prevent soil erosion.

5. Transport:

They take part in transport of absorbed water and minerals to shoot system. Similarly, root
has channels for the flow of organic food from aerial parts.

Secondary or Accessory Functions of Roots:

1. Storage:

It occurs in fleshy roots.

Examples of fleshy tap roots are:

(i) Conical, e.g., Carrot

(ii) Fusiform, e.g., Radish

(iii) Napiform, e.g., Beet, Turnip and

(iv) Tuberous, e.g., Mirabilis.

Depending upon their shape and grouping, adventitious fleshy roots are of six types:

(a) Tuberous (root tubers), e.g., Sweet Potato

(b) Fasciculated, e.g., Asparagus, Dahlia

(c) Palmate, e.g., Orchis

(d) Nodulose, e.g., Curcuma

(e) Moniliform, e.g., Momordica

(f) Annuiated, e.g., Ipecac.

2. Extra or Mechanical Support:

It is provided by several types of roots:

(i) Buttress roots (plank roots), e.g., Bombax

(ii) Prop roots, e.g., Banyan, Rhizophora

(iii) Stilt roots, e.g., Maize, Sugarcane, Pandanus.

3. Climbing:
Roots help some of the weak stemmed plants to cling and hence climb up a support, e.g., Ivy,
Tecoma, Betel, and Money Plant.

4. Perennation:

In many biennial and perennial plants e.g., Trichosanthes.

5. Nitrogen Fixation:

Nodulated roots of Pea, Bean, Gram, Methi, etc.

6. Aeration:

Prop roots, knee roots and pneumatophores of Mangrove plants, e.g., Rhizophora, Heritiera,
Sonneratia.

7. Reproduction:

By bearing adventitious buds on both tap roots (e.g., Dalbergia) and adventitious roots (e.g.,
Sweet Potato).

8. Hygroscopic Roots:

The roots absorb water from air, e.g., epiphytic roots, young prop roots of Banyan.

9. Floating:

By storing air (e.g., Jussiaea = Ludwigia) some of the roots function as floats.

10. Balancing:

Free floating plants usually possess a cluster of adventitious roots from their nodes and bases
to help in balancing the plants over the water surface, e.g., Lemna, Pistia, Eichhornia.

11. Photosynthesis:

As in Trapa, Taeniophyllum, Tinospora, Podostemum.

12. Haustoria (Haustorial Roots):

They occur in some parasitic plants for absorption of food from the host, e.g., Cuscuta,
Mistletoe.

13. Mycorrhiza:

The roots of several plants are associated with fungi to form mycorrhiza. Mycorrhiza helps
the plant in absorption of phosphorus and nitrogen from organic sources and protects the
plants from attack of pathogenic fungi.

14. Growth Regulators:

Roots synthesize certain growth regulations like cytokinins.

List of Common medicinal plants

Hindi Name English Name Botanical Name Uses

Adhatoda vasica Nees
Adusa/Vasaka Malabar Nut Cough, Asthma, Bronchitis
Pennel
Sore Throat, Diabetes, Heart
Ananas Pineapple Ananas comosus Pennel
Disease, Obesity
Thyme leafed Bacopa monniera Pennel
Brahmi Enhances Memory, Anxiety
gratiola Pennel
Andrographis paniculata
Kalmegh Kalmegh Indigestion, Acne, Diarrhea
Pennel
Spreading Boerhaavia diffusa Linn
Punarnava Anaemia, Liver Diseases, Wounds
Hogweed Pennel
Ocimum sactum Linn Indigestion, Heart Diseases,
Tulsi Holy Basil
Pennel Respiratory Diseases
Elephant Argyreia speciosa Sweet
Vridhadaru Diabetes, Skin Diseases, Wounds
Creeper Pennel
Aquilaria agallocha Bed-Wetting, Incompetency of
Agarkasth Eagle Wood
Roxb Pennel Urinary Bladder
Aloe vera Tourn ex. Linn Ulcers, Burn Injuries, Jaundice,
ee Kunwar Aloes
Pennel Acne
Butea monosperma The complexion of Skin, Worm
Palasha Bastard Teak
Kuntze Pennel Infestations, Roundworm
Albizia lebbeck (Linn)
Shirish Siris Tree Bronchial Asthma,
Benth Pennel