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Printed in the United States of America Vol. 16, 1–19, 2022

Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic

Substances Concentration with the Microbial
Contamination of Wetland Water, Sediment and Fishes,
and Their Potential Health Hazards
H. Uguru1 ∗ , O. I. Akpokodje2 , G. G. Agbi3 , A. E. Essaghah4 , Rokayya Sami5 ∗ , Amani H. Aljahani6 ,
Areej Suliman Al-Meshal7 ∗ , Rasha A. Al-Eisa8 , Waad Althobaiti9 , Areej Alotaibi9 ,
Doaa Mahmoud Johari9 , and Mahmoud Helal10 11
1
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Delta State University of Science and Technology, Ozoro, 334111, Nigeria
2
Department of Civil and Water Resources Engineering, Delta State University of Science and Technology, Ozoro, 334111, Nigeria
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Delta State University, Oleh, 334111, Nigeria
4
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Delta State University of Science and Technology, Ozoro, 334111, Nigeria
5
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif, 21944, Saudi Arabia
6
Department of Physical Sport Science, College of Education, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428,
Riyadh, 11671, Saudi Arabia
7
Department of Biology, College of Science and Humanities in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University,
Al-Kharj, 11942, Saudi Arabia
8
Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif, 21944, Saudi Arabia
9
Department of Pharmacy, King Faisal Medical Complex, Taif City, 26514, Saudi Arabia
10

RESEARCH ARTICLE
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif, 21944, Saudi Arabia
11
Production Engineering and Mechanical Design Department, Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University, P.O. Box 35516,
Mansoura, Egypt

This study evaluated the impact of anthropogenic factors on the accumulation of toxic materials
in wetland. The wetland was micro-zoned into five sub-regions, namely; NDE, ISN, ISS, UGS and
BUR, and sediment, water and fishes (catfish and tilapia) were sampled from each locality. Heavy
metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Fe, Pb and Zn) and total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) of the samples
were determined. The pollution indices (Bioaccumulation quotient “BQ”, contamination factor “CF”,
geoaccumulation index “Igeo”, enrichment factor “EF” and Pollution load index “PLI”) and potential
health risks (Metal Pollution Index “MPL”, Estimated Daily Intake “EDI”, Total Health hazard quotient
“THQ” and Hazard index “HI”) of the water, sediment and fish flesh were calculated appropriately.
The results revealed that the wetland fishes contained viable bacteria which ranged between 1362.0
cfu/g and 2634.3 cfu/g. Heavy metal level ranking in the sediment and water was Fe > Zn > Cu >
Pb > Ni > Cr > Cd. Spatially, the heavy metals concentration in the water, sediment and fish followed
the order: BUR > UGS > ISN > ISS > NDE. The TPH concentration in water, sediment and fishes
differed significantly across the five sub-regions (p ≤ 0.05), and its value range from 3.44 mg/kg to
99.38 mg · kg for the catfish, 2.08 mg/kg to 83.73 mg/kg for the tilapia, 25.34 mg/kg to 718.87 mg/kg
for the sediment, 0.016 mg/kg to 1.099 mg/kg for the water. Spatial ranking of the TPH levels in the
fish flesh was BUR > UGS > ISN > NDE > ISS; sediment TPH level ranked BUR > UGS > NDE >
ISN > ISS; and the water TPH level ranked BUR > UGS > ISN > ISS > NDE. Human health risks
associated with the consumption of the wetland fish ranked thus BUR > UGS > ISN > NDE > ISS.

∗
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Emails: erobo2011@gmail.com, rokayya.d@tu.edu.sa

J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 2022, Vol. 16, No. xx 1556-6560/2022/16/001/019 doi:10.1166/jbmb.2022.2240 1

 Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration
It was evident from the results that anthropogenic actions resulting poor regional planning had
significant effect environmental health. The results called for environmental protection for public
interest duals to prevent disease epidemics.
Keywords: Anthropogenic Factors, Health Risks, Heavy Metals, Public Heath, Regional
Planning.
1. INTRODUCTION
Environmental and public health awareness have become
major responsibility of governments and individuals, to
prevent the occurrence of epidemic diseases and mini-
mize damages done by natural disasters [1]. The global
environment and public health is being threatened by the
discharge of toxic materials into the environment. Preva-
lence of communicable diseases is complicated by leach-
ing of contaminated effluents into the environment, and the
wetlands and waterways are receiving large percentages
of these effluents. Collaboration between the environment
and human beings has been comprehensively investigated
[2]; and it was noted that unhealthy environments have
considerably negative impact on human health and other
inhabitants of the ecosystems [3]. The magnitude of dam-
age done by natural disasters to the environment/human
beings is influenced by regional planning, and other human
induced factors. Poor city layout planning is leading to
silting and contamination of the rivers, streams, lakes and
other natural water bodies. Soil infiltration rate, water
RESEARCH ARTICLE
holding capacity and others related soil geotechnical prop-
erties are severely altered by the presence of petroleum
hydrocarbons and heavy metals. This increases the suscep-
tibility of such (contaminated) soils to erosion and poor
vegetative cover [4].
Effective urban planning is one of the major solutions
to the environmental pollution problem. Urban planning
helps to design environments with effective waste man-
agement and land use regimes (including water channels),
to prevent environmental pollution. Implementation of the
existing urban planning policies is difficult mostly at the
local level, due to several technical, technological and
social problems [5]. Toxic effluents discharge (from solid
wastes) has a lot of negative implications on the ground-
water quality. Illegal dumpsites and structures are highly
unsustainable, as they cause flooding, toxic effluents dis-
charged into the wetlands and emission of carcinogen sub-
stances into the air [6]. Increase in anthropogenic activities
is leading to the continuous pollution; thus, considerably
increasing the heavy metal and physiochemical parameters
of roadsides vegetation, soils and water of ecosystems [7].
Oil theft and illegal artisans’ refineries have become a
great concern to the Niger Delta wetlands, as they have
immensely contributed to the pollution observed in the
region. Wetlands have a lot of agricultural and aquacul-
ture potentials, supporting the production of about 40%
of the fishes and amphibians consumed globally. Niger
2 J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022
Uguru et al.
Delta wetland is about 2,400 km2 and it is one the largest
and richest wetlands in the world [8]. Niger Delta wet-
land is one of the most prominent world wetlands [9],
and it is characterized by high groundwater table, sea-
sonal or permanent flooding, alluvial soil type, thick veg-
etation and good breeding ground for fishes. One of the
major problems of this wetland is poor regional plan-
ning. Rapid population growth, industrialization and poor
regional planning, have exposed the wetland to several
pollution agents, such as: leaching from dumpsites, abat-
toir wastes and agro-chemicals; spills from oil produc-
tion; illegal structures; oil thefts and illegal crude oil
refineries; toxic deposits from sand mining and artisans
activities [10]. Prefect regional planning facilitates clean
environment, creates repository for wastes management
and prevents accumulation of toxic substances in the
environment [11].
The hydrocarbons from crude oil hinder soil and water
aeration processes, temperature control, and antagonizes
the nutrients availability. Petroleum hydrocarbon bioavail-
ability in the environment is a factor of molecular mass;
thus its solubility is inversely proportional to its mass
[12]. Sediments are natural reservoirs, and are also rich
in nutrient required for plant and fish growth; but when it
is polluted, they create unfavorable conditions for aquatic
organisms. Excessive sediment deposition in rivers/streams
tends to modify the watercourse, and alters the aeration
and nutrient availability [13]. Accumulation of contami-
nants in fishes, plants and animals has been identified as
one of the appropriate methods of determining their (con-
taminants) abundance and availability in the environment.
Prevalence of pathogenic agents in water, plants and soils,
above the safe allowable limits are considered hazardous
to human beings, under the World health Organization
(WHO) directives. High concentrations of physiochemical
properties, heavy metals and microorganisms are harmful
to plants and animals; hence endangering the health of the
environment and its inhabitants [6].
The awareness of the high cholesterol levels generally in
animal flesh compared to fish flesh, has made fish a major
source of animal protein. Fish constitute approximately
80% of animal protein consumed globally [14]. Fish flesh
has occupied a prominent place in the human diet, due to
its remarkable antioxidant and phenolic compounds con-
tent [15]. Most heavy metals and pathogenic microor-
ganisms pose serious health hazards to human beings,
even at low concentration [7]. Fishes have occurrence
Uguru et al. Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration
of Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus and Clostridium per-
fringens [59, 60]; hence, consumption of contaminated
fish and vegetables, has become a major problem glob-
ally that requires need urgent attention. Abortion, can-
cer, memory retardation, respiratory system disorder and
malaria are some of the consequences (illness) associ-
ated with contaminated effluents discharge from anthro-
pogenic activities, to the environment [16]. Recently, there
are investigations on the impact of petroleum hydrocarbons
wetlands [17–19], but there are limited related literatures
on large scale investigations on the impact of anthro-
pogenic actions on the coastal areas. Therefore, this work
aims at spatially quantifying the hydrocarbons, microbial
and heavy metal levels in the water, sediment and fishes
in the region. Also the study will provide insights into the
Niger Delta wetland’s pollution status (using different pol-
lution indices), and estimate the health hazards associated
with the consumption of the region’s fishes.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Study Area
The study was done within the confines of Delta State,
Nigeria. Delta state wetland was selected for this research
because of its vast area (about 8,000 km2 ) and natural
habitat for several fish and plant species, with numerous
human activities. Delta state experiences two major cli-
matic seasons, which are the wet/rainy season and the
dry season. The rainy season occurs between March and
September, with cumulative rainfall of about 1,800 mm
and average temperature of 28  C; and the dry season
occurs between September and March, with cumulative
rainfall less than 700 mm and mean temperature of approx-
imately 32  C [67].
To study the pollution level and localization of the
pollutants in aquatic life, the region was zoned into
five micro-regions (sub-regions or axes), which were:
Burutu axis coded as “BUR”; Ughelli south axis coded
as “UGS”; Isoko south axis tagged as “ISS”; Isoko north
axis tagged as “ISN”; and Ndokwa East axis coded as
“NDE”. Approximately 60%, 50%, 30%, 35% and 35%
of the BUR, NDE, ISN, ISS and UGS respectively, are
occupied by the wetland. During the rainy season, both
the NDE and ISS receive most of their water from River
Ase, a tributary of River Niger; the ISN receive most of its
water from the NDE and ISS sections of the wetland. The
UGS and BUR receive their water from Forcados River
(River Niger tributary). Most of streams and rivers from
the upland empty their waters into River Forcados, usu-
ally carries municipal, industrial and sewage wastes pollu-
tion from upstream. Forcados and Ase Rivers are important
sources of transportation and other commercial activities
for several communities in the region. NDE, ISS and ISN
are also characterized by crop production, sand dredging
activities, poor regional planning and indiscriminate refuse
dumpsites [22].
J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022
Existence/proximity to oil production facilities is
common to the five axes, and all the axes have similar
geographic features. ISN, UGS and BUR have numer-
ous clusters of old “destroyed” illegal crude oil refiner-
ies. During their operation, all the wastes produced by
these artisan’s oil refineries were discarded untreated into
the adjoining swamps, which had negative impacts on the
co-existing vegetation. NDE and BUR have active mar-
itime activities, which convey goods and services including
petroleum products across the tributaries of River Niger.
The rivers, streams and other water channels under the
jurisdiction of the study area have become silted. The sit-
uation is facilitated by poor siting of dumpsites, encroach-
ment of residential buildings and other infrastructures, and
non-clearing of the existing water channels; which deceler-
ates the water current, and hinders sediment transportation.
Sediments found throughout the region are mostly organic,
which result from the decomposition of stagnant organic
materials.
2.2. Sampling Size
Three sampling points were randomly selected from each
micro-region. Twelve (12) samples (3 water, 3 sediments
and 6 fishes) were collected per micro-region (axis). A
total of 60 samples were collected per period, and a gross
total of 120 samples were collected for this research during
the 2 sampling periods.
2.3. Materials Sampling
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Two frequently consumed and predominant fresh water
fish species (Catfish “Clarias gariepinus” and Tilapia
“Oreochromis arueus”) were selected for this study.
Tilapia is a pelagic omnivorous fish; while catfish is a
benthic carnivorous fish. Both fishes were harvested using
fishing baskets. Uniformity in body size and weight were
given attention during sampling. The catfish length ranged
between of 0.39 m and 0.45 m, and their weight varied
between 1.2 kg and 1.4 kg; while the tilapia length ranged
from of 0.15 m to 0.20 m with weight ranging from of
0.53 kg to 0.59 kg.
The sediment was collected at a depth of about 0.30 m
below the water bed, through the grabbing technique. Each
sample was placed in an individual sterile bag, and placed
in an ice-cooled container. The water samples were col-
lected directly with a sterilized plastic bottle, at a depth of
0.3 m below the water surface. All the collected samples
(fish, water and sediment) were transported immediately
to the laboratory. Sampling was done two times-the wet
season (May 2021–August, 2021) and the dry season (Jan-
uary 2022–March, 2022). Sanitary situation of the sam-
pling points was observed, to identify possible source(s)
of contamination that will alter the samples qualities.
Another wetland (in Agbor, Delta North) which was
located about 200 km from the collection points, with no
recorded history of oil pollution and other massive anthro-
pogenic activities was taken as the control point.
3
 Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration Uguru et al.

2.4. Heavy Metals and TPH Analysis
2.4.1. Digestion
The oven-dried fish and air-dried sediment samples were
pulverized, and sieved using a number-16 sieve. 10 g
of the pulverized dried fish and sediment samples were
digested, using these acids combination (HNO3 , HCl, and
H2 SO4 ∼ratio of 10:4:1), at a temperature of 90  C, until
a clear solution was obtained. Distilled water was added
to each digested sample inside a measuring cylinder to
the 100 mL point, and filtered with filter paper as recom-
mended by AOAC [20]. The wetland water was initially
filtered with 0.45 m Whatman filter paper. 100 mL of the
filtrate was acidified with few drops of HNO3 , evaporated
to 15 mL, and diluted with 85 mL of distilled water, in
accordance with AOAC recommended procedures [20].
2.4.2. Heavy Metals (HMs) Measurement
Filtrate obtained through the digestion was used for the
heavy metals (zinc “Zn”, cadmium “Cd”, chromium “Cr”,
copper “Cu”, iron “Fe”, lead “Pb”, and nickel “Ni”)
determination, using the Atomic Absorption Spectropho-
tometry (AAS). The AAS was adjusted to the specific
wavelength of each corresponding metal, in accordance
with the AOAC procedures [20].
2.4.3. Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH)
Determination
Extracts were prepared from the samples through sol-
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Where: Cx = Concentration of the pollutant in the sed-
iment or water samples, and Cn = Concentration of the
heavy metal at the control.
2.5.2. Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo )
The Igeo was used to further affirm the correlation between
heavy metal pollution in the environment and anthro-
pogenic activities. It was calculated using the formula in
Eq. (2).  
Cn
Igeo = log2 (2)
15Bn
Where: Cn = Pollutant’s concentration in the sampled
material, and Bn = Background value.
2.5.3. Enrichment Factor (EF)
The enrichment factor was calculated through the expres-
sion in Eq. (3).
Cx /Cfe Sample
Enrichment factor = (3)
Cx /Cfe Control
Where: Cx = heavy metal concentration at the sampled
point, Cfe = Concentration of the reference element. Fe
was adopted as the natural background element [19].
2.5.4. Pollution Load Index (PLI)
PLI evaluates the comprehensive pollution level of pollu-
tant in the environment; and it is calculated through the

expression given in Eq. (4) [21].

vent (dichloromethane and n-hexane) extraction technique,
using the Soxhlet apparatus. The extract was dried with 
PLI = n CF1 × CF2 × CF3 × CF4 ×    × CFn (4)
anhydrous sodium sulfate, concentrated and purified using
pure nitrogen gas and silica/alumina column respectively Where: CF = contamination factor of each metal, n =
[19]. Then the TPH value of the separated and cleaned total number of metals.
extract was determined in accordance with the APHA
procedures. 2.5.5. Bioaccumulation Quotient (BQ)
This is the concentration of the heavy metal in the fish
2.4.4. Determination of the Microbial Load of the Fish tissue, and it is calculated through the expression given in
Samples Eq. (5).
Five grams of the sample was putted into a coded mea- X
BQ = 1 (5)
suring cylinder and filled with distilled water up to the X2
10 mL mark, and shake vigorously. The solution was cul- Where: X1 = heavy metal content inside the fish tissue,
ture using the pour plate method, using the American Soci- X2 = heavy metal content in the fish immediate surround-
ety for Microbiology techniques. The total viable bacteria ing water/sediment.
count was done through the multiplication of the colonies
mean (average) per plate by the dilution reciprocal, and it 2.6. Risk Assessment of the Fish
was expressed as colony forming units per gram (cfu/g) 2.6.1. Heavy Metal Pollution Index (MPI)
[61, 62]. This index quantifies the general HMs concentration level
in a fish body, and it is calculated using the formula shown
2.5. Pollution Indices Evaluation in Eq. (6) [21].
2.5.1. Contamination Factor (CF) 
The CF was calculated using the expression presented in MPI = n C1 × C2 ×    × Cn (6)
Eq. (1).
c Where: C1 to Cn are the concentration of each individual
CF = x (1)
cn metal in the fish tissue.

4 J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022

Uguru et al. Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration

2.6.2. Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) of the Fish Table I. Essential parameters of the metals investigated.
The EDI of each fish sample was calculated using the Maximum Maximum Maximum
expression in Eq. (7). allowable allowable allowable
limit limit limit
C × IRfish
EDI = fish (7) in water in sediments in fish RfD
BW Metal (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg/d)
Where: Cfish = heavy metal load in the fish muscle
Fe 0.3bc NA 124f 0.70b
(mg/kg), IRfish = Human daily fish intake (g/person/day), Cr 0.1b , 0.05c 1a 12b 0.003b
and BW = Average human body weight (kg). Cu 1.3b , 2.0c 30abc 30ag 0.04b
Nigeria Annual per capita fish consumption = 13.3 kg Zn 0.5b , 0.3c 30c , 100a 30f 0.30b
per person per year [14]. Pb 0.1b , 0.01c 2a , 85d 2.08 0.004b
Therefore: IRfish = 00365 mg/person/day; BW = Ni 0.1c 55a , 0.5c 80g 0.02b
Cd 0.005b , 0.003c 1.67c , 0.8d 0.05f 0.001b
adult—above 18 years (70 kg), teenager—6 to 18 years
(35 kg), infant—0 to 5 years (15 kg). Notes: a: FAO [25], b: USEPA [26]; c: WHO [27]. d: DPR [28], f: WHO [29], g:
FAO/WHO [20].

2.6.3. Health Hazard Quotient (HQ)

The HQ of the fish was calculated using the formula shown 3. RESULTS
in Eq. (8). 3.1. Heavy Metal (HM) Concentration and Their
EDI Spatial Distribution
HQ = × 10−3 (8)
RfD 3.1.1. Sediment
RfD = Reference dose. The sediment’s heavy metals concentration is presented in
Table II. It was observed that the sediment’s HMs concen-
2.6.4. Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) tration was insignificantly (p ≤ 0.05) affected by the two
THQ was calculated using the expression in Eq. (9). When climate seasons, though the wet season’s HMs values were
THQ value is greater than 1 (THQ > 1) there are con- lower than the concentration recorded during the dry sea-
cerns for cancerous effect; but if THQ value is less than 1 son. Likewise, spatial location had significant (p ≤ 0.05)
(THQ < 1), there are no concerns for cancer effects [23]. effect on the Cd, Cu, Fe, Zn, Cr and Ni concentration
FE × ED × IRd × Cfish of the region’s sediment. The sediment Cd concentration
THQ = (9) ranged from 0.001 mg/kg to 2.96 mg/kg, and its level
BW × AT × Rf D

Where: Ed = Exposure duration (30 years for non-
carcinogenic risk), FE = Exposure frequency (365 days per
year), IRd = Ingestion Rate (59.6 g/day), AT = Average
exposure time (Ed × FE).
2.6.5. Hazard Index (HI)
The hazard index (also called total target hazard quotient)
is the summation of the THQ value of each metal evaluated
within the study area, and it is represented in Eq. (10).
HI is used to evaluate the non-carcinogenic effect of the
metals present in the sample [24].
 ISN was not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) noticeable. Spatially,
HI = THQ (10)
The essential parameters of the heavy metals investi-
gated, which are necessary for the calculation of the pol-
lution indices are given in Table I.
2.7. Statistical Analysis
Results obtained will be subjected to Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA), to determine if anthropogenic factors have sig-
nificant effect of the wetland sediments, fish and water
qualities. The means of the results will be separated by
using the Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5%
significance level. Microsoft Excel for Windows was used
to plot the figures. Each test was run in triplicate for each
collected sample.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
across NDE, ISS, ISN and UGS sediment does not dif-
fer significantly (p ≤ 0.05). Spatially, the mean Cd content
in the sediment exhibited the following decreasing trend:
BUR > UGS > ISN > NDE > ISS. The Pb content in the
sediment ranged from 1.79 mg/kg to 5.83 mg/kg; and its
concentration in the NDE, ISN and UGS sediment does
not exhibit any significant (p ≤ 0.05) difference. Addition-
ally, it was spatially observed that the average wetland
sediment Pb concentration followed this declining trend:
BUR > UGS > ISN > NDE > ISS. Average Fe concentra-
tion in the region’s sediment ranged from 1520 mg/kg to
2450 mg/kg; and its concentration across NDE, ISS and
the sediment Fe level followed this decreasing pattern:
BUR > UGS > NDE > ISS > ISN.
Mean Zn concentration varied from 16.70 mg/kg to
46.56 mg/kg in the sediment, and its level across UGS and
BUR, and ISS and NDE does not differ significantly (p ≤
0.05). Spatially, the Zn content in the sediment showed
this decreasing pattern BUR > UGS > ISN > ISS > NDE.
Table II revealed that the Ni concentration in the sediment
varied from 0.043 mg/kg to 0.621 mg/kg; and its concen-
tration across NDE, ISS, ISN and UGS sub-regions does
not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ. Regarding the spatial
distribution of Ni within the wetland sediment, it trailed in
this decreasing pattern: BUR > UGS > ISN > NDE > ISS.
Copper level in the sediment varied between 4.02 mg/kg

J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022 5

 Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration Uguru et al.

Table II. Wetland sediment’s heavy metals concentration (mg/kg).

Location
Metal Season NDE ISN ISS UGS BUR Control

Cd Wet 0.001 ± 0.001

a
0.003 ± 0.02
a
0.002 ± 0.002
a
1.31 ± 1.2
a
2.96 ± 2.5
b

Dry 0.006a ± 0.004 0.012a ± 0.002 0.002a ± 0.003 1.09a ± 1.9 2.80b ± 1.8 0.28
Pb Wet 3.05ab ± 2.5 3.14ab ± 2.3 1.79a ± 1.4 3.62ab ± 3.0 4.86b ± 1.1
Dry 3.81ab ± 2.4 3.57ab ± 0.7 2.71ab ± 2.1 3.28ab ± 1.3 5.83b ± 1.8 2.4
Zn Wet 16.70a ± 3.06 25.76b ± 4.33 17.30a ± 4.65 35.60c ± 8.93 43.40c ± 10.5
Dry 18.79a ± 2.98 28.77b ± 5.75 18.89a ± 4.54 38.59c ± 8.81 46.56c ± 11.7 20.8
Fe Wet 1621a ± 152 1573a ± 124 1520a ± 24 1750b ± 225 2199c ± 282
Dry 1603a ± 127 1397a ± 117 1652a ± 111 1947b ± 113 2450c ± 331 3500
Cr Wet 0.13a ± 0.01 0.18a ± 0.07 0.12a ± 0.02 0.51b ± 0.03 1.09c ± 0.33
Dry 0.18a ± 0.04 0.25a ± 0.12 0.14a ± 0.03 0.80b ± 0.17 1.22c ± 0.35 0.19
Cu Wet 5.51a ± 2.6 5.05a ± 1.9 4.02a ± 1.6 11.99b ± 6.8 22.00b ± 11.5
Dry 5.97a ± 0.7 5.44a ± 1.7 4.96a ± 0.2 14.41b ± 1.8 15.18b ± 4.3 15.0
Ni Wet 0.072a ± 0.07 0.090a ± 0.05 0.043a ± 0.04 0.110a ± 0.03 0.621b ± 0.52
Dry 0.082a ± 0.05 0.102a ± 0.04 0.074a ± 0.09 0.097a ± 0.08 0.452b ± 0.57 0.1

Notes: Mean ± standard deviation, for specific HM-same common letter (superscript) implies “do not differ significantly” (p ≤ 0.05).

and 22.00 mg/kg. The findings depicted that the Cu level
in the ISS, ISN and NDE axes sediment do not vary signif-
icantly (p ≤ 0.05); similarly, the Cu level across UGS and
BUR sub-regions’ sediment does not differ significantly
(p ≤ 0.05). In terms of spatial Cu distribution, the Cu con-
tent in the sediment followed this decreasing trend: BUR >
UGS > NDE > ISN > ISS. Table II depicted that the sedi-
ment’s Cr content ranged from 0.12 mg/kg to 1.22 mg/kg.
Cr levels across NDE, ISS, ISN and UGS sub-regions’
sediment does not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ tangibly.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
affected by sampling location. Spatially, the water’s Fe
concentration exhibited this declining pattern: BUR >
ISN > UGS > NDE > ISS. The mean Cr concentration in
the water varied between 0.002 mg/L and 0.034 mg/L,
which was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) affected by both the
sampling sub-region and the sampling period. Cr levels
across NDE, ISN and ISS does not differ significantly
(p ≤ 0.05), while UGS and BUR water Cr concentra-
tion varied significantly (p ≤ 0.05). Spatially, the water’s
Cr concentration exhibited the following pattern: BUR >

Spatially, the sediment’s Cr concentration followed this
decreasing pattern: BUR > UGS > ISN > NDE > ISS.
3.1.2. Water
The water’s HMs level presented in Table III, revealed
that apart from Zn, seasonal variation had insignificantly
(p ≤ 0.05) effects on the other six HMs concentration, even
though higher HMs level was recorded during the dry sea-
son. Also, the spatial location had significant (p ≤ 0.05)
effect on all the seven HMs concentration investigated
in the wetland water. The mean water Cd level ranged
between 0.001 mg/L and 0.005 mg/L, and does not varied
significantly (p < 005) among the sub-regions. Spatially,
the water’s Cd content exhibited this order: BUR > UGS >
ISN > NDE > ISS. Average water Pb content ranged from
0.024 mg/L to 0.082 mg/L. The Pb concentration does not
differed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) across the wetland at both
seasons. Spatially, the average water Pb concentration fol-
lowed this declining trend: BUR > NDE > UGS > ISN >
ISS. Zinc level in the water varied between 0.027 mg/L to
1.08 mg/L, with BUR and NDE water exhibiting signif-
icant (p ≤ 0.05) difference in their Zn values. Moreover,
the wetland water Zn levels were significantly (p ≤ 0.05)
affected by the climatic seasons; which spatially declined
in this pattern: BUR > NDE > UGS > ISS > ISN.
Similarly, the mean Fe level in water ranged from
0.076 mg/L to 0.3 mg/L, and was significant (p < 005)
UGS > ISN > ISS > NDE. It terms of Cu, its content in
the water varied from 0.52 mg/L to 1.34 mg/L. The water
Cu concentration across the region differed significantly
(p < 005), and spatially exhibited this declining pattern:
BUR > UGS > ISN > NDE > ISS. As seen in Table III,
the mean Ni concentration in the water varied significantly
from 0.001 mg/L to 0.120 mg/L (p < 005); although, Ni
concentration across NDE and ISS sub-region, and UGS
and BUR axes does not significantly differ (p > 005).
Spatially, the water Ni concentration trailed this decreasing
order: BUR > UGS > ISN > ISS > NDE.
3.1.3. Fish Tissue (Flesh)
This study focused on the fish tissue or flesh, because it is
the most significant edible part of fish, which plays a major
aspect in human nutrition. The ANOVA test result showed
that seasonal variation had significant effect fish flesh HMs
concentration (p ≤ 0.05). Furthermore, the ANOVA result
also revealed that HM accumulations in the fish tissue
differed significantly across the five sub-regions and at
reference location at p ≤ 0.05. Tables IV and V present
the separated means of the fish flesh HMs concentrations
during the wet and dry seasons respectively. The Catfish
Cd content ranged from 0.002 mg/kg to 0.106 mg/kg,
while the Tilapia Cd level varied from 0.002 mg/kg to
0.089 mg/kg. Cd concentration in the fish tissue across
NDE and ISS does not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ. The

6 J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022

Uguru et al. Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration

Table III. Wetland water heavy metals concentration (mg/L).

Location
Metal Season NDE ISN ISS UGS BUR Control

Cd Wet 0.001 ± 0.001

a
0.002 ± 0.002
a
0.001 ± 0.002
a
0.002 ± 0.002
a
0.003 ± 0.002
a

Dry 0.002a ± 0.002 0.003a ± 0.021 0.001a ± 0.002 0.003a ± 0.002 0.005a ± 0.004 0.001 ± 0.001
Pb Wet 0.056a ± 0.01 0.038a ± 0.02 0.024a ± 0.02 0.040a ± 0.03 0.080a ± 0.07
Dry 0.082a ± 0.02 0.060a ± 0.03 0.042a ± 0.01 0.073a ± 0.02 0.080a ± 0.06 0.07 ± 0.005
Zn Wet 0.053d ± 0.04 0.027a ± 0.05 0.068b ± 0.06 0.086c ± 0.04 0.096d ± 0.04
Dry 0.090h ± 0.11 0.043e ± 0.04 0.083f ± 0.06 0.093g ± 0.02 0.108h ± 0.04 0.08 ± 0.004
Fe Wet 0.092a ± 0.04 0.081b ± 0.11 0.080a ± 0.04 0.096a ± 0.04 0.18c ± 0.07
Dry 0.086a ± 0.06 0.092b ± 0.04 0.076a ± 0.04 0.089a ± 0.05 0.30c ± 0.06 0.05 ± 0.002
Cr Wet 0.002a ± 0.001 0.003a ± 0.001 0.004a ± 0.001 0.010b ± 0.003 0.025c ± 0.004
Dry 0.003d ± 0.001 0.004d ± 0.002 0.005d ± 0.001 0.015e ± 0.002 0.034f ± 0.004 0.03 ± 0.004
Cu Wet 0.75b ± 0.04 0.81c ± 0.03 0.59a ± 0.05 0.90d ± 0.05 1.11e ± 0.19
Dry 0.64b ± 0.04 0.77c ± 0.03 0.52a ± 0.01 0.99d ± 0.05 1.34e ± 0.10 1.2 ± 0.812
Ni Wet 0.001a ± 0.002 0.057b ± 0.007 0.001a ± 0.002 0.091c ± 0.006 0.087c ± 0.045 0.03 ± 0.001
Dry 0.001a ± 0.001 0.050b ± 0.004 0.002a ± 0.002 0.099c ± 0.004 0.120c ± 0.006

Notes: Mean ± standard deviation, for specific HM-same common letter (superscript) implies “do not differ significantly” (p ≤ 0.05).

Table IV. Wetland fish heavy metals concentration—wet season.

Metal concentration (mg/kg of dry weight)

Fish Axis Cd Pb Zn Fe Cr Cu Ni

CH NDE 0.002a ± 0.00 0.62b ± 0.3 2.76a ± 0.1 14.88b ± 4 0.043a ± 0.01 0.66b ± 0.04 0.046b ± 0.01
ISN 0.008b ± 0.01 0.77c ± 0.2 2.58a ± 0.1 14.91b ± 3 0.060a ± 0.02 0.71c ± 0.04 0.050b ± 0.01
ISS 0.004a ± 0.00 0.45a ± 0.1 2.56a ± 0.1 11.35a ± 1 0.041a ± 0.01 0.55a ± 0.04 0.041a ± 0.01
UGS 0.038c ± 0.02 0.89d ± 0.1 3.79b ± 0.1 23.88c ± 2 0.044b ± 0.02 0.74d ± 0.04 0.079c ± 0.01
BUR 0.088d ± 0.02 1.32e ± 0.2 4.87c ± 0.0 32.73d ± 3 0.050c ± 0.02 0.91e ± 0.07 0.093d ± 0.01
TIL NDE 0.002e ± 0.00 0.44g ± 0.1 2.85a ± 0.1 16.25f ± 4 0.023d ± 0.01 0.75g ± 0.04 0.055f ± 0.00
ISN 0.006f ± 0.00 0.61h ± 0.1 2.63a ± 0.1 16.71f ± 3 0.045d ± 0.01 0.81h ± 0.03 0.057f ± 0.01

RESEARCH ARTICLE
ISS 0.002e ± 0.00 0.34f ± 0.1 2.68a ± 0.1 13.13e ± 3 0.031d ± 0.00 0.59f ± 0.05 0.045e ± 0.01
UGS 0.014g ± 0.02 0.73i ± 0.1 3.86b ± 0.1 32.63g ± 2 0.030e ± 0.01 0.90i ± 0.05 0.091g ± 0.01
BUR 0.052h ± 0.02 0.90j ± 0.1 4.96c ± 0.0 39.85h ± 6 0.042f ± 0.00 1.11j ± 0.19 0.107h ± 0.01

Notes: Mean ± stand ard deviation, CH = catfish, TIL = tilapia, Column with the same common letter (superscript) do not differ significantly (p ≤ 0.05).

Table V. Wetland fish heavy metals concentration—dry season.

Metal concentration (mg/kg of dry weight)

Fish Axis Cd Pb Zn Fe Cr Cu Ni

CH NDE 0.008a ± 0.01 0.70b ± 0.2 3.90a ± 0.1 20.48b ± 1 0.067a ± 0.02 0.59b ± 0.03 0.045b ± 0.01
ISN 0.022b ± 0.01 0.83c ± 0.1 3.66a ± 0.1 19.53b ± 3 0.083a ± 0.01 0.64c ± 0.04 0.043b ± 0.01
ISS 0.009a ± 0.00 0.62a ± 0.1 3.72a ± 0.1 13.63a ± 2 0.054a ± 0.02 0.49a ± 0.05 0.035a ± 0.01
UGS 0.086c ± 0.01 1.05d ± 0.1 4.92b ± 0.1 31.46c ± 3 0.046b ± 0.01 0.86d ± 0.04 0.092c ± 0.00
BUR 0.106d ± 0.01 1.41e ± 0.1 5.28c ± 0.5 35.45d ± 4 0.069c ± 0.01 1.03e ± 0.03 0.105d ± 0.01
TIL NDE 0.004e ± 0.00 0.56g ± 0.1 3.09a ± 0.1 23.19f ± 2 0.037d ± 0.01 0.64g ± 0.04 0.048f ± 0.00
ISN 0.011f ± 0.01 0.61h ± 0.1 3.31a ± 0.4 22.92f ± 8 0.058d ± 0.02 0.77h ± 0.03 0.050f ± 0.01
ISS 0.003e ± 0.00 0.42f ± 0.0 3.83a ± 0.1 19.43e ± 3 0.038d ± 0.01 0.52f ± 0.01 0.041e ± 0.00
UGS 0.037f ± 0.01 0.83i ± 0.1 4.50b ± 0.5 36.89g ± 4 0.039e ± 0.01 0.99i ± 0.05 0.099g ± 0.01
BUR 0.089g ± 0.01 1.01j ± 0.1 5.32c ± 0.4 44.64h ± 7 0.058f ± 0.01 1.34j ± 0.10 0.120h ± 0.01

Notes: Mean ± standard deviation, CH = catfish, TIL = tilapia, Column with the same common letter (superscript) do not differ significantly (p ≤ 0.05).

Cd level in the fishes sampled from NDE, ISS, ISN and
UGS was within WHO [29] maximum guideline for fish.
However, the catfish Zn level varied between 2.56 mg/kg
and 5.28 mg/kg, and the Tilapia tissue Zn level varied
between 2.63 mg/kg and 5.38 mg/kg. This is an indica-
tion that Zn concentration in the fish tissue did not exceed
WHO [29] maximum allowable limit for fish products
meant for human consumption. Table IV shows Fe con-
centration in the catfish was between 13.63 mg/kg and
35.45 mg/kg; and Tilapia Fe concentration was between
13.13 mg/kg and 44.64 mg/kg. Additionally, the Fe con-
centration in the two fishes varied insignificantly (p ≤

J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022 7

 Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration Uguru et al.

Table VI. Wetland water, sediment and fish TPH concentration (mg/kg for fish and sediment, and mg/L for water).

Spatial Location
Sample Season NDE ISN ISS UGS BUR Control

Catfish Wet 3.99 ± 1.6

a
6.78 ± 4.9
a
3.44 ± 3.2
a
46.28 ± 26.6
b
99.38 ± 33.6
c
0.013 ± 0.004
Dry 5.56a ± 3.1 14.21a ± 3.8 4.26a ± 3.9 53.47b ± 30.2 95.78c ± 21.7
Tilapia Wet 2.13a ± 0.8 7.90a ± 2.4 2.08a ± 0.6 37.23b ± 17.9 76.76c ± 7.1 0.011 ± 0.001
Dry 3.04a ± 1.8 11.03a ± 3.1 3.10a ± 1.0 43.29b ± 24.0 83.73c ± 15.5
Sediment Wet 97.96c ± 39.1 85.53c ± 53.3 25.34c ± 14.9 258.78d ± 151 718.87e ± 348 43.92 ± 3.1
Dry 112.83c ± 56 98.60c ± 36.7 27.67c ± 20.8 308.75d ± 193 616.42e ± 326
Water Wet 0.016d ± 0.01 0.028d ± 0.03 0.023d ± 0.02 0.100e ± 0.06 1.080f ± 1.02 0.008 ± 0.003
Dry 0.022d ± 0.02 0.035d ± 0.02 0.029d ± 0.03 0.109e ± 0.03 1.099f ± 0.96

Notes: Mean ± standard deviation, Column with the same small alphabet (superscript) shows that their TPH do not differ significantly (p ≤ 0.05).

0.05) across the five sub-regions, and does not exceeded
the maximum permissible limit recommended by WHO
[29]. Lead concentration in the catfish flesh ranged from
0.45 mg/kg to 1.41 mg/kg, while the Tilapia flesh recorded
Pb levels that varied from 0.34 mg/kg to 1.01 mg/kg. The
fish flesh Pb concentration varied significantly (p ≤ 0.05)
across the region studied and does not exceeded the maxi-
mum permissible limit recommended by FAO/WHO [30].
The Catfish Cu concentration varied from 0.55 mg/kg
to 1.03 mg/kg, and the Tilapia Cu level ranged from
0.59 mg/kg to 1.34 mg/kg. Across the five sub-regions,
the Cu level in the study differed significantly (p ≤ 0.05),
and was within the permissible limit set by FAO/WHO
[30] for fish products. Catfish and Tilapia Ni levels ranged
from 0.041 mg/kg to 0.105 mg/kg, and 0.045 mg/kg to
RESEARCH ARTICLE
inclined to 95.78 mg/kg in the BUR axis. The tilapia flesh
TPH content was 3.04 mg/kg, 11.03 mg/kg 3.10 mg/kg,
43.29 mg/kg and 83.73 mg/kg, at the NDE, ISN, ISS,
UGS and BUR axis respectively during the dry season;
this declined insignificantly (p ≤ 0.05) to 3.04 mg/kg,
7.90 mg/kg, 2.08 mg/kg, 37.23 mg/kg and 76.76 mg/kg
at the NDE, ISN, ISS, UGS and BUR axis respectively
during the wet season.
In terms of the sediment, its TPH concentration was
112.83 mg/kg, 98.60 mg/kg, 27.67 mg/kg, 308.75 mg/kg
and 616.42 mg/kg, at the NDE, ISN, ISS, UGS and
BUR respectively during the dry season; which declined
insignificantly to 97.96 mg/kg, 85.53 mg/kg, 25.34 mg/kg
and 258.78 mg/kg, at the NDE, ISN, ISS and UGS
axis respectively during the wet season. Furthermore, the

0.120 mg/kg respectively. Fish sampled from NDE and
ISS axes have statistically similar Ni concentration, while
the difference in the Ni concentration in the fish harvested
from ISN, UGS and BUR axes was significantly (p ≤ 0.05)
tangible. However, the Ni level in fish flesh was below
FAO/WHO [30] set maximum acceptable limit for fish
flesh. Cr concentration in Catfish varied from 0.041 mg/kg
to 0.083 mg/kg, while the Tilapia Cr level ranged between
0.023 mg/kg and 0.058 mg/kg. The Cr level in the fish
sampled from NDE, ISS and ISN was significantly similar
(p ≤ 0.05), and in the five axes, the fish Cr level does not
exceed USEPA [26] set allowable limit for fish flesh.
3.2. TPH Concentration and Its Spatial Distribution
The separated means of the TPH concentration of the cat-
fish, tilapia, sediment and water are presented in Table VI.
The results revealed that seasonal variation had insignif-
icantly (p ≤ 0.05) effect on each sample-water, fish and
sediment-collected from the region; whereas, sampling
location exhibited sporadic significant (p ≤ 0.05) influ-
ences on the TPH levels within all the samples. Catfish
had TPH values of 5.56 mg/kg, 14.21 mg/kg, 4.26 mg/kg,
53.47 mg/kg, and 95.78 mg/kg, at the NDE, ISN,
ISS, UGS and BUR respectively during the dry season;
which declined insignificantly (p ≤ 0.05) to 3.99 mg/kg,
6.78 mg/kg, 3.44 mg/kg and 46.28 mg/kg, at the NDE,
ISN, ISS and UGS respectively during the wet season, but
water’s TPH level was 0.022 mg/kg (NDE), 0.035 mg/kg
(ISN), 0.029 mg/kg (ISS), 0.109 mg/kg (UGS) and
1.099 mg/kg (BUR) during the dry season; while dur-
ing the wet season, the wetland water’s TPH dropped to
0.016 mg/kg (NDE), 0.028 mg/kg (ISN), 0.023 mg/kg
(ISS), 0.100 mg/kg (UGS) and 1.080 mg/kg (BUR). It was
noted in the findings that location had significant effect on
the samples’ TPH content; though, the fish and sediment
samples collected from NDE, ISN and ISS, did not exhib-
ited any significant difference in their TPH values. Addi-
tionally, the results further revealed that the sediment has
the significantly (p ≤ 0.05) highest TPH value; while the
TPH content of the catfish was insignificantly (p ≤ 0.05)
higher that the TPH concentration of the tilapia. The high
standard deviation values recorded mostly in the UGS and
BUR is an indication of a wide range of uneven TPH dis-
tribution in these sub-regions.
3.3. Microbial Load of the Fish
The result of the microbial population in the fish flesh is
presented in Table VII. Table VII revealed that sampling
location, climatic period and fish spices had significant
effect on the fish muscle TVBC (p ≤ 0.05). Additionally,
the results revealed that the viable bacteria load in the fish
tissue in the dry season, was significantly higher than the
variable bacteria population in the fish flesh during the wet
season (p ≤ 0.05). The catfish and tilapia TVBC ranged

8 J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022

Uguru et al. Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration

Table VII. Fish microbial pollution (cfu/g).

Spatial Location
Sample Season NDE ISN ISS UGS BUR

Catfish Wet 1362.0 ± 23.4

a
1942.0 ± 14.9
c
1363.7 ± 17.1
b
1425.0 ± 14.8
b
2016.3d ± 7.9
Dry 1368.3a ± 22.1 2034.7c ± 14.2 1557.0b ± 18.4 1642.6b ± 12.0 2241.7d ± 11.0
Tilapia Wet 1701.3e ± 34.2 1973.4g ± 7.6 2056.3f ± 13.6 1790.0f ± 7.8 2227.8h ± 14.5
Dry 1854.7e ± 13.3 2234.6g ± 18.6 2302.6f ± 9.5 2134.0f ± 7.0 2634.3h ± 24.6

Notes: Mean ± standard deviation, for specific fish species rows with the same superscript common letter indicates “do not differ significantly” (p ≤ 0.05).

from 1362.0 cfu/g to 2241.7 cfu/g, and 1701.3 cfu/g to
2634.3 cfu/g respectively. It was observed that the TVBC
of fish gotten from ISS and UGS did not differ signifi-
cantly (p ≤ 0.05). Spatially, it was noted that the catfish
TBVC level followed this pattern: BUR > ISN > UGS >
ISS > NDE; while the tilapia TBVC load took this order
BUR > ISN > ISS > UGS > NDE.
3.4. Pollution Level Evaluation
3.4.1. Sediment
Results of the contamination factor, geoaccumulation
index, enrichment factor and Pollution load index of the
region’s wetland sediment are presented in Table VIII and
Figure 1. Across the region, the CF for each HM varied in
this pattern: Cd from 0.01 to 10.30, Pb between 0.94 and
2.33, Zn from 0.85 to 2.16, Fe between 0.42 and 0.66, Cr
from 0.27 to 2.35, Cu between 0.30 and 1.24, and Ni from
0.59 to 5.37. Across the five sub-regions, their sediment
0.52 and 4.64, Cu between 0.59 and 2.45, and Ni from
1.52 to 10.61. In respect to the PLI of the wetland sedi-
ment (Fig. 1), it ranged between 0.29 and 2.44 across the
sub-regions.
3.4.2. Water
The CF, Igeo, EF and PLI of the wetland water are pre-
sented in Table IX and Figure 2. The contamination fac-
tor value of each HM varied in this order: Cd from 1.0
to 4.0, Pb between 0.47 and 1.14, Zn between 8.56 and
12.79, Fe from 1.56 to 4.8, Cr from 0.1 to 1.0, Cu between
0.46 and 1.02, and Ni from 0.03 to 3.43. However, across
the studied wetland, the water TPH contamination factor
ranged between 1.9 and 108.9. Likewise, the water HM
Igeo value ranged across the wetland in this order: Cd
between −0.58 and 1.42, Pb from −1.67 to −0.39, Zn
between 2.51 and 3.09, Fe between 0.06 and 1.68, Cr from
−3.9 to −0.58, Cu between −1.7 and −0.55, and Ni from

TPH contamination factor varied from 0.60 to 15.20.
Similarly, the HM Igeo varied in this order across the
wetland; Cd between −7.64 and 2.78, Pb from −0.68
to 0.57, Zn between −0.81 and 0.53, Fe from −1.82 to
−1.17, Cr between −2.50 and 0.65, Cu from −2.33 to
−0.28, and Ni between −1.35 and 1.84. However, the
TPH Igeo of the sediment ranged from −1.32 to 3.34.
Likewise, the enrichment factor of the studied HM varied
in the following order: Cd between 0.01 and 20.36, Pb
between 1.85 and 4.40, Zn from 1.69 to 4.27, Cr between
RESEARCH ARTICLE
−5.51 to 1.19. While the water TPH Igeo result varied
from 0.34 and 6.18. Similarly, the water HM enrichment
factor varied in this pattern: Cd between 0.43 and 1.71, Pb
from 0.20 to 0.49, Zn from 3.66 to 5.46, Cr between 0.04
and 0.43, Cu between 0.20 and 0.44, and Ni from 0.01
to 1.47. Regarding the water PLI (Fig. 2), its value varied
from 0.58 to 2.68 across the studied region.

Table VIII. Sediment pollution indices values.

Metal

Index Sub-region Cd Pb Zn Fe Cr Cu Ni TPH

CF NDE 001 143 087 046 033 035 077 240

ISN 003 140 131 042 043 038 096 210
ISS 001 094 085 045 027 030 059 060
UGS 427 144 178 052 135 088 103 646
BUR 1030 223 216 066 235 124 537 1520
Igeo NDE −716 −007 −079 −170 −220 −210 −096 068
ISN −588 −010 −019 −182 −181 −197 −064 049
ISS −764 −068 −081 −173 −250 −233 −135 −132
UGS 151 −006 025 −151 −016 −077 −054 211
BUR 278 057 053 −117 065 −028 184 334
EF NDE 002 282 172 065 069 152
ISN 005 277 259 085 076 190
ISS 001 185 169 052 059 117
UGS 844 284 352 266 174 204
BUR 2036 440 427 464 245 1061
Fig. 1. The wetland sediment PLI.

J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022 9

 Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration Uguru et al.

Table IX. Water pollution indices values. Table X. Bioaccumulation quotient of the heavy metals in the fish sam-
pled from the wetland.
Metal
Heavy metal
Index Sub-region Cd Pb Zn Fe Cr Cu Ni TPH
Parameter Sub-region Fish Cd Pb Zn Fe Cr Cu Ni
CF NDE 1 099 1215 178 01 058 003 19
ISN 3 07 856 172 017 066 177 32 Fish/water NDE Catfish 4.17 9.59 3.43 19.91 20.30 0.90 37.50
ISS 1 047 946 156 01 046 007 26 Tilapia 2.25 7.28 3.06 22.21 11.19 0.99 43.33
UGS 2 081 1121 186 043 079 317 105 ISN Catfish 6.82 16.37 4.55 17.57 15.17 0.86 0.86
BUR 4 114 1279 48 1 102 343 1089 Tilapia 3.86 12.45 4.34 20.21 11.00 1.01 0.99
Igeo NDE −058 −061 302 025 −39 −138 −551 034 ISS Catfish 5.00 16.15 4.15 15.97 14.33 0.94 25.33
ISN 1 −11 251 02 −317 −119 024 109 Tilapia 1.92 11.45 4.31 20.82 10.45 1.00 28.67
ISS −058 −167 266 006 −39 −17 −451 079 UGS Catfish 26.96 16.98 4.86 29.85 3.53 0.85 0.91
UGS 042 −088 29 031 −179 −093 108 281 Tilapia 11.09 13.68 4.66 37.50 2.70 1.00 1.00
BUR 142 −039 309 168 −058 −055 119 618 BUR Catfish 26.22 17.09 4.97 27.43 2.02 0.79 0.96
EF NDE 043 042 519 004 025 001 Tilapia 19.05 11.96 5.02 33.98 1.70 1.00 1.09
ISN 128 030 366 007 028 075 Fish/sediment NDE Catfish 1.43 0.19 0.19 0.01 0.35 0.11 0.58
ISS 043 020 404 004 020 003 Tilapia 0.77 0.15 0.17 0.01 0.19 0.12 0.68
UGS 085 035 479 019 034 135 ISN Catfish 2.00 0.24 0.11 0.01 0.33 0.13 0.48
BUR 171 049 546 043 044 147 Tilapia 1.13 0.18 0.11 0.02 0.24 0.15 0.55
ISS Catfish 3.00 0.24 0.17 0.01 0.36 0.12 0.64
Tilapia 1.15 0.17 0.18 0.01 0.27 0.12 0.73
UGS Catfish 0.05 0.28 0.12 0.02 0.07 0.06 0.83
Tilapia 0.02 0.23 0.11 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.91
BUR Catfish 0.03 0.26 0.11 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.18
Tilapia 0.02 0.18 0.11 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.21

between 0.05 and 0.36, and from 0.05 to 0.27 for the
tilapia. Furthermore, Cu BQ (fish/sediment) level varied
from 0.05 to 0.13 in the catfish, and in the tilapia it varied
between 0.07 and 0.15. In the case of Ni, the BQ level
from sediment varied between 0.18 and 0.64 for the cat-
fish; while the BQ level in the tilapia ranged from 0.21 to
0.91 in the five sub-region’s sediment.
RESEARCH ARTICLE

With respect to BQ “fish/water” level, the catfish Cd

Fig. 2. The wetland water PLI.
3.5. Fish Pollution Indices Evaluation
3.5.1. Bioaccumulation Quotient
Bioaccumulation quotient results of the heavy metals in
the fish muscle are presented in Table X. The catfish BQ
(fish/sediment) values for Cd in the NDE, ISN, ISS, UGS
and BUR were 1.43, 2.00, 3.00, 0.05 and 0.03 respec-
tively, and BQ (fish/sediment) values of 0.77, 1.13, 1.15,
0.02 and 0.02 respectively were recorded for the tilapia
with respect to Cd. Zinc BQ (fish/sediment) values of
0.19, 0.11, 0.17, 0.12 and 0.11 were recorded for the
catfish in the NDE, ISN, ISS, UGS and BUR respec-
tively; while Tilapia BQ (fish/sediment) values for the
NDE, ISN, ISS, UGS and BUR for Zn, were 0.17, 0.11,
0.18, 0.11 and 0.11 respectively. The BQ (fish/sediment)
values of Pb ranged between 0.19 and 0.28 for the cat-
fish, and from 0.15 to 0.23 for the tilapia. The fish Fe
BQ (fish/sediment) values varied from 0.01 to 0.02 for the
catfish, and for the tilapia.it was between 0.01 and 0.02.
The BQ (fish/sediment) level of Cr in the catfish ranged
value was 4.17, 6.82, 5.00, 26.96 and 26.22 for the NDE,
ISN, ISS, UGS and BUR axes respectively; and the Cd in
the tilapia was 2.25, 3.86, 1.92, 11.09 and 19.05 respec-
tively in the same five sub-regions. The Pb BQ level was
9.59, 16.37, 16.15, 16.98 and 17.09 in the catfish, noted
in the NDE, ISN, ISS, UGS and BUR axes respectively;
while BQ of 7.28, 12.45, 11.45, 13.68 and 11.96 was
recorded in the tilapia from the NDE, ISN, ISS, UGS and
BUR axes respectively. It was noted that the catfish zinc
BQ value ranged from 3.43 to 4.97, while the tilapia zinc
BQ value varied from 3.10 to 5.02. However, the catfish
and tilapia iron BQ values ranged from 15.97 to 29.85,
and 22.21 to 37.50 respectively. Also, the chromium BQ
level in the catfish and tilapia was between 2.02 and 20.30,
and 1.70 and 11.19 respectively. The catfish copper BQ
(fish/water) level varied from 0.79 to 0.94, and the BQ of
copper in the tilapia varied from 0.99 to 1.00. While for
Ni, the BQ in catfish and tilapia muscle ranged from 0.86
to 37.5, and 1.0 to 43.33 respectively.
3.5.2. Metal Pollution Index of the Fish
Figure 3 shows the MPI values of the two fish species
collected in the study area. The tilapia had insignificant
(p ≤ 0.05) lower MPI value, when compared to the result
of the catfish. This is contrary to Hossain et al. [21] report
which stated, that Tilapia recorded the maximum MPI

10 J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022

Uguru et al. Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration

Fig. 3. The fish MPI.

value, when compared with other carnivorous and herbiv-

orous fishes. These disparities in the MPI values can be
linked to the high level of accumulation of particular metal
in the aquatic plants and animals in the food chain/web.

RESEARCH ARTICLE
This can be affirmed from the metals concentration results
(Fig. 3), that the catfish tissue accumulates more of some
of the toxic metals than the tilapia.

3.5.3. Human Health Risk Assessment

3.5.3.1. Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) and Total Health
Hazard Quotient (THQ) Values. The result of the EDI of
the fish obtained from the region is presented in Table XI.
Generally, the EDI values for infant were higher than
the values obtained for adult and teenager. The Cd value
ranged between 1.98 × 10−6 and 2.37 × 10−4 , Pb value var-
ied from 2.4 × 10−4 to 2.8 × 10−3 , Zn value varied between
3.4 × 10−4 and 2.39 × 10−3 , Fe value ranged between 3.8 ×
10−4 and 2.83 × 10−3 , Cr value ranged from 2.08 × 10−6 to
Fig. 4. Mean HI values for adults, teenagers and infants, with signifi-
8.27×10−5 , Cu value varied from 2.8×10−4 to 2.6×10−3 , cant level (in vertical error bars).
Ni value ranged between 2.14 × 10−5 and 5.11 × 10−4 ,
and TPH varied from 1.6 × 10−3 to 0.216. Similarly, the
THQ values of the fishes sampled from the region were
in this range: Cd value was between 0.0020 and 0.2373, significant (p ≤ 0.05) effect on the studied metals HI. The
Pb value was from 0.0594 to 0.7069, Zn value between
HI ranged between 0.091 and 0.423 in the NDE, 0.112
0.0011 and 0.008, Fe from 0.0005 to 0.0040, Cr from
and 0.522 in the ISN, 0.072 and 0.337 in the ISS, 0.155
0.0007 to 0.0276, Cu value varied from 0.0070 to 0.0667,
Ni between 0.0110 and 0.0129, and TPH value varied from and 0.726 in the UGS and 0.228 and 1.063 in the BUR.
0.0840 to 10.818. Generally, the Infant HI values were higher than the values
3.5.3.2. Hazard Index (HI). The fish metals HI result obtained for adult and teenager; which is similar to Li
is presented in Figure 4. The error bars of the HI values et al. [31] observations, when fish HI values for children
indicated that human age status and sampling location had were considerably higher than the adults HI values.

J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022 11

 Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration Uguru et al.

Table XI. The fish EDI and THQ values.

Adult Teenager Infant

Parameter Sub-region EDI THQ EDI THQ EDI THQ

HM
Cd NDE 1.98 × 10−6 0.0020 3.96 × 10−6 0.0040 9.25 × 10−6 0.0092
ISN 6.10 × 10−6 0.0061 1.22 × 10−5 0.0122 2.87 × 10−5 0.0285
ISS 2.24 × 10−6 0.0022 4.48 × 10−6 0.0045 1.05 × 10−5 0.0105
UGS 2.28 × 10−5 0.0228 4.57 × 10−5 0.0457 1.06 × 10−4 0.1066
BUR 5.08 × 10−5 0.0508 1.02 × 10−4 0.1017 2.37 × 10−4 0.2373
Pb NDE 3.0 × 10−4 0.0759 6.1 × 10−4 0.1517 1.4 × 10−3 0.3541
ISN 3.6 × 10−4 0.0920 7.4 × 10−4 0.1841 1.7 × 10−3 0.4295
ISS 2.4 × 10−4 0.0594 4.8 × 10−4 0.1189 1.1 × 10−3 0.2774
UGS 4.5 × 10−4 0.1139 9.1 × 10−4 0.2279 2.1 × 10−3 0.5317
BUR 6.1 × 10−4 0.1515 1.2 × 10−3 0.3030 2.8 × 10−3 0.7069
Zn NDE 4.7 × 10−4 0.0016 9.4 × 10−4 0.0031 2.20 × 10−3 0.0073
ISN 3.4 × 10−4 0.0011 6.8 × 10−4 0.0023 1.59 × 10−3 0.0053
ISS 3.6 × 10−4 0.0012 7.3 × 10−4 0.0024 1.69 × 10−3 0.0057
UGS 4.6 × 10−4 0.0015 9.1 × 10−4 0.0030 2.13 × 10−3 0.0071
BUR 5.1 × 10−4 0.0017 1.03 × 10−3 0.0034 2.39 × 10−3 0.0080
Fe NDE 4.5 × 10−4 0.0006 9.1 × 10−4 0.0013 2.11 × 10−3 0.0030
ISN 4.9 × 10−4 0.0007 9.7 × 10−4 0.0014 2.27 × 10−3 0.0032
ISS 3.8 × 10−4 0.0005 7.5 × 10−4 0.0011 1.75 × 10−3 0.0025
UGS 4.5 × 10−4 0.0007 9.2 × 10−4 0.0013 2.14 × 10−3 0.0031
BUR 6.1 × 10−4 0.0009 1.23 × 10−3 0.0017 2.83 × 10−3 0.0040
Cr NDE 2.08 × 10−6 0.0007 4.17 × 10−6 0.0014 9.73 × 10−6 0.0032
ISN 3.13 × 10−6 0.0010 6.25 × 10−6 0.0021 1.46 × 10−4 0.0049
ISS 2.08 × 10−6 0.0007 4.17 × 10−6 0.0014 9.73 × 10−6 0.0032
UGS 8.34 × 10−6 0.0028 1.68 × 10−5 0.0056 3.89 × 10−5 0.0130
BUR 1.77 × 10−5 0.0059 3.54 × 10−5 0.0118 8.27 × 10−5 0.0276
Cu NDE 3.4 × 10−4 0.0086 6.8 × 10−4 0.0172 1.6 × 10−3 0.0400
ISN 3.8 × 10−4 0.0095 7.6 × 10−4 0.0191 1.9 × 10−3 0.0445
ISS 2.8 × 10−4 0.0070 5.6 × 10−4 0.0140 1.3 × 10−3 0.0327
RESEARCH ARTICLE

UGS 4.5 × 10−4 0.0114 9.1 × 10−4 0.0228 2.1 × 10−3 0.0532
BUR 5.7 × 10−4 0.0143 1.14 × 10−3 0.0286 2.6 × 10−3 0.0667
Ni NDE 2.55 × 10−4 0.0013 5.11 × 10−4 0.0026 1.19 × 10−4 0.0060
ISN 2.61 × 10−5 0.0013 5.21 × 10−5 0.0026 1.22 × 10−4 0.0061
ISS 2.14 × 10−5 0.0011 4.28 × 10−5 0.0021 9.98 × 10−5 0.0050
UGS 4.69 × 10−5 0.0023 9.38 × 10−5 0.0047 2.19 × 10−4 0.0110
BUR 5.53 × 10−5 0.0028 1.11 × 10−4 0.0055 2.57 × 10−4 0.0129
Hydrocarbon
TPH NDE 2.0 × 10−3 0.1019 4.1 × 10−3 0.2039 9.5 × 10−3 0.4757
ISN 5.2 × 10−3 0.2602 1.04 × 10−2 0.5204 2.43 × 10−2 1.2142
ISS 1.6 × 10−3 0.0840 3.4 × 10−3 0.1679 7.8 × 10−3 0.3918
UGS 2.35 × 10−2 1.1750 4.70 × 10−2 2.3501 0.109 5.4835
BUR 4.64 × 10−2 2.3183 9.27 × 10−2 4.6365 0.216 10.818

3.6. Discussion
3.6.1. Heavy Metals Evaluation
Results obtained from the study indicated that the BUR
and UGS had more heavy metals and TPH contamina-
tion than the NDE, ISS and ISN sun-regions, which is a
strong indication that the Burutu wetland is loaded with
toxic materials. The HMs and TPH concentration varied
significantly (p ≤ 0.05) in the water, sediment, and fish
muscle, across the five sampling locations. This portrayed
that the Niger Delta wetland sediment significantly (p ≤
0.05) accumulates more HMs than their water and fish
counterparts, findings that are similar to reports from other
geographical regions [11, 32]. The higher metals levels
in the sediments can be linked to consistent accumulation
of these metals, since sediments are main reservoir for
environmental pollutants [11]. However, the spatial vari-
ations in the HM values in the sediment and water can
be attributed to the different amount and concentration
of the pollutants the different sub-regions received, either
through anthropogenic or natural paths. The wide HM spa-
tial variation observed in this study is similar to earlier
observation in Ishiagu wetland [33]. The lower HMs con-
centration observed in the specimens during the rainy sea-
son is in conformity with previous results [11, 32]. High
HMs values of the dry season’s water, sediment and fish,
could be attributed to higher prevailing temperature which
results to higher evaporation rate and lower precipitation
rate. Water dilutes and neutralized HMs concentration in

12 J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022

Uguru et al. Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration

aquatic ecosystem [11, 34]; which then translate to lower
HMs buildup in aquatic organisms (fish) in the food chain.
Spatial distribution of HMs within NDE, ISS and ISS
was almost similar, when compared to UGS and BUR.
Across the wetland, the sediment HMs concentrations
descended in this order: Fe > Zn > Cu > Pb > Ni > Cr >
Cd, while the water HMs levels followed this declining
pattern: Fe > Zn > Cu > Pb > Ni > Cr > Cd. This is an
indication that out of the seven metals examined, Fe is
the most prevalent HM is the region’s wetland water and
sediment; and Cd level was consistently lowest in the
water and sediment. This highest Fe concentration, com-
pared to others HMs studied in the wetland sediment and
water, is in uniformity with others researches on sediments
[11]. Even though the water’s Fe level was highest in the
region, its concentration at NDE, ISN, ISS and UGS never
surpassed the WHO [27] guideline for domestic water;
although, BUR water Fe concentration at the dry sea-
son exceeded WHO [27] limit. Despite the low sediment
Cd, Cr and Ni concentrations, UGS and BUR sediment
contained Cd that was above FAO [25] and DPR [28]
approved limit for sediment; and BUR sediment contained
Cr and Ni that were also beyond the allowable limits set
by FAO and WHO for sediment [25, 27]. The whole wet-
land sediment and water Pb level exceeded FAO [25] and
WHO [27] approved permissible limit, but it was within
the allowable limit set by DPR [28]. Zn and Ni levels the
wetland sediment and water never surpassed FAO [25] and
dredging and oil drilling operations. The relatively higher
Cd, Ni, Cr levels in ISN water and sediment, compared
to UGS and ISS, is evident that leachates from the rem-
nants of the abandoned artisan’s refineries still have sig-
nificant effects on the environment. Effluents from palm
oil mills and other agricultural activities could possibly be
linked to the fairly high Pb, Cd and Cu water and sed-
iment concentrations in the NDE and ISN sub-regions.
NDE is one of the major plantain, cassava and yam pro-
ducing areas. Leachates from agricultural chemicals and
humus are linked to the surge in the HM content of surface
water and sediments [37]. The relatively high HMs level
in ISS and NDE sediments and water can also be linked to
the presence of numerous un-kept solid wastes dumpsites
in the sub-region’s wetlands. Improper waste disposal can
leach toxic metallic ions into the aquatic environment [38].
The sediment’s HMs concentrations compared with
results from other researchers are presented in Table XII.
It was noted that the Pb, Cu, Cd and Fe levels in the
Delta state sediment were higher than those obtained in
Asa and Warri Rivers [32, 39]; but lower than the values
recorded for Ishiagu wetland, Tembi, Ngada and Lishui
Rivers respectively [33, 40–42]. It was observed that the
mean Fe concentration in the sediment was consider-
ably higher than the concentration reported in the Ishiagu
wetland, Asa, Tembi, Ngada and Lishui Rivers [32–33;
40–42]. Additionally, the Cu and Cr levels in the sediment
were much lower than those obtained from the Namar

RESEARCH ARTICLE
USEPA [26] acceptable limits; but BUR and UGS sedi- River; though, the Pb and Cd levels in the sediment were
ment Zn level were noted to exceed WHO [27] approved higher than the values obtained from the same river’s sed-
guideline. NDE, ISS, ISN and UGS sediment and water iments [43]. The Pb, Cu, Cr, Zn and Ni concentration in
Cr levels never exceeded the allowable limit approved by the sediment was lower than that in Lishui River; while
FAO [25] and USEPA [26]. Copper water and sediment the Pb and Cd level in the sediment were higher that than
levels were within the acceptable limit recommended by the values obtained in Challawa River (Table XII).
FAO [25], USEPA [26] and WHO [27] for sediment and Among the two fishes, tilapia maintained higher signif-
water; though, BUR water Cu and Ni levels during the icant (p ≤ 0.05) Zn, Cu, Fe and Ni concentration; while
dry season were above WHO [27] water guideline. These the catfish maintained significantly higher Cd, Cr, and
findings have revealed that the Cd and Pb levels in the Pb concentration during both climatic seasons (p ≤ 0.05).
sediments and water were within toxicity range based on Though, catfish being a benthic fish, is supposed to have
FAO [25], USEPA [26] and WHO [27] guidelines. higher metals accumulation [21, 34]; the feeding pattern
Apart from the discharges from the illegal refineries, and ecological needs of the tilapia can be responsible for
municipal and industrial effluents could be responsible for the high accumulation of some metals in its body. Metals
the high HMs concentration recorded in the BUR and
UGS sub-regions. BUR and UGS receive raw effluents Table XII. Heavy metals in sediment (mg/kg) from other studies.
from cottage and medium scale industries that flows from
Location Pb Cu Cd Cr Zn Ni Fe Ref.
Uplands Rivers and streams. Mining wastes, municipal and
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
sewage effluents can cause alterations in water and sedi- Delta state wetland 3.56 9.452 0.818 0.461 0.867 0.174 1771 This study
Ishiagu wetland- 87.35 28.71 1.15 1.39 47.89 17.19 1066 [33]
ment HMs concentration [35]. Effluents from painted and
Asa River-Nigeria 0.19 0.04 0.03 0.24 1.28 NA 244 [32]
electroplated marine vessels enhance water and sediment Namar-Saudi Arabia 0.11 10.9 0.078 11.0 NA NA NA [43]
Pb and Cd concentrations, and this can contribute greatly Warri River-Nigeria 1.67 3.26 NA 1.02 9.10 NA 1443 [39]
Tembi River-Iran 270 100 40.0 74.0 74.0 150 280 [40]
to the high Cd and Pb concentrations recorded in the UGS River Ngada-Nigeria 58.9 34.23 12.56 32.89 138.2 29.23 36.97 [41]
and BUR sub-regions. Cd and Pb have serious health con- Lishui River-China 40.2 22.83 NA 61.20 91.66 25.31 NA [42]
sequences, such as brain disorder even in minute quantities Challawa River-Nigeria 53.6 NA 4.09 NA NA NA 35.18 [11]
[36]. High Fe concentration in the wetland sediment and Notes: ∗ = mean value from the five locations in the two seasons; NA = Not
water can be associated to effluents discharge during sand available.

J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022 13

 Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration Uguru et al.

buildup in fish bodies is a factor of its habitat and feeding Table XIII. Heavy metals in muscles (mg/kg dry) of fish tissue taken
from the literature.
pattern [44]. Tilapia is an omnivorous species, but feeds
mostly on aquatic plants, and aquatic plants are excellent Location Pb Cu Cd Cr Zn Ni Fe Ref.
phytoremediation agents; this is, they absorb pollutants ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
Delta state 0.755 0.778 0.029 0.048 3.75 0.067 24.20 This study
(metals) from the water and accumulate them in their bod- Hainan Island 0.02 0.49 0.012 2.11 3.13 0.59 NA [45]
ies. In general, it was observed that metals concentration Asa River 0.10 0.04 0.02 0.2 1.53 NA 3.42 [32]
Tiver Nile 2.7 0.47 1.17 NA 3.9 NA NA [46]
in fish body is a factor of its concentration in the water
Ogbese River 0.003 0.517 0.002 0.029 0.726 NA 0.052 [34]
and bioaccumulation in the food chain [15], and the ben- Challawa River 0.17 NA 0.189 NA NA NA 245.33 [11]
thic fish species (catfish) tends to accumulate more metals Eleyele River NA NA 3.2 7.8 NA 9.0 5.01 [24]
than the pelagic fish species (Tilapia). Notes: ∗ = mean value from the five locations in the two seasons; NA = Not
The trend of HMs concentration in fish flesh during the available.
wet and dry seasons was Fe > Cu > Zn > Pb > Ni > Cd >
Cr and Fe > Zn > Pb > Cu > Ni > Cd > Cr respectively.
and ISN water and fish can also be attributed to the mas-
Spatially HM levels in the fish flesh followed this pattern:
sive waterways interconnectivities in the two sub-regions,
BUR > UGS > ISN > NDE > ISS. Wide variation in the
which facilitate the flow of the contaminated water from
fish metals concentration noted in the results, even though
one point to another.
most of the sub-regions have similar geological character-
Although some heavy metals are essential for the human
istics is a further affirmation that anthropogenic actions are
responsible for the environmental pollution. The high met- growth, but their high concentrations (above international
als accumulation in the BUR and UGS fish bodies can be acceptable limits) are harmful to human health. Cd, Ni,
attributed to more of anthropogenic factors, such as crude and Pb do not have specific metabolic functions in the
oil pollution and industrial effluents than natural factors. human body, and their ingestion tends to cause some
Petroleum hydrocarbons have the ability of increasing the severe health issues. High Cd accumulation can results
Ni, Cd, Cr and Pb concentration in water, plants and soils, in liver failure and arthritis; while lead toxicity includes
which will eventually amass in the food chain [19]. From behavioral shortfalls in fishes and memory/metabolism
the results, it was noted that the fishes’ HMs levels were retardation in human beings [47, 48].
within the range approved by international regulatory bod-
ies. The Ni and Fe levels in the fish muscle irrespective 3.6.2. Microbial Evaluation
RESEARCH ARTICLE

of the sampling location never surpassed the FAO/WHO
[30] guideline of 80 mg/kg and 124 mg/kg for Ni and Fe
respectively. Also, the Cr and Cu concentration in the fish
was found to be lower than the maximum permissible limit
set by FAO [25], FAO/WHO [30] and USEPA [26] for fish
tissue.
Comparative analysis of this study results with others
scholars findings was done and presented in Table XIII.
Earlier studies reported lower Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn and Fe con-
centrations in fish flesh sampled from Ogbese and Asa
Rivers respectively [32, 34]; but Sani et al. [11] reported
higher Cd and Fe levels in fish muscle, and El-Sappah
et al. [46] reported higher Pb, Cd and Zn levels in a
fish flesh. Adegbola et al. [24] presented contrary results,
where substantially higher Cd, Cr and Ni concentration
were recorded in fish captured from Eleyele River. This
result further supports the findings of Olayinka-Olagunju
and Olatunji-Ojo [34] which clearly stated that fish tend
to accumulate lower concentration of Cr in their flesh;
although fishes obtained from Hainan Island region of
China accumulate Cr higher than maximum concentration
recommended by FAO [25, 45]. Metal concentration in
fish body is a factor of its concentration in the water and
bioaccumulation in the food chain or food web [15]. The
differences in the results can be linked to the different type
and concentration of pollution that the different wetlands
are subjected to. The similarity in the HMs level in the ISS
Findings of this study revealed that the wetland fishes were
infested with pathogenic microorganisms; though the pop-
ulation was higher in the tilapia, when compared to the
microbial population recorded in the catfish. The fish lower
viable bacteria count recorded during the rainy season,
could be possibly linked to the season’s lower environmen-
tal temperature, which tends to inhibits most enzymatic
reactions and cell division [66]. Relatively higher micro-
bial load in the tilapia flesh, when compared to the catfish
can be attributed to the feeding behaviour and lifestyle of
the later. Tilapia is omnivorous, thus its ability of consum-
ing large quantity of contaminated materials is higher. The
higher bacteria counts witnessed in BUR and ISN fishes
can be linked to the concentration of contaminated sewage
and other organic wastes and discharged into these areas
[63, 65]. Although both fish species raw flesh contained
viable bacteria above FAO recommendation, adequate food
processing-heating, drying and roasting—carried out on
fresh fish before consumption will minimized the harmful
effects of the pathogenic microorganisms. The TBVC val-
ues obtained in this study were generally lower than those
recorded by Quintanilla-Martínez et al. [63] and Al San-
jee and Karim [65]. Viable microbial load has significant
effect on food security and safety, as it increases food dete-
rioration and health risk rates [64]. viable bacteria include
Salmonella spp., Shigella, Staphylococcus aureus and Vib-
rio spp. are parts of viable bacteria that causes serious

14 J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022

Uguru et al. Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration
infection and health complication, such as diarrhea, pneu-
monia and cholera to the consumers [65].
3.6.3. TPH Evaluation
Spatially, BUR had the highest TPH values, followed by
UGS and ISN axes, regardless of the sample tested (fish,
water and sediment), while the ISS had the lowest TPH
concentration. These results affirmed earlier reports which
stated that artisans’ refineries activities largely increase
the total petroleum hydrocarbons of wetland water and
plants [19]. The lower TPH value generally recorded in
the NDE, ISN, ISS and UGS samples during the dry sea-
son, compared to the wet season can be linked to the
volume and concentration of petroleum hydrocarbons, the
region received within the time frame. Also the remedi-
ation (degradation) of the existing hydrocarbons in the
environment, by natural agents helps to reduce the concen-
tration of TPH in the environment. Results of Fish TPH
recorded at the NDE, ISN and ISS were lower than those
previously obtained [18, 49]; whereas, UGS and BUR fish
accumulate more TPH than the value recorded by Ogbuagu
et al. [18] and Enuneku et al. [49] for fish sampled from
other geographic regions.
The highest TPH value recorded in the BUR axis can
possibly be related to continuous hydrocarbons pollution,
through spills from oil theft and artisanal oil refining
actions. According to oil producing companies operating
in the area, Burutu is one of the hot spots of crude oil theft,
due to its difficult terrain and its proximity to the Atlantic
Ocean [50]. Despite the absence of artisan’s refineries in
NDE, its samples still records relatively high TPH values.
This can be attributed to anthropogenic factors, such as
sand dredging, maritime activities and the maintenance of
the marine equipment. During these activities, possibilities
exist that fuel and oil will spill from the marine vessels and
sand dredger engines/tanks (either during refueling or with
the occurrence of faulty storage tank) will find its way into
the water. Fuel and lubricants leakages from speed boats
engines significantly contribute to hydrocarbons contami-
nation of the aquatic ecosystem [51].
High TPH values recorded at the BUR and UGS is a
further confirmatory point that leachates from oil wastes
through illegal oil refining is responsible for the high HMs
values recorded in these two sub-regions. The high TPH
value is a strong threat to the health of inhabitants of
the UGS, BUR and NDE micro-regions. Sediment has a
strong potential of adsorbing toxic substances-HMs and
petroleum hydrocarbons, which it can released into the
environment later [51, 52]. This directly affect (by increas-
ing the concentration) the TPH content of the fishes, which
are later consumed by human beings along the food chain.
Petroleum hydrocarbons are linked to severe health prob-
lems such as neurological effects, cancer and respiratory
diseases [18].
J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022
3.6.4. Pollution and Human Health Risk Assessment
The CF of the sediment followed this declining pattern
across the wetland TPH > Cd > Ni > Pb > Zn > Cr > Cu >
Fe. Spatially, NDE, ISS and ISN sediment had low degree
of Cd, Fe, Cu and Ni contamination; while ISN and UGS
had moderate contamination. UGS sediment had consider-
able high Cd pollution. BUR sediment had very high level
of Cd pollution, and considerable high level of Ni pol-
lution. The general high sediment Cd CF value observed
in the wetland is similar to the findings for Ogbese River
sediment [34]. In the wetland water, the CF followed this
decreasing order: TPH > Zn > Fe > Cd > Ni > Pb > Cu >
Cr. The wetland water’s CF values depicted that Zn con-
tamination was at very high level in the five sub-regions.
Additionally, the NDE, ISS, ISN and UGS water had low
degree of Pb, Cr and Cu pollution; BUR water witnessed
considerable high levels of Cd, Fe and Ni pollution, ISN
water had a considerable high degree of Cd pollution,
and moderate degree of Ni contamination. Apart from
petroleum effluents, leachates for metallic and electronic
wastes can contribute greatly to the contamination of the
environment with toxic metals such as Cd, Pb, and Zn.
Enrichment factor values obtained in this study estab-
lished that that the sediment was more contaminated than
the water. The EF values portrayed that there was no
Cd, Cr and Cu enrichment (contamination) in NDE, ISN
and ISS sediment, while minor Pb, Zn and Ni enrich-
ment was recorded in the NDE, ISN and ISS sediment.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
UGS sediment acquired moderate Zn contamination, and
moderate-to-severe Cd contamination. It was also noted
that BUR sediment had moderate Pb, Zn and Cr enrich-
ment, and severe Cd and Ni enrichment. Regarding the
wetland water, all the sampling sites’ water had zero Pb,
Cr and Cu enrichment; while NDE, ISS and ISN recorded
no Cd and Ni enrichment. BUR water had minor Cd and
Ni enrichment. It can be hypothesized that based on the
sediment’s EF values, that Cd, Cr and Cu in NDE, ISN and
ISS were caused by natural factors, since their EF vales
were less than 1.5. According to Elias and Gbadegesin
[53], when EF value exceeds 1.5, there is a probability that
anthropogenic actions are the major cause of the pollution.
The Igeo result further confirmed that the wetland sedi-
ment was more polluted than the wetland water. Iron Igeo
value in the wetland sediment, shows that the whole region
registered uncontaminated degree of Fe pollution. Simi-
larly Cd, Pb, Zn, Cr, Cu and Ni Igeo values obtained from
the NDE, ISN and ISS revealed that these areas registered
uncontaminated degree of the HMs pollution. The results
further depicted that BUR sediment had a moderate degree
of Cd contamination. Regarding Igeo (water), the results
revealed that the wetland’s water recorded uncontaminated
degree of Pb, Cu and Cr pollution, while Cd and Ni con-
tamination at the NDE and ISS water were at uncontam-
inated level. There was a moderate degree of Zn water
contamination at ISS, UGS and ISN, which increased from
15
 Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration
Fig. 5. Spatial distribution of the sediment PLI in the wetland.
moderate to heavy degree at NDE and BUR. Cd, Fe and
Ni water fell under moderately level of pollution, using
the Igeo grading system.
Based on PLI results, NDE, ISS and ISN sediments
were unpolluted with HMs, UGS sediment was moderately
polluted with HMs, and BUR sediment was highly pol-
luted with HMs. Similarly, NDE and ISS water had unpol-
luted level of HMs contamination, ISN and UGS water
RESEARCH ARTICLE
was moderately polluted, and the BUR water was highly
polluted. As for the wetland water, NDE and ISS water
had unpolluted status, ISN and UGS water had moder-
ately polluted ranks, while BUR water had highly pol-
luted grade. The PLI spatial variation map for the wetland
sediment, presented in Figure 5, revealed that the south-
western region of the wetland land had the highest PLI,
and the values declined non-linearly to the eastern part of
the wetland. Similarly, the spatial variation map for the
wetland water (Fig. 6) showed that the north-western part
of the wetland had the highest water PLI value, which
decreased in a non-linear pattern to the eastern part of the
wetland.
3.6.5. Metal Pollution Index of the Fish
The results of the fish MPI revealed that there was no sig-
nificant difference (p ≤ 0.05) between the two fish species
MPI value. Both the catfish and tilapia MPI values inclined
in this pattern across the wetland: ISS < NDE < ISN <
UGS < BUR. This portrayed that BUR fishes have the
highest MPI, while the ISS fishes have the lowest MPI.
Higher MPI value is an indication that the fish contains
higher level of toxic metal contamination. Despite the rel-
atively high MPI values recorded in some parts of the wet-
land (BUR and UGS), their values were less than 1 (MPI <
1). This is an indication that the fishes are non-toxic
16
Uguru et al.
Fig. 6. Spatial variation of the wetland water PLI.
(uncontaminated) to human health [21]; therefore, their
consumption tends to be health friendly.
3.6.6. Human Health Risk Assessment
3.6.6.1. Estimated Daily Intake. The EDI varied widely
across the five sub-regions investigated. The BUR axis
had the highest EDI values regardless of the metal inves-
tigated, which was followed by the UGS axis; while the
NDE and ISS axes recorded the lowest EDI values. Con-
sidering individuality, infant had the highest EDI values,
and was followed by teenager, while adult had the lowest
EDI values. This is an indication that infants are more sus-
ceptible to toxic materials poisoning though ingestion than
adults; this is similar to reports by Madrigal et al. [54],
which stated that children are at greater risks of toxins
ingestion. Furthermore, it was observed that TPH, which
is not a metal, have the highest EDI, irrespective of the
axis where the fish was sampled from. This (TPH) was
closely followed (in descending order) by Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn,
Ni, Cr and Cd, with Cd having the lowest EDI value. The
lowest Cadmium EDI value recorded in this study is in
agreement with other geographical regions fishes [11]. In
spite of the high EDI values of some of the HMs, they
were within the recommended daily allowance for human
health for now, but should be a major concern to health
workers, as EDI tends to accumulate with time. EDI is a
critical tool used as a reference point that determines the
potential effects of a particular element or compound on
other elements or compounds [55].
The BQ values realized in this study portrayed that the
BQ (fish/sediment) was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower than
BQ (fish/water), which is in similarity with the reports of
J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022
Uguru et al. Evaluating the Spatial Distribution of Some Toxic Substances Concentration
Olayinka-Olagunju and Olatunji-Ojo [34], but in conflict
to the observation of Sani et al. [11]. It was observed that
the BQ of the catfish (benthic fish) was generally higher
than the tilapia (pelagic fish). The BQ (fish/sediment) val-
ues recorded in this study, were lower when compared
to other regions fishes values [11, 56]; while the BQ
(fish/water) values obtained in this study were higher than
those reported by Sani et al. [11] Spatial order of BQ
concentrations of HMs in the wetland followed this pat-
tern BUR > UGS > ISN > ISS > NDE. This portrayed
that the fishes at the BUR and UGS are more suscep-
tible to HMs exposure from the environment, than the
fishes at the NDE and ISS. Bioaccumulation quotient is
a tool used to determine bioindicator nature of aquatic
organism, and it is helpful in monitoring the HMs pollu-
tion status in aquatic ecosystem [57]. Iron had the high-
est BQ value, but its value was below permissible bio-
accumulative level (>1000), making it safe for the proper
functioning of the fish body. According to Traina [58] fish
requires large quantity of Fe and Zn for growth and devel-
opment of its tissues. However, the high BQ values of
Pb and Cd, although less than acceptable bio-accumulative
levels, should be a matter of concern in the future, because
high accumulations of Cd and Pb is toxic to living tissues.
Health risks associated with the consumption of the
wetland fish inclined in this order: ISS < NDE < ISN <
UGS < BUR. This suggests that BUR and UGS sub-
regions fish posed more severe health risk, than the NDE,
ISS and ISN fish, for adults, teenagers and infants. Sim-
ilar results of a higher health risks associated with the
consumption of fish products in children over adults was
reported by Li et al. [31]. It can be observed from the
THQ values of the HMs declined in the pattern of Pb >
Cd > Cu > Cr > Zn > Ni > Fe; and their THQ values were
below 1. This portrayed that health risks prevalence of eat-
ing the wetland fishes, in terms of toxic metal poisoning
is very low. But great concern should be given to BUR
and UGS which had THQ values greater than 1 for TPH.
This portrayed that there are possibilities of health risks
associate with TPH poisoning in these localities.
The HI of infants was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher for
the infants, than for the adults and teenagers. The Decreas-
ing order of HI values in the region was BUR > UGS >
NDE > ISN > ISS. Adult and teenager metals HI values
in the wetland were less than 1. Infant HI values were less
than 1 in NDE, ISN, ISS and UGS, and greater than 1 in
BUR. This is an indication that the fish poses no severe
health hazards to the people of the region, but the con-
sumption of fish harvested from the BUR axis, mostly in
infants should be firmly monitored. Based on this study’s
findings, the consumption of fish from the NDE and ISS
axes should be encouraged over fish harvested from the
UGS and BUR axes.
J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 16, 1–19, 2022
4. CONCLUSIONS
Maintaining good environmental quality is important for
several socio-economic and health reasons. Appraisal of
the toxic substances accumulation in Delta State wetland
was carried out in view of ascertaining the toxicity of
materials in this aquatic environment. The results revealed
that the HM concentration varied widely across the wet-
land, with the eastern part (BUR and UGS sub-regions)
having the highest HMs and TPH concentration, and the
western part (NDE, ISN and ISS) recording the lowest
HMs and TPH values. Though Fe was the most predom-
inant metal in the wetland sediment and water, but Cd
had the highest pollution level in the wetland’s water and
sediment. NDE, ISS and ISN water and sediment’s Cd,
Cu, Fe, Zn, Cr, and Ni values did not exceeded FAO
and WHO approved limits; however, BUR water and sed-
iment Cd and Pb levels exceeded the recommended FAO
and WHO limits. The pollution indices and health risks
results depicted that NDE, ISN and ISS fish, sediment
and water were more human friendly, when compared to
the fish, sediment and water from UGS and BUR. Our
findings showed that anthropogenic factors influenced by
poor regional planning had significant effects on the envi-
ronmental health of the wetland, with crude oil effluents
contributing significantly to the heavy metals and TPH tox-
icity of the wetland environment. This study has revealed
the necessity for proper regional planning which will facil-
itate easy wastes management, and remediation of crude
oil polluted environments.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Ethical Compliance
The experimental study was approved by the Ethical Com-
mittee and responsible authorities of Delta State University
of Science and Technology, Nigeria following all guide-
lines, regulations, legal, and ethical standards as required
for humans or animals.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments: Princess Nourah bint
Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project
Number (PNURSP2023R249), Princess Nourah bint
Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. In addi-
tion, the authors thank Taif, Mansoura Universities
and King Faisal Medical Complex for their scientific
contributions.
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19