Curtin University

Engineering Foundation Year

Engineering Mechanics

Dynamics: Practical Test 2b

(45 minutes hands-on + 45 minutes analysis/interpretation)

Title Newton’s Second Law and Gravitational Acceleration

Activity Type Discovery

Concepts Studied

This practical test explores the acceleration that results when an unbalanced force acts
upon a mass. In both experiments the unbalanced force utilized is the weight of a mass.
The measured accelerations are compared with those predicted by Newton’s Second Law.

Definitions

Weight Force – the force of gravitational attraction acting on a mass. Its magnitude is W

=mg where m is the object’s mass and g is the local acceleration due to gravity. In S.I.
units mass m will be in kg and g in ms-2. Thus the units of weight are kg.ms-2 which also
has the alternative name of Newton (N). At Curtin Bentley, g≈ 9.794 ms-2 and at Curtin

Miri, g≈ 9.781 ms-2. Note that g is not constant, but varies with location and altitude.

Particle – an object that may be treated conceptually as having all of its mass concentrated
at a single point. Then, when in motion, every part of the object will experience identical
motion. This concept excludes any rotational motion.

Newton’s Second Law – states that when an unbalanced force acts on a particle the
particle accelerates in the same direction as the force and with a magnitude proportional
to the force but inversely proportional to the mass. In symbols: !

F
a!= or more usually, F!"=ma! …(1) m

In these expressions, F is the resultant (vector sum) of all of the forces acting on the !"F!

remind us that they are vectors. Newton’s particle. The small arrows over the a and
Second Law is an empirical law, determined and verified from experiment alone.

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Rectilinear Translation – straight line motion. In both experiments, the moving objects
are constrained to move in straight lines.

Description of the Apparatus

These tests make use of an ‘air track’. It is a device designed to reduce friction to a very
low amount by causing the ‘vehicle’ travelling along it to be supported on a layer of air.
The air is supplied continuously by the blower unit and flows out of the many small holes
in the surface of the square cross-section closed-end pipe that forms the track. This air
creates a cushion of air on which the vehicle rides. The ‘vehicle’, or cart, is formed from
sheet metal bent to 90° to conform to two sides of the track. When placed on the track, it
settles to an equilibrium position, supported by the air cushion, when the upward air
pressure force acting on the undersurface of the cart equals its downward weight.

Cart

Pressurised
air

Track

Figure 1. Cross section of track and vehicle.

The total mass of the cart can be increased by adding Velcro -backed masses to the sides
of the cart.

The air track can be levelled using the adjusting feet at each end of the base, and observing
the movement of a cart placed centrally on the track. The air rail is mounted onto the base
via flexible rubber mounts so that any distortion in the base is not transmitted to the rail.

Velocity and acceleration are determined by electronically recording the time at which the
cart’s leading and trailing edges pass certain points at which are located light-beam
switches. As the cart travels along the track, the light beams are blocked by the ‘wings’ of
the cart. The instrumentation records the time of these events.

Experiment 1: Acceleration of a Mass Down an Inclined Plane

In this experiment the track is inclined so that the cart’s weight vector has a component
parallel with the track, Wx. This component of the weight force will be used to accelerate
the cart.

The aim is to measure the ‘downhill’ acceleration and compare it with that calculated
below using Newton’s Second Law.

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 y

x
Wx = Wsin
mcart θ

Wy = Wcos
θ
horizontal θ

W = mcart×g

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the arrangement showing x and y components.

Kinetic Analysis

The principal assumption made in this kinetic analysis is that the friction forces acting on
the cart in the direction of travel (viscous drag of the air cushion and aerodynamic drag)
are sufficiently small, compared to Wx, that they may be ignored.

x
Wx = Wsin
mcart θ

Wy = Wcos
θ
R θ
horizontal

W = mcart×g

Figure 3. Free body diagram (with W resolved into Wx and Wy).

Apply Newton’s Second Law to the cart in both the x and y directions, which, to simplify
the analysis, have been aligned parallel and perpendicular to the track.

∑F =m
x a :
cart x mcart gsinθ= mcartacart …(2)

from which acart = gsinθ …(3)

This is the cart’s acceleration predicted by Newton’s Second Law. Equation (3) may be
rearranged so that if acart and θ are measured, g can be determined:

acart
g= ; θ≠ 0 …(4)
sinθ
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In the y-direction we observe that the cart does not accelerate and so ay = 0 .

∑F = 0:
y − mcart g cosθ+ R = 0 …(5)

from which R = mcart g cosθ …(6)

Kinematic Analysis

Equation (3) (and later for Experiment 2, Equation (13)) predicts that the system
acceleration will be constant. This enables the use of the constant acceleration kinematic
expression:

v = u + at ⇒ a = v −u …(7)
t

In the experiment the cart travels from left to right along the air track. The software
program logging the data is provided with the length of the cart which enables the
determination of u and v at the first and second light gates respectively. The time t to
move between the two light gates is also recorded. These data allow the average
acceleration to be calculated and, since it is constant, will also be the instantaneous
acceleration at every position.

Procedure

1. The feet of the support frame must be initially adjusted so that the track is horizontal.
Without a cord attached to the cart, place the cart onto the centre of the air track and
switch on the blowing unit. Adjust the levelling feet at each end of the air track until
the cart remains stationary. When you are satisfied that the air track is horizontal,
switch off the air blowing unit.
2. Measure the distance between the feet of the support frame and record it below. The
left end of the track will be elevated by placing a block under it. Measure the height
of the block and record it below. Carefully lift the left end of the track and place the
block under the left pair of feet. Lower the feet onto the block.

Distance between feet, L = 1750 mm. Height of block,

h = 90 mm.

h
θ= sin−1 = 3.43 degrees. …(8)
L

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 L

h block

Figure 4. Determination of angle θ.

3. The cart is initially used without any added masses. Using the mass scales provided,
measure and record the mass of the cart in Table 1.
4. Place the cart on the track at the left end, holding it back with your hand. Switch on
the air blowing unit, wait 5 seconds, and release the cart. Prevent the cart
rebounding back into the region of the light sensors. The computer will record the
velocity at light sensor A and light sensor B as well as the time it takes to pass
between the two light sensors. The blower need not be switched off between runs,
but the cart must be returned to the starting position without interrupting the light
beams. Lift the cart off the track and pass it past the light gates back to the starting
position.
5. Repeat several times and when a consistent set of data has been obtained, record in
Table 1 the average values of vA, vB and tA-B. When finished, press the ‘stop’ icon.
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 three more times, with two additional Velcro-backed masses
added (approximately 20g) to the cart each time.
Run No Mass of cart Average Average Average
(kg) velocity at A velocity at B Time between
(m/s) (m/s) light sensors
A and B (sec)
1 0.105 0.642 0.831 0.337
2 0.125 0.610 0.801 0.352
3 0.145 0.616 0.803 0.350
4 0.165 0.600 0.787 0.358

Table 1. Results recorded for Experiment 1.

Calculations for Experiment 1

From the data recorded in Table 1, use Equations (7) and (4) to determine the acceleration
and estimate of g for each of the four runs. Calculate the average value obtained for g for
these four runs. Compare the result with the accurately measured value of g at Bentley of
9.794 ms-2, or at Miri of 9.781 ms-2. Summarise your calculations in Table 2.

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Recall that in the S.I. system of units, masses are in kilograms and lengths in metres.
Convert your data where necessary.

Experiment 1 Acceleration Acceleration

Run No a due to
(ms-2) gravity, g
(ms-2)
Equation (7) Equation (4)
1 0.561 9.38
2 0.544 9.10
3 0.534 8.93
4 0.523 8.74

Average for g (ms-2) 9.04

% difference compared to 7.7%

g at Bentley = 9.794 ms-2
or at Miri = 9.781 ms-2

Table 2. Summary of calculations for Experiment 1.

Experiment 2: Acceleration of a Mass along a Horizontal Track

In this experiment the track is arranged horizontally and the cart is coupled, using a ‘light’
cord, to a vertically falling mass via a pulley. Figure 5 shows the arrangement. The weight
of mass B, mB, is used to accelerate the system. Clearly if the cord remains taut the
accelerations of the cart, mA, and the hanging mass, mB, will have identical magnitudes.

Mass A
mA Pulley
horizontal
Air track
Cord

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the arrangement.

Mass B mB

Kinetic Analysis

The principal assumptions made in this kinetic analysis are:

• The cord’s mass is small enough to be ignored.
• The tension in the cord is everywhere equal.
• The cord is inextensible, thus causing both masses to move with the same
displacement, velocity and acceleration magnitudes.
• The friction in the track and pulley bearing are negligible.
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The moment of inertia of the pulley is too large to be neglected. Its equivalent mass, as
though it were attached to the cart, has been calculated to be 6 grams.

The first step in the kinetic analysis is to draw the free body diagrams of the two masses,
Figure 6.

y T

T
mA mA
mB
R = pressure
× area
mAg
mBg

Figure 6. Free body diagrams of masses A and B.

In Figure 6 the symbols have the following meanings.

mA total mass of the cart and any added masses (including an allowance
for the moment of inertia of the pulley = 6 grams)
mB total mass of the hanger and added masses
g acceleration due to gravity
mA g weight of the cart and its contents
mB g weight of the hanging masses
T tension in the cord
R the resultant reaction force acting on the cart by the air pressure
Applying Newton’s second law (Equation (1)) to the cart in the x-direction:

∑F =m a:
x A T =m A a …(9)

In the y-direction we note that the acceleration is zero and so:

∑F = 0:
y mAg−R= 0 …(10)

which shows that the reaction force R just balances the weight of the cart.

Applying Newton’s second law (Equation (1)) to the hanging mass in the y-direction:

∑F =m a:
y B −T+mBg=mBa …(11)

Substituting T from Equation (9) into Equation (11) will eliminate T giving:

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 − mA a + mB g = mB a …(12)

Equation (12) can be rearranged to yield the expected system acceleration, a,

a= mBg …(13) mA +mB

When mA and mB have been measured, and the g taken to be the known local value, the
system acceleration can be determined. Alternatively, when the system acceleration is
measured, an estimate of g can be obtained by rearranging Equation (13) to solve for g.

g= (mA +mB)a …(14)

mB

Procedure

1. Load eight Velcro-backed masses onto the cart, distributing them evenly.
2. Repeat the process of levelling the track described in Experiment 1.
3. Tie the cord to the cart using the hole near the apex of the triangular end plate.
Arrange the cord over the pulley and attach the mass hanger to the free end of the
cord.
4. Check that the cart passes completely through the second light gate before the
suspended mass hanger hits the floor.
5. Perform the following measurements, recording the data above Table 3.
- Measure and record the length (in the direction of travel) of the portion of the
cart that interrupts the light gate light beams.
- Using the mass weighing scale provided, measure and record the total mass of
the cart and any added masses.
- Measure and record the mass of the hanger.
6. To begin recording data, click the ‘start’ icon on the computer screen. The software
is configured to record the data for this experiment. It continues to record ‘runs’
until the ‘stop’ icon is pressed.
7. Place the cart on the track, pushing it gently against the left hand stop. Switch on
the air blower, wait five seconds, and carefully release the cart. Prevent the cart
from rebounding back into the light gate.
8. Repeat step 7 several times until the recorded data is consistent. The blower need
not be switched off between runs, but the cart must be returned to the starting
position without interrupting the light beams. Lift the cart off the track and pass it
past the light gates back to the starting position.
9. When a consistent set of data has been obtained, record in Table 3 the average values
of vA, vB and tA-B. When finished, press the ‘stop’ icon.
10. Perform steps 6 to 9 another three times, adding an additional 10 gram mass to the
hanger each time. The mass of the cart is not altered.

Data for Experiment 2

Length of the cart that interrupts light beams: 165mm.

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 Measured mass of the cart (with 8 masses added): 185grams.

Total equivalent mass of the cart, mA, allowing for the moment of inertia of the
pulley. Obtained by adding 6 grams to the measured mass of the cart:
191grams.

Mass of the hanger: 10grams.

Run No Hanging Mass Average Average Average time

mB velocity at velocity at between
(grams) light gate A light gate B light gates
(m/s) (m/s) A and B (sec)
1 10 0.5259 0.6919 0.4124
2 20 0.7170 0.9699 0.2951
3 30 0.8815 1.1813 0.2411
4 40 0.9682 1.3190 0.2177

Table 3. Results for Experiment 2 as recorded by the data recorder.

Calculations for Experiment 2

From the data recorded in Table 3, use Equations (7) and (14) to determine the acceleration
and estimate of g for each of the four runs. Calculate the average value obtained for g for
these four runs. Compare the result with the accurately measured value of g at Bentley of
9.794 ms-2 or at Miri of 9.781 ms-2.

Recall that in the S.I. system of units, masses are in kilograms and lengths in metres.
Convert your data where necessary.

Experiment 2 mB mA + mB (kg) Acceleration Acceleration

Run No (kg) a due to
(ms-2) gravity, g
(ms-2)
Equation (7) Equation (14)
1 0.01 0.201 0.4275 8.59299
2 0.02 0.211 0.8554 9.02531
3 0.03 0.221 1.2436 9.16098
4 0.04 0.231 1.6114 9.30585

Average for g (ms-2) 9.021282

% difference compared to
g at Bentley = 9.794 ms-2 7.89%
or at Miri = 9.781 ms-2

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Reflection

Comment on the percentage difference found between the experimentally determined

values for g (Experiments 1 and 2) and the ‘accurately’ measured value provided.

In experiment 1 our experimentally determined value of g was (9.04 ms^-2) compared to

the accurately measured value of Gravity (‘g’) being (9.794 ms^-2) we have a
percentage difference of 7.7%. In experiment 2 our experimentally determined value of
g was (9.02 ms^-2) compared to the accurately measured value of ‘g’ being (9.794ms^-
2) we have a percentage difference of 7.89%. These experimental values of ‘g’ have a
percentage difference to the accurately measured value of ‘g’ due to certain error made
during the experiment.

In the analysis for these experiments, any friction that may exist was considered small
enough to ignore. Identify the sources of friction in both experiments and comment on
possible ways of reducing or removing their influence.

Friction force occurs when surfaces slide one past another. In these experiments, both
mass of an object affects the velocity of an object and acceleration because of its
coefficient of friction especially in the first experiment. This means because of friction
present; it counteracts and cancels some of the force causing the motion.

Sources of friction:
1. The friction between the string and the pulley, we can reduce this friction by
adding lubrication to the pulley.
2. Balance of weights on the cart, we can reduce this by ensuring that the position
in which the weights are placed on the cart are directly opposite each other.
3. Air resistance creating drag, we can reduce this friction by making sure the cart
is aerodynamic to ensure the drag is minimalised.
4. The Friction between the track and cart, we can reduce this friction by also
adding lubrication to the tracks surface.

Redraw the free body diagrams for Experiment 2, including friction acting on the cart,
retarding its motion. Modify the relevant equations of motion to include the friction
force.

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From your analysis above, what magnitude of friction force would just account for the
discrepancy between your experimentally determined value for g and the accepted (local)
value?

F= Mb( g(cart) – g(exp))

=0.02(9.79-9.02)
=0.0154N

Equation (14) gives an expression for g that has mB as the denominator. Using your values
for mA, mB and a, by how much does g alter if a 1% error occurred in the measurement of
mB ?
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Assessment

The marking scale for this exercise will be as follows:

• Experiment 1 – experimental procedure performed correctly (0.25) •

Experiment 1 – accurate results, well presented (0.50)
• Experiment 2 – experimental procedure performed correctly (0.25) •
Experiment 2 – accurate results, well presented (0.50)
• Analysis:
- analysis poorly attempted and wrong (0)
- analysis mostly correct and shows an average level of understanding (0.5)
- analysis fully correct and shows an average level of understanding (1.0)
- analysis fully correct and shows a high level of understanding with accurate
reflection etc. (1.5)

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