Adenle Oluwatosin Project Chapter Pages

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
The high demand in the use of sandcrete hollow blocks in civil engineering construction has
resulted in it being a very important material in the construction environment. This high demand
has also augmented the poor creation of sandcrete blocks by block moulding manufacturers
resulting to the low standard requirements of sandcrete blocks. This project assesses the level of
compliance of sandcrete blocks manufacturers in Lagos state Nigeria, according to the standard
for sandcrete block production in the Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS 978:2017). It is obviously
evident that population increase is on the constant rise in the world today with the problem of over
congestion of some areas as a result of industrialism, technological advancements and civilization.
To cater for a comfortable survival, infrastructure increases alongside and as construction activities
increase, an increase in the demand of construction materials will follow suit. Due to the ongoing
need for infrastructure in these nations, the rise in the economies of West African nations, notably
Nigeria, has increased activity in the construction industry. People have a strong desire to own or
have access to home, which is never a luxury but always a necessity. In order to address this issue,
attention has been focused on inexpensive building materials. The most common and widely used
masonry material in Nigeria for walling units in residential, commercial, and industrial structures
is sandcrete block.
1.2 Sandcrete Blocks
Sandcrete blocks are a type of building material made from a mixture of sand, cement, and water.
The sand used in making the blocks is usually sourced locally and can be a mixture of sharp sand,
gravel, or stone dust. The cement used can be either ordinary Portland cement or a mixture of
Portland cement and pozzolanic materials like fly ash, rice husk ash, or ground granulated blast
furnace slag.
The mixture of sand, cement, and water is typically molded into a block shape using a block-
making machine or by hand. The blocks are then left to cure for a period of time, typically 14 to
28 days, to achieve the desired strength.
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Sandcrete blocks are commonly used in construction in many parts of the world, particularly in
developing countries like Nigeria. They are relatively affordable and easy to produce, and can be
used for both load-bearing and non-load-bearing walls. However, the quality of sandcrete blocks
can vary widely depending on the materials and methods used in their production.
Sandcrete blocks are widely used in construction in many parts of the world, particularly in Africa.
They are preferred for their relative affordability, ease of production, and availability of raw
materials. The blocks are used for both load-bearing and non-load-bearing walls, and can be used
for the construction of both residential and commercial buildings.
The production of sandcrete blocks involves mixing sand, cement, and water in the right
proportions to achieve a workable mixture. The proportion of sand to cement varies depending on
the type of sand and cement used, as well as the desired strength and quality of the blocks. The
mixture is then molded into block shapes using a block-making machine or by hand.
After molding, the blocks are left to cure for a period of time, typically 14 to 28 days, to achieve
the desired strength. During this period, the blocks should be kept moist to prevent them from
drying out too quickly, which can result in cracks and reduced strength.
Sandcrete blocks are available in various sizes and shapes, including solid blocks, hollow blocks,
and interlocking blocks. Hollow blocks are popular because they are lighter in weight than solid
blocks, making them easier to handle and transport. Interlocking blocks, on the other hand, have a
unique design that allows them to be easily fitted together without the need for mortar or cement.
However, the quality of sandcrete blocks produced can vary widely depending on the materials
and methods used in their production. Poor quality blocks can have low compressive strength, high
water absorption, and low density, which can lead to structural problems in buildings. Therefore,
it is important to ensure that sandcrete blocks are produced using quality materials and methods to
ensure their durability and strength.
Sandcrete blocks are composite materials produced from cement, sand and water, moulded into
different sizes (Barr,1999). Nigerian industrial standard defines a block as a masonry unit
exceeding the size of a brick in any dimension. Sandcrete block are composite materials made up
of cement, fine aggregates(sand) and water produced by extrusion (NIS 978:2017). Over 90% of
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the buildings in Nigeria are made of sandcrete blocks (Baiden and Tuuli, 2004). In Nigeria, Togo,
and other poor nations, sandcrete blocks are frequently used to create foundations, dividing walls,
and other walling components. (NIS 87:2000) came up with the best strategy to regulate the
manufacturing process, evaluate the quality of the materials used in block production, and produce
reference papers that covered the minimum specifications and applications for various types of
sandcrete blocks in Nigeria. According to Ogunbayo et al. (2018), successful housing projects
require a standard design, good planning, and high-quality building materials. These elements must
be monitored and controlled by governmental regulations and construction experts. When
hardened, sandcrete blocks often have significant compressive strengths, and these strengths
typically increase with density. In NIS 978:2017, the range of the minimum strength requirement
is given as 1.5 N/mm2 for 150 mm and 3.5 N/mm2 for 225 mm sandcrete hollow blocks. Abdullahi
(2005) holds the view that the types of manufacturing procedures employed and the characteristics
of the material composition led to variation in the blocks' production quality. The research also
emphasized that certain sandcrete blocks made in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria, did not meet the
minimum Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS) criterion for compressive strength. And as a result of
poor practices with the predetermined blend design. According to Afolayan, Arum, and Daramola
(2008), quality management practices have a direct impact on the strength of sandcrete blocks.
Uzoamaka (1977) found that low voids in sand properties and water sprinkling type curing tend to
improve compressive strength of sandcrete blocks. According to (Abdullahi 2005), optimal
material selection and a correct curing procedure improve the quality of sandcrete blocks. The
constant building collapses and casual attitude toward material testing to determine the strength
and behavior of building materials under applied loads are two of the biggest problems facing the
construction industry today. According to Sholanke, Fagbenle, Aderonmu, and Ajagbe (2015), the
usage of subpar building materials, such as blocks and bricks, is what causes structures to collapse.
In order to guarantee excellent quality, it is also vital to make sure that the manufacture of sandcrete
blocks and bricks is standardized and controlled. Another important aspect of sandcrete blocks is
their thermal insulation properties. Sandcrete blocks have good thermal insulation properties,
which means that they can help to regulate the temperature inside buildings, making them
comfortable to live or work in.
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In addition to their thermal insulation properties, sandcrete blocks also have good fire resistance
properties. This is because they are made of non-combustible materials and do not emit toxic gases
when exposed to fire. This makes them a safe choice for building construction.
However, it is important to note that sandcrete blocks have some limitations. For example, they
may not be suitable for buildings in areas with high seismic activity or areas prone to flooding. In
such cases, alternative building materials and methods may be more appropriate.
Overall, sandcrete blocks are a widely used and versatile building material that offer a range of
benefits, including affordability, ease of production, thermal insulation, and fire resistance.
However, their quality can vary widely depending on the materials and methods used in their
production, so it is important to ensure that they are produced using quality materials and methods
to ensure their strength and durability.
1.3 Statement of Problem
Sandcrete blocks are the basic essential material used in building constructions, which must be
molded to standard to ensure the construction of a rigid and durable structure. Most block moulding
manufacturers fault in the moulding process of said sandcrete blocks, in reference to the mix ratio
used in moulding the sandcrete blocks. Hence,the investigation of the quality of commercial
hollow sandcrete blocks, particularly in Lagos state.
1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study
The aim of this project is to investigate the quality of commercial hollow sandcrete blocks in
Lagos State, evaluating the quality of sandcrete blocks used for construction. The densities,
compressive strength and water absorption rate of sandcrete blocks produced in Lagos.
Specific objectives Includes:
i) To determine the compressive strength of the sandcrete hollow blocks.
ii) To determine the water absorption of the sandcrete blocks.
iii) To determine the density of the sandcrete blocks.
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1.5 Scope of Study
Random Sandcrete blocks samples were collected from 20 local government areas in Lagos state,
three locations per each local government. The scope of this report is limited to Ikorodu, Kosofe
and Epe local government area of Lagos state. A total of 90 blocks where randomly collected from
these three local governments, 10 blocks per three locations in each local government.
1.6 Significance of Study
Proper investigation of the quality of commercial hollow sandcrete blocks produced in the
municipality aids in establishing whether the standards are adhered to, thereby reducing the risk
of loss of life and properties.
1.7 Justification of Study
Of recent, there has been the frequent disheartening news of building collapses, consuming life
and properties. There are varieties of reasons that can contribute to or cause the happening of such
disaster, but they all boil down to the use of substandard building materials, in which the sandcrete
block is one. Block manufacturers nationwide mostly do not carry out proper tests on the blocks
they sell, most of them do not use the standard mix ratio in the production of these blocks, hence
giving rise to the risk of losing life and property. This project seeks to investigate which local
government in Lagos State follows the standard.
1.8 Research Outlines
Chapter one gives a brief summary about sandcrete blocks its characteristic strength, uses,
causative problems and solutions, definition of terms. Chapter two deals with brief write up on
Lagos state, previous work done by other scholars on sandcrete blocks. Chapter three talks about
the study methodology, tests, apparatus and procedures. Chapter four discuss about the results and
discussions from the test performed. Chapter five explain about the conclusion of the study and
recommendations where necessary.
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1.9 Definition of Terms
a) Batching: The process of mixing the composite materials (cement and sand) by volume or
weight to produce sandcrete blocks of the required strength.
b) Block: Masonry unit exceeding the size of a brick in any dimension.
c) Cement: Portland cement produced in accordance to NIS 444-1:2014 and classified as CEM I
and CEM II
d) Compressive strength: Average value for the crushing of five blocks.
e) Crushing strength: maximum load a test piece of sandcrete block can sustain in compression.
f) Fine aggregate (Sand): material produced by natural disintegration of rock (referred to as

natural sand) or by crushing a hard stone or rock (referred to as crushed stone) which is capable of
passing through 5mm sieve.
g) Hollow block: block which has one or more formed holes or cavities which pass through the
block.
h) Load bearing block: block manufactured to part of a structure which acts as a support for the
whole structure, helping to transmit weight to the foundation.
i) mould: mould are made of metals, which are used for casting the blocks either manually or
mechanically.
j) moulding: casting of the sandcrete blocks into shape with rigid metal molds of different sizes.
k) Sandcrete block: composite material made up of cement, fine aggregate (sand) and water
produced by extrusion.
l) solid block: block which contains no formed holes or cavities other than those inherent in the
material.
m) water: clean water fit for drinking and free from deleterious materials.
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n) wooden pallets: flat non absorbent wooden board used to support freshly formed sandcrete
block.
1.10 Limitation of the study
No study is completely flawless or inclusive of all possible aspects. Therefore, the limitation of
the study are in bid to carry out a well detailed and comprehensive study in which its results can
be used as an acceptable standard for the assessment of sandcrete blocks produced in Lagos state,
more tests have to be carried out in a more controlled environment. However, this study will
oversee the experimentation of some tests based on the availability of required apparatus and
feasibility of the procedure involved. It is recommended that subsequent study be carried out
addressing other required laboratory tests.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Blocks
Blocks are commonly used in construction in many parts of the world. They are the dominant units
for modern wall construction in Nigeria and indeed West Africa. They are of many types
depending on the constituent materials. The constituents also determine the structural
characteristics of the blocks. The major types are sandcrete blocks (water, cement and river sand),
sandcrete blocks (water, cement and laterite), concrete blocks, bricks (burnt clay and additives)
and mud blocks. The blocks are made by mixing sand, cement, and water, and then casting them
into molds. The resulting blocks are strong, durable, and relatively inexpensive, making them a
popular building material. However, there have been concerns about the quality of sandcrete
hollow blocks, especially in terms of their strength, durability, and resistance to environmental
factors such as moisture and temperature. The blocks come in various sizes and shapes and can
also be classified as hollow or solid blocks and are bonded with binders, usually sand-cement
mortar or lime. Blocks, according to Project National de Research/Development (1994), can be
regarded as a member of the concrete family. This is especially true for sandcrete blocks which
differ from concrete by the non-inclusion of coarse aggregate in the mix. Of the various types of
blocks, the most common in Nigeria is sandcrete blocks. Efforts have been made to encourage the
use of the other types of blocks especially sandcrete blocks.
In this literature review, we will explore various studies that have investigated the properties and
performance of sandcrete hollow blocks. To this regard, a lot of research work has been carried
out on the use of sandcrete blocks in building projects in Nigeria.
2.2 Sandcrete Blocks
Sandcrete blocks are composite material made up of cement, sand and water, moulded into
different sizes (Barry 1969). Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS): 87- 2004) defined sandcrete as a
composite material made up of water, cement and sand. It differs from concrete in terms of material
composition because of the non-inclusion of coarse aggregate in the mix, and from mortar in that
the slump is zero. As a matter of fact, sandcrete is often referred to as zero slump concrete. The
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behavior of sandcrete is similar to that of concrete and for that reason the terms concrete and
sandcrete will be used interchangeably in this work. Sandcrete blocks are by far the most common
type of block used in modern day construction in Nigeria. The major constituents are water,
cement, and sand. The sand, according to the NIS 87: (2004) “Shall be river, crushed or pit sand,
clean and sharp and free from loam, dirt, organic or chemical matter of any description.” Their
major advantages as compared to the other types of block are their easy mode of production and
the speed of laying them. Their major setback is obviously their poor thermal and hygrometric
properties. This can greatly affect their durability especially when they are permanently exposed
to the elements. To improve these properties, the walls formed with sandcrete blocks are normally
rendered with cement-sand mortar. Sandcrete blocks are classified as solid or hollow blocks.
Hollow blocks have cavities in them while the solid ones have no cavities. The length, width and
height of the major sizes of sandcrete blocks produced in Nigeria are as follows:
(i) 450 x 225x 225mm (hollow)
(ii) 450 x 150 x 225mm (hollow)
(iii) 450 x 150 x 225mm (solid)
(iv) 450 x 125 x 225mm (solid).
The 450 x 225 x 225mm hollow blocks are usually used in load bearing walls.
2.2.1 Properties of sandcrete hollow blocks:

Several studies have investigated the properties of sandcrete hollow blocks. A study by Oyediran
et al. (2006) found that the compressive strength of sandcrete hollow blocks varies depending on
the mix proportions of sand, cement, and water. The study also found that the water-cement ratio
has a significant impact on the strength of the blocks. Another study by Olutoge et al. (2017)
investigated the thermal conductivity of sandcrete hollow blocks and found that the blocks have a
low thermal conductivity, making them a suitable material for insulation.
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2.2.2 Performance of sandcrete hollow blocks:
The performance of sandcrete hollow blocks has also been investigated in various studies. A study
by Agbede et al. (2018) investigated the effect of curing time on the compressive strength of
sandcrete hollow blocks. The study found that longer curing times led to higher compressive
strength. Another study by Adeyeye and Oyedepo (2014) investigated the effect of water
absorption on the strength and durability of sandcrete hollow blocks. The study found that blocks
with higher water absorption rates had lower strength and durability.
2.2.3 Environmental factors:

Environmental factors such as moisture and temperature can affect the properties and performance
of sandcrete hollow blocks. A study by Adegoke and Adegoke (2013) investigated the effect of
moisture on the compressive strength of sandcrete hollow blocks. The study found that moisture
significantly reduced the strength of the blocks. Another study by Oyedepo and Olofinnade (2015)
investigated the effect of temperature on the thermal conductivity of sandcrete hollow blocks. The
study found that higher temperatures led to higher thermal conductivity.
However, in spite of the reported comparative saving in cost and the formulation of suitable mixes
to meet the requirements as walling units (Agbede and Manasseh, 2008, Adam, 2001,Boeck et al,
2000, Komolafe, 1986, Madedor, 1992, Aggarwal and Holmes, 1983), the use of sandcrete in
modern building construction in Nigeria, to say the least, is not encouraging. The same goes for
bricks.
2.2.4 Constituents of Sandcrete blocks.
Sandcrete blocks are traditionally made of a mixture of water, cement and sand (fine aggregates).
Recent practice in sandcrete block production often includes the partial replacement of the sand
with quarry dust or with coarse aggregates. This has been found to improve the strength and
water absorption properties of the blocks.
(a) Cement
. Cement plays an indispensable role in concrete production as it is the main material that
binds the constituents into a compact whole (Shetty, 2005, Neville, 2011). It is a product
resulting from the burning at very high temperatures (1300- 1500oC) of certain proportions
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of ground calcareous materials such as limestone or chalk and argillaceous materials like
clay or shale. The materials fuse into balls called clinker which is allowed to cool. The
cooled clinker is then ground with gypsum added to improve its properties. The resulting
product is called Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and is in the form of fine powder which,
when mixed with water, forms a paste. Ordinary Portland cement is the most common type
of cement used in everyday construction works. Table 2.1 and Table 2.2.respectively show
the major compounds and oxides in a typical Portland cement. Many other types of cement
can be produced from OPC by doing any or combinations of the following:
(i) finer grinding of the clinker,

(ii) adding other chemicals such as calcium chloride,
(iii) altering the quantities of the oxides or compounds (see Tables 2.1 and 2.2) in the
cement and
(iv) Blending OPC intimately with Portland blast furnace slag.
The other types of cement include: Rapid hardening cement, Sulphate resisting cement, Low heat
cement, Extra rapid hardening cement, Portland slag cement to mention but a few.
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Table 1: Main compounds in OPC
Name of compound Oxide Abbreviation
composition/formula
Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S
Dicalcium silicate. 2CaOSiO2 C2S
Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF
Source (Neville, 2011, Shetty, 2005)
Table 2: Oxide composition of a typical Ordinary Portland cement
Oxide Content, ( percent )
CaO 60 - 67
SiO2 17- 25
Al2O3 3-8
Fe2O3 0.5 - 6
MgO 0.5 - 4
Alkalis (as Na2O) 0.3 -1.2
SO3 2.0 - 3.5
Source: (Neville, 2011)
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When cement and water are combined, the compounds undergo physical and chemical
changes. The cement is being hydrated during this procedure. This procedure turns the
cement-water paste into the hydrated cement, a solid, hard binding material. The paste first
stiffens (sets) during this process, then hardens (gains strength) over time. The various
compounds contribute differentially to the rate of strength development of the hydrated
cement because they hydrate at various rates and create heat over various time periods. The
presence of moisture or exposure to air may significantly affect the characteristics of
cement. For this reason, it is recommended that cement always be stored in a dry location
and never be left out in the open or exposed to the weather.
(b) Fine aggregates
In most cases, aggregates make up at least 75 percent of the volume of concrete and are an
inert filler. In lean mixes, this proportion is considerably higher in mixtures used to make
sandcrete blocks. It is preferable to put as much aggregate into the concrete as possible
since it is less expensive than cement. An excessive amount of aggregate "confers
considerable technical advantages on the concrete, which has a higher volume stability and
better durability than hydrated paste alone" (Neville, 2011).
Aggregates can be categorized in a variety of ways, including: In terms of size, there are
fine and coarse aggregates; in terms of source, there are natural and synthetic aggregates;
in terms of weight, there are lightweight and dense aggregates; in terms of particle form,
there are rounded, irregular, angular, and flaky; and in terms of particle gradation, there
are well-graded, poorly-graded, and gap-graded particles.
In general, coarse aggregates are those with particle sizes larger than 5mm while fine
aggregates are those with particle sizes less than 5mm. However, the latest British and
European standard (BS EN 12620, 2002) establishes 4mm as the boundary between fine
and coarse aggregates. Sand, gravel, and broken rocks such as granite, basalt, sandstone,
and quartzite are examples of natural aggregates. Natural aggregates are created when
materials occur naturally, such as when rocks weather. On the other hand, produced
artificial aggregates including sintered fly ash, aluminum slag, and swollen clay are
available. Lightweight aggregates are defined as having oven-dry particle densities of less
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than 2000 kg/m3, and large weight 31 aggregates are defined as having densities greater
than 3000 kg/m3. The medium weight aggregate (BS EN 206-1, 2000) is situated between
these two. An aggregate that has all the various sizes in the right proportions is highly
graded. These aggregates produce superior concrete because the smaller particles can
always fill in the spaces left by the larger ones, resulting in a structure that is more tightly
packed. Again, they improve the workability of the concrete. While badly graded
aggregates contain excessive ratios of the sizes, gap graded aggregates have certain sizes
missing. In terms of strength and workability, neither of these ingredients produces the
"best" concrete. For concrete works, the ideal aggregate is well-graded, inert, well-
textured, well-shaped, and hard. According to NIS 87 (2004), the sand that will be used to
create sandcrete blocks "shall be river, crushed, or pit sand, clean and sharp and free from
clay, loam, dirt, organic, or chemical matter of any description." The grading requirements
for sand to be utilized in the manufacture of sandcrete blocks are stated in Table 2.3 of NIS
87: (2004).
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Table 3: NIS 87: (2004) Grading Requirement For Fine Aggregates
Sieve sizes Grading Zones
Percentage weight passing sieves
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
9.5mm 100 100 100 100
4.75mm 90 - 100 90 – 100 90 - 100 95 - 100
2.36mm 60 - 95 75 - 100 85 - 100 95 - 100
1.18mm 30 – 70 55 – 90 75 - 100 90 - 100
600µmm 15 – 34 35 – 59 60 - 79 80 - 100
(c) Water
Water plays an indispensable role in concrete production. Both the quality and quantity of
the water is of great importance. Water is needed during the mixing process and also during
the curing period. The quantity of water used in concrete production is usually expressed
in relation to the cement content, hence the term water/cement (w/c) ratio. This ratio must
be carefully controlled as it greatly affects the strength, workability and durability of the
concrete. A very low w/c ratio will lead to poor hydration of the cement resulting in reduced
strength and low durability. The workability of the concrete will also be poor. Very high
ratios also have similar end effects, as the concrete will even flow.
The quality of the water is often not given enough attention during concrete production.
Many dissolved solids and suspended solids in water may greatly affect the quality and
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strength of the concrete. The Cement and Concrete Association of Australia (2002)
recommends the mixing water for concrete to be potable and this is the generally accepted
quality for water used in concrete production. In some instances, there may be more
stringent restrictions placed on mixing water. Impurities that if in high concentration in
water may make the water not suitable for concrete production include chlorides,
suspended solid and sodium sulphate. Allowable maximum amount of impurities in mixing
water is given in BS EN 1008 (2002) and ASTM C 1602 (2006). Water with pH value less
than 6 or higher than 9 is also not acceptable for concrete production. Sea water contains
high level of chloride which can lead to rapid corrosion of the steel reinforcement bars
especially when the concrete is porous and no adequate cover is provided for the
reinforcement bars. Since these factors cannot always be taken care of, it is advisable to
avoid making reinforced concrete with sea water (Shetty, 2005). The requirement of water
for concrete curing is less stringent. However, the water should not contain impurities,
dissolved or suspended which will stain or attack the hardened concrete.
Many research works done to determine the compressive strength of commercially

available sandcrete blocks produced at various locations in Nigeria show very
disappointing results. For example, Mahmoud et al (2010) carried out tests on both 450 x
225 x 225 and 450 x225 x 150 mm blocks from five different manufacturers in Yola,
Northern Nigeria. They found that their strength ranged from 0.31 to 1.36N/mm2 and 0.12
to 1.46N/mm2 respectively. These values are far below the minimum recommended values
of NIS 87: (2004). The results obtained by Mahmoud et al (2010) merely corroborated
those previously obtained by Abdullahi, (2005) and Banuso and Ejeh (2008) who,
respectively, investigated the compressive strengths of commercially produced sandcrete
blocks in Minna and Kaduna, both, prominent cities in Northern Nigeria.Similar poor
results were obtained in Southern Nigeria. These are detailed in works by Olufisayo (2013),
Okere (2012),Anosike and Oyebande, (2012) and Umenwaliri and Ezenwamma (2008).
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(b) Durability
Durability is that property of concrete that requires it to “Continue to perform its intended
functions, that is, maintain its strength and serviceability, during the specified or expected
service life” (Neville, 2011). Shetty (2005) defined durability of concrete as “Its ability to
resist weathering action, chemical attacks, abrasion, or any other process of deterioration.”
The durability of the concrete can be affected by chemical attack through the actions of
aggressive ions such as chlorides, sulphates and many other natural or industrial liquids
and gases. Physical factors such as high temperatures and thermal expansion of the
aggregates in the hardened concrete can also lead to extensive deterioration of the concrete.
Much emphasis is placed on the strength properties of concrete than any other property as
durability. This may be because the strength properties usually provide a better picture on
the quality of the concrete. However, there may be some situations when durability and
other considerations may be of greater importance (Neville, 2011). Such may be the case
when concrete for water retaining structures is under consideration. Durable concrete is
dense, water tight and able to resist, to a reasonable extent, changes resulting from adverse
effects of the elements and mechanical damage. There are many properties that are used
as an indicator of the durability of concrete. Most of these are based on the permeability of
the hardened concrete (Long et al, 2001, Basheer et al, 1994, Neville, 2011). One of such
properties is water absorption test in which a totally dry concrete sample is completely
immersed in water for say, 24 hours. The difference between the weight before and after
immersion, expressed as a percentage of the dry weight, gives the percentage water
absorption.
2.2.5 Manufacture of Sandcrete Blocks.
The production of sandcrete blocks can be discussed under the following sub headings: (a)
Batching and Mixing (b) Compaction and Demoulding (c) Curing and (d) Storage and
Transportation.
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(a) Batching and Mixing
Batching is the process of measuring out the various quantities of the components. This
can be done by mass or by volume. Of the two, batching by mass is professionally
preferable as it eliminates errors due to the variations contained in a specific volume.
However, most producers, especially those that batch manually, use the volume batching
process because it is simpler and much more convenient than weight batching. Manual
batching is done using head pans, wheel barrows or specially constructed wooden gauge
boxes with a bag of cement taken to be twice the volume of a head pan and the same volume
as a wheel barrow. The use of the wooden boxes for batching is becoming obsolete.
Cements is usually supplied in bags of 50kg net weight. Batching using head pans or wheel
barrows does not make for uniformity as these volumes measured are greatly dependent on
the state and size of the head pans or wheel barrows. It should be noted that sand is usually
supplied wet and it is in this wet condition that it is most often used. The quantity of water
added to the mix must therefore be adjusted to compensate for the water in the wet sand.
Furthermore, since sandcrete is a zero slump concrete, the amount of mixing water added
is of great importance. Too little or too much water will cause the block to fail immediately
after demoulding. Mixing is done either manually (with shovels or spades) or mechanically
(using concrete mixers of various capacities). Large producers generally use mixers. This
offers a more uniform and homogenous mix, especially when the volume is large. In
manual mixing the components are mixed using shovels or spades and turned over several
times until a homogenous mix is obtained. Whatever method is adopted, adequate mixing
is necessary to achieve uniform colour and texture between block batches, prevent
variations in strength and minimize web cracks (Portland Cement Association, 1975).
(b) Compaction.
Compaction is a very important process in block production. Compaction is achieved by
mechanical vibration or manual (hand) compaction. Manual compaction is less effective
and is adopted by small scale producers. One block is produced at a time using a locally
manufactured mould. The compaction is effected using a tamping rod. Great care is needed
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in demoulding the block in order not to introduce cracks in it. There are basically three
types of machines used in block moulding in Nigeria. Some of these in addition to
compaction also vibrate the blocks. The machine type greatly affects the quality and the
required water used in the block production. The three major types of machines are (i) Egg
laying machines (ii) Electric vibrating machine and (III) Manual hand press machines.
(i) Egg layingmachine: The egg laying machines are usually of the Rosa Commetta
type that can lay up to ten blocks at a time. This is usually used for mass production and
the process can be automated, leading to great hourly output of about 300 -500 blocks.
Both pressure and vibration are applied and blocks of high quality can be produced with
these machines. The blocks are usually laid on bare surfaces without pallets and are
removed for storage after 2-3 days of production.
(ii) Vibrating machines: These machines are commonly used by medium scale
producers. They are electrically operated or diesel powered. The majority of the machines
are designed to produce one block at a time with the block vibrated for about 10 to 15
seconds. Few, however, can produce up to three blocks at a time. The blocks are produced
on pallets and carried to the place of temporary storage. They can provide adequate
compaction. Care must be taken while moving the green blocks on the pallet to the place
of temporary storage so as to prevent cracks resulting from vibration while moving the
blocks.
(iii) Hand Press Machine: The hand press machine is manually operated. Demoulding
is achieved through a series of levers. The hand press machine does not compact as well
as the egg laying and vibrating machines and hence produces blocks of lower quality. One
block is moulded at a time.
(c) Curing: Curing of sandcrete blocks is necessary to enable the blocks develop
adequate or optimum strength by allowing for proper hydration of the cement. Green
blocks that are exposed to high temperatures loose water rapidly by evaporation, resulting
in weak blocks. Thus it is recommended that newly produced blocks be placed in covered
shades and protected from the adverse effect of the elements. Works by Uzomaka (1977)
19 | P a g e
and Rahman (1968) suggest curing by sprinkling with water as the best method of curing,
from strength and convenience point of view. 42 This is the most common method
employed by commercial block producers. Sprinkling should be done at least twice in a
day. NIS 87 (2004) requires that the blocks be left on the pallets for at least 24 hours and
be cured for at least 3 days. Adequate care must be taken when removing the pallets for
another production so that cracks are not induced in the blocks.
(d) Storage of Cured Blocks: Cured blocks are removed to storage to provide space
for new productions. The blocks need adequate care at this stage. Many blocks are normally
damaged at this stage due to poor handling. NIS 87: (2004) requires that the blocks be
stacked not more than 5 courses high. The blocks are now ready for use.
2.2.6 Factors Affecting the Strength of Sandcrete Blocks
The factors that affect the quality and strength of sandcrete blocks can be divided into three namely
(i) those related to the quality and relative proportions of the constituents
(ii) those related to the manufacturing process and
(iii) age of the block.
(i) Factors Related To The Quality And Relative Proportions Of The Constituents.
Of interest here are (i) aggregate gradation (ii) cement /aggregate ratio and (iii)
water/cement ratio.
Aggregate gradation - has a great influence on both the strength and physical properties of
the blocks. The ideal gradation is a well graded aggregate which will provide a dense pack
where spaces between the big particles will be filled by the smaller ones. Such gradation
also makes for minimum volume change due to shrinkage. Poorly graded or gap graded
aggregate produce less dense blocks and may also be less workable.
20 | P a g e
The cement/aggregate ratio - is one of the most important factors affecting the strength of
blocks. An increase in this ratio leads to an increase in strength. Gooding and Thomas
(1997) showed that whereas doubling the compaction effort produced a 23% increase in
compressive strength of sandcrete blocks, doubling the cement content produced a
whopping 140% increase. NIS 87:
(2004) recommends cement/sand ratio of 1:6 for sandcrete block production.
The water/cement ratio - is very important in sandcrete block production. Unlike concrete
which is allowed to set in forms, sandcrete blocks are demoulded immediately after
compaction. This greatly reduces the range of water/cement ratio over which the blocks
can be made. The water/cement ratio should be such that allows for proper hydration of
the cement yet allowing the green blocks to stand unsupported after demoulding. Uzomaka
(1975) gave suitable water/cement ratios for block production as ranging from 0.4 to 0.6.
Like concrete, strength of blocks is known to decrease with increase in water/cement ratio.
Too dry a mix will lead to fracture during demoulding while high water/cement ratio will
cause shrinkage and distortion in blocks (Tyler, 1961).
(b) Factors Related To The Manufacturing Process.
The two most important factors here are the degree of compaction and the curing process.
Omoregie (2012) showed that the strength of sandcrete blocks is improved with better
compaction. The degree of compaction is greatly dependent on the type of moulding
machine used. Umenwaliri and Ezenwamma (2008) studied the effect of production
methods on the strength of sandcrete blocks and concluded that the production method
(compaction) affects the strength of the blocks. Strength of vibrated block is improved
when additional surcharge is provided. It should be noted, however, that increasing
compaction does not necessarily imply a more economic production (Gooding and
Thomas, 1997).
21 | P a g e
2.2.7 Properties and Strength Characteristics of Sandcrete Blocks
The properties exhibited by sandcrete blocks are dependent on their production condition different
methods employed in the production and the properties of the constituent materials. Factors like
curing temperature, presence of admixture, water (salty or portable), compaction method, time
difference between mixing and compaction greatly affect the property of sandcrete blocks (Oyekan
G.I and Kamiyo O.M, 2008). The quality of blocks produced however, differs from each industry
(Abdullahi 2005, 126). Alohan Omoregie (2012) claims that there is evidence to suggest a wide
variation in compressive strength from one block manufacturer to another and also within block
samples from a single source. This problem has been attributed to poor quality control and
substandard constituent materials.
Why assessing the quality and properties of sandcrete blocks manufactured in Lagos?
The need for this assessment has arisen from two major considerations namely:
(I) To ascertain whether or not standards are being complied with as regards sandcrete
block production.
(II) To provide additional information about the engineering properties of sandcrete

blocks manufactured in the state.
2.3 Conclusion:
In conclusion, sandcrete hollow blocks are a popular building material that has been extensively
studied. The properties and performance of the blocks depend on various factors such as the mix
proportions of sand, cement, and water, curing time, and environmental factors such as moisture
and temperature. Future studies could investigate the effect of other factors such as the use of
additives or alternative materials in the production of sandcrete hollow blocks.
22 | P a g e
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Preamble
For the purpose of this study, a total of ninety (90) units of sandcrete blocks were collected across
three local governments in the State (Ibeju-Lekki, Apapa And Oshodi-Isolo LGAs). All the
samples are 450mm x 225mm x 225mm in dimensions approximately. Three different block
manufacturers were selected at random within each local government and ten samples were gotten
from each of those locations.To provide a basis for comparison of the test results with the standard,
twenty block samples were also produced to serve as control experimental units. The following
tests: compressive strength, water absorption and density were carried out.
3.2 Assesment Apparatus
The equipment used for this research work include;
• Compressive Strength apparatus
• Drying Oven
• Steel Measuring Tape
• Curing Tank
3.3 Characteristics Tests
According to NIS 978: 2017, the blocks were assessed for;
 Compressive Strength Test

 Water Absorption Test
 Density
23 | P a g e
3.3.1 Compressive Strength
Compressive strength is the ratio of the compressive load that a sample can withstand to its
surface area. An electrical compression testing machine with a maximum load capacity of
ELE2000 kN was used for this test.
Sand concrete blocks were tested for their post 28th day of manufacture. The contact surface of the
compression testing machine was wiped clean. Loose sand and other materials were removed from
the ends of the sample. The sample was placed on a weighed balance to determine their weight
and then placed on a 6mm thick steel base plate in the compressive strength testing machine and
its axis was carefully aligned with the impact point of the rectangular tie plate with a 6mm thick
base plate on the test block to distribute the load onto the Sandcrete block. The activation knob
was then switched and the applied load was gradually increased while carefully observing the load
and the corresponding values on the digital dial. The increase in load was represented by a dial
reading on the face of the machine and immediately failure occurs the reading dial stops signifying
compressional failure leaving the printed load reading beside the dial. Then broken sample was
removed from the machine by releasing a knob to remove pressure from the sample and releasing
the lever, the machine was stopped, and the compressing load of the block was recorded.
The universal compression testing machine was used to crush blocks and record the crushing load.
The compressive strength was obtained from the following equation:
Where Fc = the compressive strength
P = crushing load in kN
A = cross-sectional area of the specimen in m2
24 | P a g e
Three blocks were tested for each block size and the average taken as the compressive strength
of the size.
Table 4 – Minimum Compressive strength at 28 days
Types of Blocks Dimension (mm) Strength Test
Length Height Thickness Web (Average of 5 blocks)
(L) (H) (T) thickness (mpa)

(w)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm)
Hollow Load 450 225 225 50 3.5 minimum
Bearing
Hollow Non Load 450 225 150 37.5 1.5 minimum
Bearing
3.3.2 Water Absorption Test
Water-absorption test is a test to determine the moisture content of soil as a percentage of its
dry weight (British Standard 1377, 1967). Water absorption is used to determine the amount
of water absorbed under specified conditions. Factors affecting water absorption include: type
of plastic, additives used, temperature and length of exposure. The data sheds light on the
performance of the materials in water or humid environments.
Water absorption rate is determined by measuring the difference in mass of saturated block and
surface dry sample. A ventilated oven, weighing balance and a curing tank were used in the
water absorption test on the sandcrete block used for this research.
25 | P a g e
Apparatus
 A sensitive balance capable of weighing within 0.1 % of mass of ample

 A curing tank
 A well ventilated oven.
Procedure
 Dry the blocks in a ventilated oven at a temperature of 110 to 115 degree Celsius till after
it attains constant mass.
 Cool the block to ambient temperature and obtain its dry mass (M1)
Testing
 Immerse completely dried blocks in clean water at a temperature of 27± 2 degree Celsius
for 24 hours. Remove the specimen and wipe off any traces of water with damp cloth and
weigh the block again (M2).
NOTE: Complete the weighing within 3 minutes after removal from water.
Result
Water absorption by mass after 24 hours immersion in cold water is calculated as;
Water absorption (%) =
The average of the results obtained shall be regarded as the water absorption of the block.
3.3.3 Density
The density of a solid is the ratio of its mass to its volume. A weighing balance was the primary
tool used in the procedure. As stated in Appendix D of the NIS 978: 2017, the alternative
26 | P a g e
procedure was employed. After adequately sun-drying the blocks their weights were recorded
and their volumes were computed from the product of the length, width and height of the block
excluding the three dimensions of the hollow areas.
Density (kg/m^3) =
27 | P a g e
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The followings are the results obtained from assessment of the 90 sandcrete block samples.
Also the results of the physical properties of the materials used are presented. The results are
analyzed using the NIS 978:2017 as a basis for check and conclusions were drawn and
discussed.
4.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
The compressive strength of each block according to Clause 4.3, Table 1 of the NIS 978:2017
is a minimum of 1.5 N/mm2 for hollow non-load bearing and a minimum of 3.5 N/mm2 for 225
mm hollow load bearing. The crushing strength is calculated from the formula in equation 1.6
Crushing strength (N/mm2 ) = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑁) …………..eqn. 1.6
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 (𝑚𝑚2)
The results below shows the compressive strength of all sandcrete hollow block samples after
28 days.
28 | P a g e
4.1.0 Crushing Readings Ibeju-Lekki Local Government Area
Table 5: Crushing Readings Ibeju-Lekki Local Government Area Location 1

SANDCRETE BLOCK TEST RESULT
CLIENT : YCT
PROJECT : RESEARCH YCT
IBEJU-LEKKI GOVERNMENT L1
9'' HOLLOW SANDCRETE BLOCKS
S/N 1 2 3 REMARKS
1 SLUMP (mm) INFORMATION

2 Mix Ratio RECORDED AS
3 Water/Cement Ratio PROVIDED BY
4 Date of Manufacture THE CLIENT
5 Date of Test 14 12 2022
6 Age at time of test (days)
(460X225X225)-
7 Dimensions (mm) 2(180X165X225)
8 weight (gms) 22730 22710 22000 LABORATORY
9 Volume (cm3) 10440 10440 10440 RESULTS
10 Density (gm/cm) 2.17 2.17 2.10 AND
11 Cross-sectional area (mm2) X 102 46.4 46.4 46.4 COMPUTATION
12 Maximum Load (kn) 74.17 73.00 62.91
13 Compressive strength (N/mm2) 1.60 1.57 1.36
14 Average strength (N/mm2) xx 1.51 xx
29 | P a g e
CLIENT : YCT
S/N 1 2 3 REMARKS

(460X230X225)-
10 Density (gm/cc) 1.61 1.59 1.58 AND
12 Maximum Load (kn) 20.94 19.66 20.20
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CLIENT : YCT
S/N 1 2 3 REMARKS

(460X230X225)-
10 Density (gm/cc) 2.00 2.01 1.96 AND
12 Maximum Load (kn) 45.32 71.31 63.00
31 | P a g e
4.1.1 Crushing Readings Apapa Local Government Area
Table 8: Crushing Readings Apapa Local Government Area Location 1

CLIENT : YCT
APAPA LOCAL GOVERNMENT L1

S/N 1 2 3 REMARKS

(460X230X225)-
10 Density (gm/cc) 2.04 2.16 1.98 AND
12 Maximum Load (kn) 48.66 52.02 43.00
32 | P a g e
CLIENT : YCT

S/N 1 2 3 REMARKS

(460X230X225)-
10 Density (gm/cc) 1.70 1.72 1.73 AND
12 Maximum Load (kn) 20.66 21.73 31.00
33 | P a g e
CLIENT : YCT

S/N 1 2 3 REMARKS

(460X230X225)-
10 Density (gm/cc) 1.66 1.55 1.74 AND
12 Maximum Load (kn) 21.22 19.93 30.61
34 | P a g e
4.1.2 Crushing Readings Oshodi-Isolo Local Government Area
Table 11: Crushing Readings Oshodi-Isolo Local Government Area Location 1

CLIENT : YCT
OSHODI-ISOLO LOCAL GOVERNMENT L1

S/N 1 2 3 REMARKS

(460X230X225)-
10 Density (gm/cc) 1.62 1.68 1.63 AND
12 Maximum Load (kn) 20.69 23.12 20.78
35 | P a g e
CLIENT : YCT

S/N 1 2 3 REMARKS

7 Dimensions (mm) (460X230X225)-2(180X165X225)
10 Density (gm/cc) 1.71 1.73 1.76 AND
12 Maximum Load (kn) 20.83 27.21 28.04
36 | P a g e
CLIENT : YCT

S/N 1 2 3 REMARKS

7 Dimensions (mm) (460X230X225)-2(180X165X225)
10 Density (gm/cc) 2.07 1.97 2.00 AND
12 Maximum Load (kn) 62.73 35.06 60.07
37 | P a g e
Table 14: Summary of Compressive Strength of Blocks Samples
AVERAGE MINIMUM
COMPRESSIVE COMPRESSIVE
SOURCE LOCATION REMARKS
STRENGTH STRENGTH
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
Adequate for
IBEJU LOCATION non-load
L.G.A I 1.51 = 1.5, 3.5 bearing wall
LOCATION
II 0.43 < 1.5, 3.5 inadequate
LOCATION
III 1.29 < 1.5, 3.5 inadequate
APAPA LOCATION
L.G.A I 1.03 < 1.5, 3.5 inadequate
LOCATION
LOCATION
OSHODI LOCATION
L.G.A I 0.46 < 1.5, 3.5 inadequate
LOCATION
LOCATION
38 | P a g e
Table 14 shows that for 225mm blocks the minimum recommended strength of 1.5N/mm2 and
3.5N/mm2 for hollow non-load bearing and hollow load bearing block respectively was never
met. The highest value was tagged at 1.51N/mm2 for post 28 days of curing age with the lowest
value at 0.43N/mm2. This implies that all the block samples tested except Ibeju lekki LGA
location 1 which met the requirements for non-load bearing block wall only, are not close to
the required standard for the production of sandcrete blocks for use in any structure.
Represented below is the graphical representation of the compressive strength tests:
COMPRESSVE STRENGTH GRAPH

Ibeju-lekki local government
3.50
3.00
Standard Strength
2.50
2.00
1.51 1.59
1.50 1.29
1.00
0.50
0.00
1 2 3
AVerage Sample
Fig 1: Compressive Strength Graph For Ibeju-lekki local government of Blocks

Samples
39 | P a g e
Apapa local government
3.50
3.00
Standard Strength
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.03
1.00
0.53 0.51
0.50
0.00
1 2 3
AVerage Sample
Fig 2: Compressive Strength Graph For Apapa local government of Blocks Samples
Oshodi-isolo local government
3.50
3.00
Standard Strength
2.50
2.00
1.50 1.13
1.00
0.46 0.55
0.50
0.00
1 2 3
AVerage Sample
Fig 3: Compressive Strength Graph For Oshodi-isolo local government of Blocks Samples
40 | P a g e
4.2 WATER ABSORPTION TEST
Water absorption test was carried out to determine the amount of water that can be absorbed
by the block under the most extreme conditions. Factors that affect water absorption include
the temperature and duration of exposure. The table below shows the performance of the
blocks in water logged or humid environments for the three local governments:
4.2.0 WATER ABSORBTION READINGS

S/N LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA WEIGHT OF DRY WEIGHT OF WET
BLOCKS (KG) BLOCKS (KG)
A IBEJU-LEKKI Local Government Area
Location 1 – Abule panu busstop ibeju-
lekki
A 22.24 24.54
B 22.61 25.11
C 22.71 25.63
D 22.32 25.24
E 22.70 25.62
Location 2 – Igando ologa, ibejulekki

A 17.21 20.11
B 16.93 19.47
C 16.54 18.96
D 17.32 19.28
E 17.24 20.30
Location 3 – frageed busstop, ibejulekki

A 21.48 23.44
B 22.14 24.68
C 21.40 23.94
D 21.76 23.99
E 21.88 23.84
41 | P a g e
B APAPA Local Government Area
Location 1 – Ajeromi Ifelodun
A 21.24 23.78
B 22.32 24.22
C 21.48 24.38
D 21.87 23.83
E 22.09 25.15
Location 2 – Water Side

A 20.15 23.05
B 19.62 22.52
C 20.04 22.58
D 18.14 21.20
E 18.11 21.01
Location 3 – Boundary Ajegunle

A 17.15 20.72
B 20.11 23.13
C 20.25 22.54
D 18.72 21.81
E 20.43 23.42
C OSHODI-ISOLO Local Government Area

Location 1 – off Methodist Primary School
Oshodi
A 17.95 20.85
B 17.90 20.44
C 17.92 20.34
D 16.98 19.90
E 17.95 21.01
42 | P a g e
Location 2 – Totota Under bridge Ladipo
Oshodi
A 19.52 21.94
B 18.45 21.35
C 18.48 21.02
D 18.55 21.61
E 19.12 22.18
Location 3 – Christ Embassy Close,

Oshodi isolo.
A 22.15 25.05
B 20.23 22.68
C 22.04 25.10
D 21.68 24.13
E 22.14 25.04
Table 15: Water Absorption Results all Local Government Areas Table
4.2.1 IBEJU-LEKKI LOCAL GOVERNMENT WATER ABSORPTION REPORT

Location 1 – Abule panu bus stop ibeju-lekki
IBEJU-LEKKI LGA-LOCATION
1
1 2 3 4 5
M1 Weight of dry block 22.24 22.61 22.71 22.32 22.70
M2 Weight of wet block 24.54 25.11 25.63 25.24 25.62
Water Absorption (%) 10.34 11.05 12.85 13.08 12.86
Average water
absorption 12.03 < 13.51 (ok)
12% of M1 = 13.5
Table 16: Water Absorption Report For Ibeju-Lekki Local Government Location 1
43 | P a g e
Location 2 – igando ologa, ibeju-lekki
2
1 2 3 4 5
Average water
absorption 15.11 > 10.25 (fail)
12% of M1 = 10.23
Location 3 – frageed busstop, ibeju-lekki

3
1 2 3 4 5
Average water
12% of M1 = 13.04
44 | P a g e
4.2.2 APAPA LOCAL GOVERNMENT WATER ABSORPTION REPORT
Location 1 – Ajeromi Ifelodun
APAPA LGA-LOCATION 1
1 2 3 4 5
Average water
12% of M1 = 13.08
Table 19: Water Absorption Report For Apapa Local Government Location 1
Location 2 – Water Side
1 2 3 4 5
Average water
12% of M1 = 11.53
45 | P a g e
Location 3 – Boundary Ajegunle
1 2 3 4 5
Average water
12% of M1 = 11.56
4.2.3 OSHODI-ISOLO LOCAL GOVERNMENT WATER ABSORPTION REPORT

Location 1 – OFF METHODIST PRIMARY SCHOOL OSHOD
OSHODI-ISOLO LGA-
LOCATION 1
1 2 3 4 5
Average water
12% of M1 = 10.64
Table 22: Water Absorption Report For Oshodi-Isolo Local Government Location 1
46 | P a g e
Location 2 – TOTOTA UNDER BRIDGE LADIPO OSHODI
OSHODI-ISOLO LGA-
LOCATION 2
1 2 3 4 5
Average water
12% of M1 = 11.34
Location 3 – CHRIST EMBASSY CLOSE, OSHODI ISOLO.

OSHODI-ISOLO LGA-
LOCATION 3
1 2 3 4 5
Average water
12% of M1 = 12.99
47 | P a g e
4.2.4 WATER ABSORPTION GRAPH
IBEJU-LEKKI LOCAL GOVERNMENT
WATER ABSORPTION GRAPH

(IBEJU LEKKI LGA)
20.00
Average Water Absorption (%)
15.11
15.00 13.50
12.03 13.04
10.32
10.00 10.23
5.00
0.00
1-IBJ 2-IBJ 3-IBJ
SANDCRETE BLOCKS SAMPLES
Series1 12% of water absorption Linear (12% of water absorption)
Fig 4: Water Absorption Chart For Ibeju-Lekki Local Government
APAPA LOCAL GOVERNMENT

(APAPA LGA)
20.00
14.94 15.65
15.00
13.08
11.35 11.53 11.56
10.00
5.00
0.00
1- APA 2-APA 3-APA
Fig 5: Water Absorption Chart For Apapa Local Government
48 | P a g e
OSHODI-ISOLO LOCAL GOVERNMENT

(OSHODI LGA)
20.00
15.52 14.31
15.00 12.69 12.99
10.64 11.34
10.00
5.00
0.00
1- OSH 2-OSH 3-OSH
Fig 6: Water Absorption Chart For Oshodi-Isolo Local Government
Figures above show that the water absorption rate exceeds 12% of the dry weight recommended
in the NIS 978:2017 standard, therefore water absorption test does not pass the recommended
limit stated in Clause 4.4 of the general requirement of the NIS 978:2017.
49 | P a g e
4.3 DENSITY TEST RESULTS
4.3.0 IBEJU-LEKKI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA DENSITY TEST RESULTS
Location 1
1 2 3 4 5
Mass (g) 22240 22610 22710 22320 22700

Volume (Cm3) 10440 10440 10440 10440 10440
Density
2.13 2.17 2.18 2.14 2.17
(gm/cm3)
Average Density 2.16
Table 25: Density Test Results Ibeju-Lekki Local Government Area Location 1
Location 2
1 2 3 4 5
Mass (g) 17210 16930 16540 17320 17240
Volume (Cm3) 10440 10440 10440 10440 10440
Density
1.65 1.62 1.58 1.66 1.65
(gm/cm3)
50 | P a g e
Location 3
1 2 3 4 5
Mass (g) 21480 22140 21400 21760 21880
Volume (Cm3) 10440 10440 10440 10440 10440
Density
2.06 2.12 2.05 2.08 2.10
(gm/cm3)
4.3.1 APAPA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA DENSITY TEST RESULTS

Location 1
1 2 3 4 5
Mass (g) 21240 22320 21480 21870 22090
Volume (Cm3) 10440 10440 10440 10440 10440
Density
2.03 2.14 2.06 2.09 2.12
(gm/cm3)
Table 28: Density Test Results Apapa Local Government Area Location 1
51 | P a g e
Location 2
1 2 3 4 5
Mass (g) 20150 19620 20040 18140 18110
Volume (Cm3) 10440 10440 10440 10440 10440
Density
1.93 1.88 1.92 1.74 1.73
(gm/cm3)
Location 3
1 2 3 4 5
Mass (g) 17150 20110 20250 18720 20430
Volume (Cm3) 10440 10440 10440 10440 10440
Density
1.64 1.93 1.94 1.79 1.96
(gm/cm3)
52 | P a g e
4.3.2 OSHODI-ISOLO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA DENSITY TEST RESULTS
Location 1
1 2 3 4 5
Mass (g) 17940 17900 17920 16980 17950
Volume (Cm3) 10440 10440 10440 10440 10440
Density (gm/cm3) 1.72 1.71 1.72 1.63 1.72
Table 31: Density Test Results Oshodi-Isolo Local Government Area Location 1
Location 2
1 2 3 4 5
Mass (g) 19520 18450 18480 18550 19120
Volume (Cm3) 10440 10440 10440 10440 10440
Density (gm/cm3) 1.87 1.77 1.77 1.78 1.83
53 | P a g e
Location 3
1 2 3 4 5
Mass (g) 22150 20230 22040 21680 22140
Volume (Cm3) 10440 10440 10440 10440 10440
Density (gm/cm3) 2.12 1.94 2.11 2.08 2.12
54 | P a g e
4.3.3 DENSITY GRAPH
IBEJU-LEKKI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA
DENSITY GRAPH
(IBEJU LGA)
3.00
2.50 2.16 2.08
Densty g/cm3
2.00
1.80 1.63 1.80 1.80
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
1-IBJ 2-IBJ 3-IBJ
Average Sample
Fig 7: Density Test Results For Ibeju-Lekki Local Government Area
APAPA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA
DENSITY GRAPH
Densty g/cm3
(APAPA LGA)
3.00
2.50 2.09
2.00 1.84 1.85
1.80 1.80 1.80
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
1-APA 2-APA 3-APA
Average Sample
Fig 8: Density Test Results For Apapa Local Government Area
55 | P a g e
OSHODI-ISOLO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA
DENSITY GRAPH
Densty g/cm3
(APAPA LGA)
3.00
2.50 2.07
2.00 1.70 1.80
1.80 1.80 1.80
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
1-OSH 2-OSH 3-OSH
Average Sample
Fig 9: Density Test Results For Oshodi-Isolo Local Government Area
Density must not be less than 1800kg/m3, therefore for all the samples, the density of the
blocks conform to the recommended limit stated in Clause 4.5 of the general requirement of
the NIS 978:2017.
56 | P a g e
4.3.4 PICTURES
Plate. 1: Weighing Block Before Crushing. Plate. 2: Carrying Block For Crushing
Plate. 3: Block In Machine For Crushing Test Plate. 4: Block In Machine Crushed
57 | P a g e
Plate. 5: Blocks In Oven Plate. 6: Weighing Block after oven dry for 48hrs
Plate. 7: Putting dry blocks in water for 24hrs
Plate. 8: Removing Blocks after 24hrs in water
58 | P a g e
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 CONCLUSION
The following conclusions were deduced from this experimental research conducted:
The results of the investigation showed that the average of the compressive strength of the
sandcrete hollow blocks ranged from 0.47 to 0.71 N/mm2, with an average value of 0.57
N/mm2. This is below the minimum compressive strength of 1.50 N/mm2 for hollow non-load
bearing wall and 3.50 N/mm2 for hollow non load bearing walls required by the Nigerian
Industrial Standards (NIS) for sandcrete blocks. The water absorption test revealed that the
blocks absorbed between 2.0% to 14% of water, with an average value of 13.0 %. This is above
the maximum water absorption of 12% allowed by the NIS. The density of the blocks ranged
from 1738 to 2690 kg/m3, with an average value of 2066 kg/m3. This is in conformity with the
minimum value of 1800 kg/m3 recommended by the NIS.
The results indicate that the majority of the sandcrete hollow blocks produced in Nigeria do
not meet the minimum standards set by the NIS. The low compressive strength and high water
absorption of the blocks can lead to structural failure and reduced durability. The density of the
blocks was within the recommended range, indicating that the raw materials used in their
production were of good quality.
5.1 RECOMMENDATION
Overall, the results outlined in this work of study could recommended that more extensive
experimental research be done in a more controlled environment with effective machineries
and plants included. It also recommends that the there is a need for quality control measures in
the production of sandcrete hollow blocks in Nigeria. Manufacturers should adhere to the
minimum standards set by the NIS to ensure that their blocks are of adequate strength and
durability. The government should also enforce these standards to protect the public and ensure
the safety of buildings constructed using sandcrete hollow blocks. Further research is needed
to investigate the causes of the low compressive strength and high water absorption of the
blocks and to develop strategies for improving their quality.
59 | P a g e
REFERENCE
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CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background of Study

1.2 Sandcrete Blocks

1.3 Statement of Problem

1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study

Specific objectives Includes:

i) To determine the compressive strength of the sandcrete hollow blocks.

ii) To determine the water absorption of the sandcrete blocks.

iii) To determine the density of the sandcrete blocks.

1.6 Significance of Study

1.7 Justification of Study

1.8 Research Outlines

b) Block: Masonry unit exceeding the size of a brick in any dimension.

d) Compressive strength: Average value for the crushing of five blocks.

f) Fine aggregate (Sand): material produced by natural disintegration of rock (referred to as

2.2 Sandcrete Blocks

(i) 450 x 225x 225mm (hollow)

(ii) 450 x 150 x 225mm (hollow)

(iii) 450 x 150 x 225mm (solid)

(iv) 450 x 125 x 225mm (solid).

2.2.1 Properties of sandcrete hollow blocks:

2.2.3 Environmental factors:

(i) finer grinding of the clinker,

Name of compound Oxide Abbreviation

Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S

Dicalcium silicate. 2CaOSiO2 C2S

Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A

Tetracalcium aluminoferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF

Source (Neville, 2011, Shetty, 2005)

Table 2: Oxide composition of a typical Ordinary Portland cement

Oxide Content, ( percent )

Alkalis (as Na2O) 0.3 -1.2

SO3 2.0 - 3.5

Source: (Neville, 2011)

(b) Fine aggregates

Sieve sizes Grading Zones

Percentage weight passing sieves

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4

9.5mm 100 100 100 100

4.75mm 90 - 100 90 – 100 90 - 100 95 - 100

2.36mm 60 - 95 75 - 100 85 - 100 95 - 100

1.18mm 30 – 70 55 – 90 75 - 100 90 - 100

Many research works done to determine the compressive strength of commercially

2.2.5 Manufacture of Sandcrete Blocks.

2.2.6 Factors Affecting the Strength of Sandcrete Blocks

(ii) those related to the manufacturing process and

(iii) age of the block.

(2004) recommends cement/sand ratio of 1:6 for sandcrete block production.

(b) Factors Related To The Manufacturing Process.

(II) To provide additional information about the engineering properties of sandcrete

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.2 Assesment Apparatus

The equipment used for this research work include;

• Compressive Strength apparatus

• Steel Measuring Tape

3.3 Characteristics Tests

According to NIS 978: 2017, the blocks were assessed for;

 Compressive Strength Test

Where Fc = the compressive strength

Table 4 – Minimum Compressive strength at 28 days

Types of Blocks Dimension (mm) Strength Test

Length Height Thickness Web (Average of 5 blocks)

(L) (H) (T) thickness (mpa)