mrmullate the relevant definitions of the terms and Know and understand the terms used in this chapter relate examples of typical practical applications of conductors, semiconductors uy iG! and insulators yy explain why electrical resistance (R) is not a materials property, whilst resistivity { and conductivity are considered as materials properties ‘explain and indicate the similarity between the microscopic and microscopic form of by! Ohm's law cealeulate the resistivity and conductivity of a material at a specific temperature if its temperature resistivity coefficient is given prediet the effect of impurities and alloying elements on the resis by! conductivity of a conductor, by applying graphs with data explain why the resistivity of a conductor like eopper is increased by: (1) an increase in the temperature, (2) the addition of alloying elements and (3) cold working, of the material apply the energy-band model to explain why some elements are good conductors and why others are poor conductors of electricity - give examples of the use of dielectric materials = explain the mechanism by which electrical conduction occurs in intrinsic semiconductors like silicon and germanium - derive an expression for the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor - calculate the resistivity and the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors. u - explain why the conductivity of semiconductors is increased by an increase of the temperature, whilst the conductivity of good conductors is decreased by an increase of the temperature - explain by using a typical example of each, the difference in the mechanism of electrical conduction between n-type extrinsic semiconductors and p-type extrinsic semiconductors. ~ derive expressions for the conductivity of n-type and p-type extrinsi semiconductors. explain the mechanism by which an piezo-electric erystal works calculate the resistivity and the conductivity of extrinsic semiconductors - solve the problems on clickUP Qhe related to the Most of the electrical properties of materials ar conductivity, which is a materials property. on the conductivity of metals and internal structure: atomic bonding, The effect of internal structure daries, etc.) semiconductors will be studied. ( crystal type, alloying elements, grain boun' he various components of elect e controlled precisely. rical The conductivity properties of t and electronic devices have to b 10.1 Electrical Conduction in Metals. (Callister p 681-683; 721-722 ) In the metallic bond the valence electrons are loosely shared by many atoms in the crystal structure. So, free movement of electrons is possible and metals have good electrical conductivity. Positive fon cores Kose ©-0-@-9 @-®-@-® 6-0-0-@ 2.91050 oan yesemaeasi Valence elec ‘of eloctron charge clouds @ @ Smith, W.F. 1996 Fig. 5.2 In the absence of an electric potential, the motion of the valence electrons is at random and there is no net current or current flow. When an electric potential is applied, the electrons attain a directed drift velocity, which results in directed flow of electrons (or current). 9-2and Conductivity VeIR 's electric current (amperes, A) (1A = 1 Coulomb/s) potential difference (volts, V) resistance of the wire (ohms, © ) I Vv R The resistance R is not dependent on the type of material only, but also on the shape of the wire (length (I) and cross-sectional ai (A). R= pl/A p = electrical resistivity (©.m) The electrical resistivity is a true materials property and is dependent on the type of material (internal structure) and on temperature. The electrical conductivity (c) is also a true materials property and is defined as the reciprocal of the electrical resistivity o =1/p (Q.my" According to the magnitude of their conductivities, materials are divided into three groups: # conductors (high conductivity) # semiconductors (medium conductivity) # insulators (poor conductors) Table with conductivities of some materials: (Taken from Callister Table 18.1) Metal 1 (my Non-metal | (Qmy'_| [——Siver | 68x10" | Graphite cai | Copper 6.0 x 10° Porcelein | \ Gold | 43x10" | K \ Aluminium 3.8x 10" Polystyrene | \ Polyethylene | \ Nylon VIR. is termed the macroscopic form of Ohm's The expression I= re also dependent on the shape of the,., law, since I and R alelectrical conductor. Ohm's law can also be expres Independent of the shape of the conductor ed in its microscopic form, which Is 7 1 7 1 J = Ep or J= Eo 7 J = current density [A /m?] E = electrical field [V/m] 7 P = electrical resistivity [.m] 9 = electrical conductivity [0.m]* This expression is more convenient when the effect of changes in the internal structure of materials (e.g. alloying elements, impurities and grain boundaries) on the electrical properties is studied * Factors affecting the resistivity and the conductivity of materials. (Callister p 688-691 ; 728-730) Only the resistivity is considered here. The effect on conductivity can be deduced from the resistivity («= 1/p ) LOPE Phy Pure defect free metals at low temperatures have resistivities. For other conditions, the total resisitivity of a is made up of a thermal (px), impurity (p)) and de resistivity component. : a pra = P+ pi * Ba = prt py Thus Pr = pt pa pr = p: = thermal component of re pr = residual component of | (1) Temperature p; increases almost linearly with temperature. At higher temperatures the metal ions at the lattice positions vibrate more vigorously, by which the conduction (valence) electrons are increasingly scattered. TT od leh LyOf electrons are decreased and resistivity is increases Fig. 19.8 ) " Resistivity at 0 °C and temperature resistivity coefficient for some nek METAL RESISTIVITY AT 0°C, TEMP. RESISITIVITY _(.nm) x ium 1.0 0.0045 0.0039 Magnesium 0.004 Nickel | 0.006 Silver | 0.0038 Tungsten 0.0045 Zinc ____0.0037 (Ref. Van Vlack. LH. 1980. Elements of Matl. Sc & Eng. Addison-Wesley London. p 154) The electrical resistivity of most metals can be approximated by the following equation: Pr = Poc(1 + aT) [Qm] pore = electrical resistivity at 0°C ay = temperature coefficient of resistivity (ar is a function of the type of metal) T = temperature of conductor (°C) Class example: a) Calculate the resistivity p for pure Al at 90 ° b) What is the conductivity o of pure Al at 90 °C (2) Alloying Elements When alloying elements are added to pure metals, solid solutions are formed, whereby the crystal lattice of the parent metal is deformed. This has the effect to cause additional scattering of the conduction electrons, with an increase of the resistivity. (See: Callister Fig. 19.8 & 19.9 )(3) Crystal Defects like dislocations and grain boundaries als; “ditional scattering of the conducting electrons. Th After ty can be completely restored to its oF ‘ecrystailisation heat treatment. Summary: Movement of electron through a) perfect crystal, b) crystal st fight temperature c) crystal with lattice defects. 10.2 The Energy-band Model for Electrical Conduction (Callister p 683-688 ;722-727) The energy-band model explains the ability of a material to conduct electrons. ¢ The energy-band model for metals: According to the Pauli principle all electrons have different energies Accordingly, electrons are arranged into energy states, in accordance with the electron configuration of the element. ip 7d oF The fig. shows the sequence how orbitals are filled by electrons. 38) Atomic Number: 11 ‘configuration = 18° 2s” 2p° 3s’ e h the lower levels are tightly bound to the core of the latom. The ds’ electron is loosely bound and is free to be involved ” bonding iW The Ss’ electrons in a block of sodium will therefore interact and nterpenetrate each other to form a 3s energy band, with each electron ata slightly different energy level (Pauli) ¥ these 3s electrons are exited to above the Fermi-energy level, electrons will be conducted. As a result very little energy is required to excite electrons from the half filled 3s band to the conduction band. Sodium is therefore a good conductor. ee cde Na: 3S' Mg: 3S? Al: 3873p! + Energy bands: Callister Fig. 18.5 ; Smith. W,F. 1996 Fig. 5.13(a) This same argument can be followed for all good conductors likes.7fr! i) i) Cd —é i Cu, Ag, 1, Au and Al ¢ The energy-band model for insulators their bonding all the electrons are tightly bound to t free to They are therefore nol covalent or ionic bonding electricity, unless highly energised. valence electron’s energy band is therefore separated from the °F (empty) conduction band by a large energy gap (E9) Empty conduction band Energy gap (Es) Full valence band Callister Fig. 18.4 & 18.6 To free an electron for conduction, the electrons must therefore: energised to "jump" the gap, for which a large amount of required. Therefore, materials like diamond and alumina (A act as electrical insulators 10.3 Intrinsic Semiconductors (Callister p 693-695 ; 733-735) Intrinsic_semiconductors are pure: semic silicon and germanium. a Extrinsic semiconductors are very semiconducting properties, like phosp Silicon and germanium are both covalent material bonding is effected by four highly directed sp° hybrid covale bonds, to form a diamond cubic crystal structure. The four valence electrons from each atom are therefore tightly attached to the bonding atoms. The crystal structure is as for carbon — See Callister Fig. 4.17 Electric conduction in these materials is extremely difficult ando-s{Secure because some of the valence electrons are exited from tne bonding positions by thermal activation. The electrons jump from the valance band across the energy gap E, to conduction band (See: Callister Fig. 19.6) When a valence electron is exited by an electric field bonding position as shown below, a positively charged "hol behind and the electron becomes a free conducting electron Conduction will occur under the applied electric field due to the movements of the positive "holes" to the negative pole and the negative electrons to positive hole & 4 5 5 5! iz es al =i u | from its Je" is left Callister Fig. 19.11 relationships for conduction @ Quantitative Callister p 694-695 ; 734) semiconductors. ( in intrinsic t 1 There are two charge carriers contributing to electrical conduction in intrinsic semiconductors i.e. free electrons and positive holes. u) Current density (J) is equal to the sum of the conduction due to both 1 Slectrons and holes. The conduction could be expressed as fl = NGttn + PAL e ] with n = number of conduction electrons / m 1 p number of conduction holes / m e q = absolute value of electron or hole charge = 1 (q = 1,6x 10°" coulombs) ES = mobility of electrons [m?V.s] a 1 bin = mobility of holes [m’/V.s]Im’ Thu 1 : 1 (in + Hp) (am) th Electrical properties of Si and Ge at 300 K 7 Property Si Ge pap (eV) 114 0.67 . uctivity (Q.m) + 4x10 22 lectron mobility (m’/Vs) 0.14 0.38 le mobility (m*/Vs) 0.05 0.18 Intrinsic carrier density nj (carrier/m 45xto® | 24x10° | trinsic resistivity (Q.m) | _ 2300 0.46 Data taken from Smith (1996) Table 5.4 and Callister Table 18.3) (See: Callister Ex. Problem 19.1) ¢ Effect of temperature on intrinsic semiconductivity At zero Kelvin the valence bands of intrinsic semi-conductors s as Si and Ge are completely filled and their conduction bands 2 completely empty. is At temperatures above absolute zero, some electrons are thermally activated and exited across tk into the conduction band, creating conduc contrast to metals, the conductivity of semiconducto increase in temperature. o=0,e° with co = temp. independent constant k= Boltzman constant = 8.620x10” (eV/K) E, = Energy gap (eV) (See: Callister Fig. 19.16) (See: Callister Ex. Problem 19.2)Ext! ‘semiconductors are very dilute substitutional solid p jlutions in which the solute impurity atoms (dopants) have different valence characteristics from the solvent (parent) lattice atoms Two types are distinguished n-Type (negative-type) extrinsic semiconductors p-Type (positive-type) extrinsic semiconductors From the Periodic Table: Group 3A Group 4A Group 5A (dopant) (parent lattice) (dopant) (valence = 3+) (valence = 4+) (valence = 5+) B Si Pp Al Ge As Ga oi Sb ; In n= ype Ss P-type ¢ The n-Type extrinsic semiconductor is, replaces a silicon atom, ss valence If an atom from group 5A e.g. phosphorou which is a Group 4A element, there will be one exce! electron above the four needed for the covalent bonding in the silicon lattice. This extra electron is only loosely bonded and requires only 0,044 eV to be able to jump the energy gap. This is opposed to the 4A eV (Eg) which is required for the other valence electrons In the silicon crystal. See: Callister Fig. 19.12 Therefore, due to their valence of 5+, impurities from Group 5A like P, As and Sb provide easily excitable electrons for conduction, when added to Si or Ge. Due to that they provide conducting electrons, they are termed donor impurity atoms. s indicated by the They effectively narrow the energy gap Eg, a 9-11 donor level.Callister Fig. 18.13 The majority charge carriers are therefore electrons (n-type) , with holes the minority charge carriers. 6 =NGHn ¢ The p-type extrinsic semiconductor If an atom from Group 3A e.g. boron (valence 3+) replaces 2 sili atom (valence 4+), there will be one missing valence elect Therefore a positive hole is created at one of the foul bonds surrounding this boron atom in the silicon lattice. If an external electric field is applied to the silicon er valence electrons from a neighbouring silicon atom move to the hole, and thereby the hole is tra position. Hereby conduction will occur, due to the 1 direction of the negative terminal of the apy See: Callister Fig. 19.14 cit The energy associated with the movement of the hole int B in Si is 0,045 eV. This is small in relation to the 1,1 eV for the conduction of electrons in Si. lence of 3+, impurities from Group 3A like ily excitable holes for conduction, when Therefore due to their val B, Al or Ga provide easil added to Si and Ge. ci In terms of the energy-band diagram, these elements provide an 2eptor level, at which conduction can occur holes. Callister Fig. 19.15 These elements are called acceptor impurity atoms. The majority charge carriers ( p-type) are therefore holes o = Pdip ¢ Doping of extrinsic semiconductor materials Doping is the process of introducing small amounts of impurity elements like P and B (dopants) into selected areas into the surface of a silicon wafer, to form small regions of n-type or p-type material. This is effected by a special diffusion process, usually at around 1100°C. ¢ The influence of doping on carrier concentration in extrinsic semiconductors (Paragraph adequately summarized below) At constant temperature, the product of the negative free electron concentration (n) and the positive hole concentration (p) is a constant. Meo or essa aS (1) n; = _ intrinsic concentration of (charge) carriers at a certain temperature. This relationship ,(1) is valid for both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. 9-13 ta ae ee pe_ie_. — eeExample: at 300 K (27°C - "room" temperature) for Si n 1,5 x 10° [carriers./ m*] ‘or Ge: ni 2.4 x 10'° [carriers./ m°] The material must be electrically neutral. Charge carriers in extrinsic semiconductors are donor ions (Ng), acceptor ions (Na), Tree electrons (n) and holes (p). In general then, sum of negative carriers = sum of positive carriers, or Nate m Nye pit eee eine 2) # For n-type extrinsic semiconductors: 2. SSS Ne ee (3) NnPp = Ni Where n, = concentration (-) electrons in n-type semiconductor Pn = concentration (+) holes in n-type semiconductor 0 and nn >> pn. Thus electrons carry most of (called majority carrier) and holes only a small nun minority carrier) 3 Thus, from (2) for majority earriers my = Na -- aa Ng = concentration of dopant atoms, like F n? Ps = Gael Conductivity (n-type): o Because Mn>>Pn 9-14F 2 ee C---------- (8) en,= concentration (-) electrons in p-type semiconductor Pp = concentration (+) holes in p-type semiconductor Nz =0 and pp >> np . Thus holes carry most of the charge (called majority carrier) and electrons only a small number (called minority carrier) Thus, from equation (2) for majority carriers: Pp = Na =-------=------- (9) (Nz = concentration of dopant atoms, like B, Al and Ga.) From (8) and (9): nh ni np = MN, Tea ie (10) Conductivity: (p-type) 6 =Mpq Ha + Ppd Up eaerePp dj = Seo (11) Because [ae Resistivity, "| Mamma per Bisa e ee (12) Problems: 1) See: Callister Ex. Prob. 19.3; A silicon wafer is doped with 107° phosphorous atoms/m*. Calculate: (a) the majority carrier concentration. (b) the minority carrier concentration. (c) the electrical resistivity of the doped silicon at 300 K. Data forsilicon: n = 1,5% 10" [carriers /m*] bp = 0,188 [m?/ Vs] lp = 0,048 [m?/Vs] 9.5enn 41 be 1 10.5 Dielectric (insulation) Behaviour alent materials and and polymers cov Lo ] Ceramics are ionic materi é are therefore electrical insulators (dielectrics). Some ceramics are L 1 however also used as semiconductors. Many ceramic or polymer materials are used for electrical and LL 1 electronic applications, such as: L } 1) High and low voltage electrical insulators, Examples of ceramic materials used as electrical insulators: L. ] # electrical porcelain # alumina (AlzOs) L, ] # steatite Examples of polymer materials used as electrical insulators: 1 # phenol formaldehyde (bakelite) L,. #nylon L t # polyethylene 2) Inserts for capacitors. (A capacitor is an electrical can store electric charge.) , ] Examples of ceramic materials used in capacitors 7 # barium titanate (BaTiOs) ] # BaTiO, mixed with other ceramics r Table: Formulations for some Cer amic Dielectric Mater ] Dielectric const. « Formulation 325 BaTiO; + CaTiOg + low % BizSn3Oo BaTiO, + low % CaZrO3and NbOs 2100 6500 | BaTiO; + low % CaZrO, and BaZrO. (Data from Smith, W.F. 1996 Table 10.8) 9-1610.6 Piezoelectric ceramics. (Callister p 723 ; p 767) It is eramics which can convert electrical pulses into mi vibrations and vice versa Examples of piezoelectric ceramics # — barium titanate (BaTiO.) # — mixtures of lead zirconate (PbZrO) and lead titanate(PbTiOs) [ Summary and Def: Callister p 713-714 Problems: On clickUP