Design and evaluation of a cost-effective scrubber

for abatement of sulphur dioxide from coal-powered

boilers

Givemore HANDIZVIHWE
(R1910479)

Project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of MSc degree in

Environmental Systems Engineering

Department of Soil Science and Environment

Faculty of Agriculture Environment and Food Systems
University of Zimbabwe
Mt Pleasant, Harare

Supervisor: Professor Farai Mapanda

April 2023

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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ABSTRACT

Table of Contents

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................................................2
ABSTRACT..........................................................................................................................................3
1.0 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................6
1.1 Background............................................................................................................................6
1.2 Problem Statement.................................................................................................................7
1.3. Hypothesis.............................................................................................................................7
1.3.1 Null Hypothesis, Ho:.....................................................................................................7
1.3.2 Alternative Hypothesis, Ha:...........................................................................................7
1.4 Objectives..............................................................................................................................8
1.5 Justification............................................................................................................................8
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................................10
2.1 Combustion Process.............................................................................................................10
2.2 Flue Gas Desulphurisation Techniques................................................................................10
2.3 Wet Scrubbing.....................................................................................................................11
2.4 Flue Gas Desulphurization by a Carbon Process Plant........................................................11
2.5 Simulation of Desulphurization in a Packed-bed Wet Scrubber..........................................13
2.6 Flue gas conditioning before and after wet scrubbing..........................................................13
3.0 METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................................15
3.1 Research Design Setup........................................................................................................15
3.2 Boiler emissions assessment and analysis............................................................................15
3.3 Desulphurization system designing......................................................................................18
3.3.1 Design overview..........................................................................................................18
3.3.2 The raw and treated flue gas heat exchanger................................................................18
3.3.3 The quench section......................................................................................................20
3.4 Catalytic conversion of SO2 to H2SO4..................................................................................21
3.4.1 The chemical reactions and key process parameters....................................................21
3.4.2 The process oxygen (O2) demand.................................................................................22
3.4.3 Thermodynamic of the desulphurization processes.............................................................24
3.4.3 The minimum water (H2O) demand for the desulphurization process..........................24
3.4.4 The expected annual sulfuric acid production and export savings...............................24
3.5 Clean-flue-gas conditioning system.....................................................................................25
3.6 Reactor simulation...............................................................................................................25
3.7 Cost evaluation of the design installation and operation......................................................25
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSION................................................................................................26
4.1 Emissions survey results and analysis..................................................................................26
5.0 CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................................30

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APPENDICES.....................................................................................................................................31
Appendix A: Extract; Environmental Management Regulations, Statutory Instrument 72 of 2009,
“Atmospheric Pollution Control”....................................................................................................31
Appendix B: Sulfuric acid importation data for Zimbabwe.............................................................32
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................33

Table of Figures
Figure 1: Correlation matrix for the principal parameters, 10 May 2023....................................22
Figure 2: Boiler emissions survey results, 10 May 2023.................................................................22

No index entries found.

Acronyms

Definitions

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Air pollution is a threat to public health and the environment at large. The World Health
Organisation (WHO) in the 2022 Air Quality Database reported that less than 1% of the cities
in low- and middle-income countries complied with the recommended thresholds. The
combustion of fossil fuels in order to get energy for various purposes is unequivocally
reported to be the world’s major anthropogenic driver of air pollution and climate change.
Not for exception from the world, Zimbabwe heavily relies on fossil fuels for energy
production (Moyo, 2012). Coal is one of the fossil deposits mined in Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwean coal has very high sulphur content (Chou, 2012), averaging between 1.2 – 3%
(Mapani et al., 2013; Moyo, 2012). Nationally, coal is mainly used for powering thermal
power stations, iron & steel smelters, ferrochrome extraction furnaces and industrial boilers
which include small steam boilers (Nyirenda, 2019). Small industrial or steam boilers are
those which generate less than 20 tonnes of steam per hour (VGB PowerTech, 2011). There
are about 300 small coal-powered boilers nationwide and more than 95% of these boilers fail
to meet the statutory sulphur dioxide (SO2) emission limits (EMA, 2009).

Small coal-powered boilers, those generating less than 20 tonnes of steam per hour, are
contributing to air pollution in Zimbabwe (Mujuru et al., 2012; Mapira, 2015). More than
95% of the approximately 300 small coal-powered boilers in Zimbabwe do not meet the
nation’s SO2 emission limit stipulated in Statutory Instrument 72 of 2009, Environmental
Management, Atmospheric Pollution Control, Regulations (SI 72, 2009) as read with the
Environmental Management Act Chapter 20:27 of 2002 (E. M. Act Chapter 20:27, 2002).
Several researchers have shown that SO2 emissions from small boilers is unabated due to the
unavailability of cost-effective designs (Ali et al., 2014; Kozlov, 2019; Taylor, 2019; Jimenez
and Engineer, 2020; Liu and Chen, 2020; Wilailak et al., 2021), unlike the bigger utility
boilers on which universal pollution abatement techniques (Coykendall, 1962; Popp, 2003)
can directly be employed to mitigate SO2 emissions.

The reported average SO2 emission from small coal-powered boilers, those generating less 20
tonnes of steam per hour, is 1200 mg/m3 (EMA, 2021a, 2021e, 2021d, 2021c), which is
2900% above the Zimbabwean SO2 legal emission limit of <40mg/m3. The failure to meet
SO2 emission limit by small coal powered boilers is not only attributed to the high sulphur
content but also a result of unavailability of cost-effective emissions abatement technologies
for small combustion processes. Even washed coal, although its cost is lower than the

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additional cost of buying coke, is not clean enough to achieve compliance with the SO 2
statutory emission limit of <40mg/m3 (SI 72, 2009) as the small boilers usually have very low
efficiency, about 40-50%, (Liu and Chen, 2020).

Other than non-compliance with environmental legislation, the cumulative impact of elevated
SO2 emissions from the small coal-powered boilers is atmospheric pollution which
researchers have indicated to be bedevilling the nation especially the industrialized towns and
cities (Mujuru et al., 2012; Mapira, 2015). Atmospheric pollution due to excessive SO2
emission from the small coal-powered boilers is even more pronounced at ground level due to
the fact that the stacks for these small combustion facilities are way shorter, about 20m, than
those erected at bigger combustion facilities like thermal power station, about 60m.

Atmospheric pollution increasingly became very topical as the global population increased
leading to high demand of products and services and hence more pollution from the largely
fossil-powered global community. The major negative impacts of atmospheric pollution are
deterioration of public health, climate change and loss of biodiversity. Sulphur dioxide as an
air pollutant causes increased airways and pulmonary resistance in humans due to reflex
bronchoconstriction.

1.2 Problem Statement

There is unavailability of a cost-effective sulphur dioxide (SO2) abatement design for the
small industrial boilers (Kozlov, 2019; Liu and Chen, 2020), unlike the bigger utility boilers
on which traditional if not universal pollution abatement techniques (Coykendall, 1962;
Popp, 2003; Strickroth et al., 2020) can directly be employed to mitigate SO2 emissions.

1.3. Hypothesis
1.3.1 Null Hypothesis, Ho:
It is not possible to design a cost-effective flue gas desulphurization retrofit for small coal-
powered steam boilers and meet the <40mg/m3 SO2 emission limit stipulated in the
Atmospheric Pollution Control Regulations, Statutory Instrument 72 of 2009, with regard to
Environmental Management Act Chapter 20:27.

1.3.2 Alternative Hypothesis, Ha:

It is possible to design a cost-effective flue gas desulphurization retrofit for small coal-
powered steam boilers and meet the <40mg/m3 SO2 emission limit stipulated in Statutory
Instrument 72 of 2009.

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1.4 Objectives
The main objective of this research is to design a cost-effective wet scrubber for abatement of
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) from coal-powered boilers which produce less than 20 tonnes of steam
per hour. The specific objectives are:

1. To design a packed-bed wet scrubber which ensures discharge of <40mg/m 3 of SO2

for the <20t coal-powered steam-boilers.

2. To design the scrubber for catalytic conversion of exhaust SO 2 into at least 33%
sulfuric acid (H2SO4(aq)).

3. To evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the designed SO2 abatement system.

1.5 Justification
The World Health Organization (WHO, 2016) confirmed that air pollution is the biggest
environmental risk to human health with more than 1.5 million cases of the air pollution-
related diseases occurring in populations in developing countries like Zimbabwe. This is due
to lack of technology and finances to invest in air pollution prevention, monitoring,
mitigation and control. This study seeks to provide a mitigation solution for SO2 emission
from small coal powered boilers, boilers generating less than 20 tonnes of steam per hour,
thereby alleviating atmospheric pollution in Zimbabwe. The Government of Zimbabwe
recognizes the significance of Environmental Rights and according to section 73 (1) (a) of
The Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment Act No. 20 of 2013, “every person has the right
to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being”. Therefore, abating SO 2
emission from the approximated 300 small coal-powered boilers will not only lead to
compliance with environmental regulations but more importantly it will result in
improved environmental and citizenry health.

The desulphurization design will involve production of sulphuric acid of economic value and
not waste water as a by-product which is common for wet scrubbers. From the approximated
300 boilers in Zimbabwe, about 9000 tonnes of sulphuric acid are expected annually.
Currently Zimbabwe is importing 20000 to 50000 tonnes of sulphuric acid so the
desulphurization design will cause about 20% to 50% reduction on the acid importation
bill. As such, implementation of the design means an increase in Gross Domestic Products
(GDP) and hence economic development.

Unabated SO2 emissions in the face of Zimbabwean coal with high Sulphur content causes
acid rain which corrodes materials and reduces plant productivity due to changes in soil pH.

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The corrosion of materials undermines the strength of buildings and or structures hence
increases the cost of maintaining the facilities. On the other hand, a decreased plant
productivity, owing to soil acidity which is driven by acid rains, means insecure food supply
for the nation.

Besides the local air pollution impacts, the SO2 mitigation design is expected to enhance
achievement of the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) pledged under the United
Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC) Paris Agreement. In the
same vein, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) number 3 and number 11 which are
directly linked to improvements in air quality are also expected to be fulfilled.

While there is a global drive towards cleaner energies, Zimbabwe is approximated to possess
163 years of coal stocks. The adoption of cleaner energies in developed countries is noted to
be slow and hence Zimbabwe is likely to utilise coal for a sustained period. Therefore, the
nation needs a cost-effective SO2 abatement design in order to meet the present and the likely
more stringent future emission limits which basically are determined by the population
density and strength of the emission sources visa vee ambient air quality standards.

Academically, the design will contribute to the body of knowledge as an archetypal for SO 2
abatement from small combustion facilities. The sub-category of emissions mitigation from
small scale combustion facilities is understudied (Lamberg et al., 2011; Plaček et al., 2011;
Schmidl et al., 2011; Kozlov, 2019; Liu and Chen, 2020). This has led to little or no
implementation of pollution mitigation measures at the facilities regardless of the abnormal
emissions echoed in several reports (EMA, 2021b, 2021a, 2021e, 2021d, 2021c) amidst the
facilities’ growing population.

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Combustion Process
According to Plaček et al., 2011 the control of combustion process is generally more difficult
for small-scale boilers than for larger applications for the main reasons which are faster
fluctuations of the process in small-scale combustion, operation and maintenance not being
performed by trained personnel, sensors and heat exchangers not periodically checked and
relatively high price of sensors and control system. As such, the poor control of combustion
which is coupled with faster fluctuations of the process parameters normally leads to high or
fluctuating flue gas emissions. However, this study argues that parametric fluctuations always
occur in response to fuel feed rate changes, air feed rate changes, changes in energy demand,
product or by-product offloading rate and, to a lesser extent, atmospheric changes. Although
these parameters can be stabilised by novel automation to improve the combustion efficiency,
this study argues that it is the chemical signature of the fuel which determines the amount of
SO2 which will be released in the flue gas after complete combustion. Whether process
automation and trained personnel are employed to operate a small coal powered boiler, it will
not change the basic principles of complete combustion and material balance which results in
high SO2 emissions as in circulating fluidized boiler combustion (CFBC) technology which
imperatively has to be coupled with flue gas desulphurisation (FGD). Therefore, a cost
effective SO2 abatement design which caters for both the high sulphur-content fuels and the
impacts of combustion fluctuations on small boilers remains understudied.

2.2 Flue Gas Desulphurisation Techniques

The king pinning alternatives for reduction of SO2 from combustion processes are by energy
conservation, fuel substitution or the use of low-sulphur fuels, fuel desulphurization,
combustion modification and flue gas desulphurization (Cofala and Syri, 1998). Flue gas
desulphurisation (FGD) is the process of selectively capturing the Oxides of Sulphur from a
waste gas stream, post-combustion. To date, various post-combustion treatment techniques
have been developed, which mainly remove SO2 via adsorption, absorption and removal by
destruction (Ajdari et al., 2019). The various FGD techniques revolve around dry and wet
scrubbers. Sharif et al., 2021 found wet-scrubbing as an effective technique operating at mild
conditions and requiring a low operational cost because of the simple set up. However, this
study argues that rudimentary wet scrubbing requires large amount of fresh water and
regeneration of scrubbing solution which increases the operational cost. These disadvantages
have a negating operational cost on the wide application of wet scrubbing. In order to offset

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the operational costs of wet scrubbing this study seeks to convert SO 2 into sulphuric acid of
economic value without effluent discharge.

2.3 Wet Scrubbing

As a rule-of-thumb, a minimum of about 5 gallons per minute (gpm), of liquid, is needed per
1000 actual cubic feet per minute (acfm), of gas, to be cleaned for particle collection and
about 20 gpm/1000 acfm for gas adsorption in a wet scrubber (Hesketh and Cross, 1984).
This study argues that this high-water requirement is not sustainable for small boiler
operations. Sometimes reactions take place for gas scrubbing to occur and this requires
optimum residence time which in principle means the need for a considerably large volume
of reaction chamber. Precipitates may also be formed and ideally they should come out of
solution as solids present in the recycled liquid, rather than on the internals of the scrubber.
When working with hot, unsaturated gases, a quench should be considered. Fortunately, this
can: result in positive phoretic forces; reduce the collector size; protect the equipment from
thermal, chemical corrosion and physical erosion; and help wet the particles (Hesketh and
Cross, 1984).

Furthermore, the usual design of FGD installed in hard coal or lignite fired power plants
achieves a SO2-removal efficiency ranging between 90 and 95% which normally results in
SO2 concentrations ranging between 200 and 400 mg/Nm 3 at the FGD outlet (Jørgensen,
1995). This study argues that for an industrialised community in a fossil-powered world with
a dense population of SO2 emitting sources like Hwange District, 200 to 400 mg/Nm 3 may
lead to deterioration of the ambient air quality. Therefore there is the need for an improved
design to ensure compliance with the current (SI 72, 2009) and the more stringent future SO2
legislative limits (Bandyopadhyay and Biswas, 2006) which are likely to be instituted as
industrialization expands to copy with the ever increasing human population.

2.4 Flue Gas Desulphurization by a Carbon Process Plant

A carbon process plant directly converts SO 2 and SO3 contained in any industrial flue gas,
using only water and air on a fixed bed of activated carbon (Strickroth et al., 2020), into
saleable sulphuric acid (H2SO4 (l)) as indicated in equation 1.

SO2 + ½ O2 + H2O → H2SO4 (l) [equation 1.]

This process is very cost effective since it does not generate effluent which require further
management, it does not require universal limestone (CaCO3) adsorbent or any other alkaline

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for chemical absorption of SO2 and it does not release Carbon Dioxide (CO2) which is a
greenhouse gas from the chemical reactions with limestone according to equation 2.

SO2 + ½ O2 + H2O + CaCO3 (s) → CaSO4.2H2O (s) + CO2 (g) [equation 2.]

Nevertheless, to date, the designs which employ the technique have been on the large scale
boiler operations like the Medupi Thermal Power Plant in South Africa and using counter
flow scrubber orientation (Strickroth et al., 2020), leaving a gape for the technique to be
reformed and employed in designs for small boiler operations, those generating less than 20
tonnes of steam per hour.

Active coke can be used as a SO2 adsorbent and catalyst at temperatures between 100 and
1700C (Jørgensen, 1995). The pore volume of active coke, used for SO2-removal, grows with
the progression of adsorption and regeneration cycles. This is the reason why the adsorptive
properties are improved by regeneration. Accordingly, this study maintains that in order to
continuously achieve uninterrupted and maximum adsorption and conversion of SO 2 into
H2SO4 of economic value, the design of the desulphurisation unit should facility continuous
and self-regeneration of the adsorbent so as to minimise both cost and maintenance down-
time. It is the co-current flow set up which enables continuous and self-regeneration of the
adsorbent, rather than the conventional counter-current flow set up.

To prepare active coke, bituminous coal of low ash content is ground to very fine powder
then oxidized by air in a cascade of fluidized beds at a temperature under 300 0C. The
oxidized coal is mixed with a binder. The mixture is subsequently extruded to form
cylindrical noodles of diameters ranging between 2 and 9 mm. The noodles are calcined at
temperatures above 550°C. By calcination, micro pores are formed in the initial coal fines,
macro pores are formed by the decomposition of the binder. This heat demanding and
sophisticated process of making active coke justifies the reason for continuous regeneration
of the adsorbent such that adsorbent life is prolonged.

The adsorption of SO2 on active coke occurs over a wide temperature range, from ambient
temperature to 150°C, where it reacts with oxygen and steam to yield sulphuric acid
(Knoblauch, Richter and Juntgen, 1981; Richter and Juntgen, 1987). This study will take
advantage of this wide temperature range adsorption such that no external heating is required
for the desulphurisation process. Sulphuric acid is retained by the pore system of active coke.
Maximum loads between 10 and 20 % by weight are obtained even at temperatures not
higher than 120°C as sulphuric acid has an extremely low vapour pressure (Knoblauch,

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Richter and Juntgen, 1981). Other pollutants in the flue gases from coal firings, oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) are composed mainly of nitric oxide (NO) and only by 5 to 10 % of nitrogen
dioxide (NO2). The latter is reduced quite fast by reacting with the carbon, at temperatures
above 80°C which is an added advantage since NOx emissions are also regulated in
Zimbabwe.

2.5 Simulation of Desulphurization in a Packed-bed Wet Scrubber

In a bid to improve wet scrubber efficiency, Brown, Kalata and Schick, 2014, successfully
used a computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model to examine potential scrubber designs for
simulation and optimization of the system. Nozzle parameters were modelled to allow
particle tracking through the system. An ANSYS Fluent Lagrangian particle tracking method
was used with heat and mass transfer. However, several empirical optimization methods exist
nowadays (Novosád and Vít, 2015; Selvakumar and Kim, 2016, 2016; Junga, Chudy and
Pospolita, 2017; Blumberga et al., 2020; Somers, 2021; Wilailak et al., 2021; Zhao et al.,
2021). According to Taavitsainen V-M.T., the more widely used methods are the Nelder–
Mead simplex strategy and the Box–Wilson strategy or the gradient method. The Box–
Wilson method has several advantages and can be characterized as a flexible and
understandable tool. The main principle of the strategy is to follow the path of the steepest
ascent towards the optimal point. The method uses local polynomial modelling to find the
direction of the steepest ascent (Blumberga et al., 2020).

2.6 Flue gas conditioning before and after wet scrubbing

Small coal powered boilers, those producing less than 20t of steam per hour, have chimney
heights generally between 12m and 22m from the ground. Considering that the industrial
processes powered by these boilers are located in built environments or urban setups, the 12-
22m chimney height is insufficient for adequate dispersion of the air pollutants as the area is
characterised by tall structures. After flue gas wet scrubbing with a liquid of high specific
heat capacity and low temperature than the flue gas, like water, the flue gas cools and loses
its buoyance which is much needed for adequate dispersion of the air pollutants upon exiting
the chimney thereby causing ground level air pollution in the fall out zone. Mist arrestors
have been conventionally used to capture entrenched water aerosols thereby reducing flue gas
density as well as reducing its corrosiveness, but doing nothing on the drastically reduced
flue gas temperature and buoyance.

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To raise flue gas temperature and enhance its buoyance without extra energy costs a
recuperative heat exchanger becomes a viable solution. The clean flue gas stream exiting the
packed-bed wet scrubber is made to thermally interact with hot and dirt flue gas stream
exiting the boiler combustion chamber. The thermal gradient between the two streams allows
for heat to move from the hot and dirt flue gas stream into the clean flue gas stream until a
thermal equilibrium is reached, with the streams contact surface area and contact time being
the major determinants of the degree of thermal equilibrium.

The reduction in the temperature of the dirt flue gas stream before it enters the quencher and
the subsequent packed-bed wet scrubber is crucial to avoid high evaporation of quencher
liquid and quick achievement of the optimum temperature needed for the reaction of Sulphur
Dioxide, water and Oxygen in the reactor (packed-bed wet scrubber).

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3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design Setup
The research design involved field work for sampling of boiler chimney emissions in
Zimbabwe. Historic boiler chimney emissions data backdating five years was also
incorporated in the chimney emissions sample for analysis. A desk study for alternative flue
gas desulphurization techniques was conducted in order to conclude on whether to employ a
single technique or a hybrid. Desk designing of the flue gas desulphurization system was
done based on the characteristics of the raw flue gas and following the proven chemical
engineering reactor design principles, with the objective of discharging less than 40mg of
Sulphur dioxide per m3 of air while obtaining sulphuric acid (H2SO4(aq)) of economic value.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations was used to test and refine the theoretical
design of the flue gas desulphurization system in place of a prototype, resulting in a
practicable design of the flue gas desulphurization system. Furthermore, the operating
conditions of the desulphurization system were considered in the determination of
appropriate materials for the actual installation of the design. Finally, market exploration was
conducted to establish the minimum cost of implementing the design. This included costing
of the installation and predicting the operational cost of the desulphurization system during
the anticipated design lifespan.

3.2 Boiler emissions assessment and analysis

The first step was to establish the average quality of flue gas from small coal-powered
boilers. This was done through data mining of the historic boiler emissions, followed by a
stacks emissions survey. The historic boiler emissions quality was taken from reports
generated by the Environmental Management Agency and back-dating to 5 years ago. The
methodology for boiler emissions survey was according to international standards
organization, ISO 10396:2007 – “Stationary source emissions — sampling for the automated
determination of gas emission concentrations for permanently-installed monitoring systems”.
The key surveyed flue gas parameters for input into the design of the packed-bed wet
scrubber for SO2 abatement were the concentrations of SO 2, CO, NO, flue gas efflux velocity
and flue gas temperature. Data analysis for the sample was done using XLSAT to yield the
mean, mode and standard deviation

Table 1: Summary of the average boiler emissions parameters

# Parameter Symbol Unit Value

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 1. Flue gas efflux velocity GV m/s 13.75

2. Flue gas temperature GT ℃ 158.8

3. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) discharge concentration SO2 mg/m3 1227

4. Carbon monoxide (CO) discharge concentration CO mg/m3 1809

5. Nitric Oxide (NO) discharge concentration NO mg/m3 124

6. Chimney internal diameter Ch.id m 0.36

7. Chimney height Ch.ht m 19.8

From the measured values in Table 1, the Flue gas volumetric flowrate, QG, is:

QG = [Flue gas efflux velocity, GV] × [Chimney internal cross-sectional area]

Chimney internal cross-sectional area = πd2/4, where: d = Ch.id = 0.36m

→ QG = GV × πd2/4 = 13.75 m/s × π(0.36m)2/4 = 1.399580 m3/s

The Mass flowrate, Mf = [Discharge concentration] × [Volumetric flowrate, QG]

o The mass flowrate for SO2, MfSO2 = SO2 × QG

= 1277 mg/m3 × [13.75 m/s × π(0.36m)2/4]

= 1787.263056 mg/s

o The mass flowrate for CO, MfCO = CO × QG

= 1809 mg/m3 × [13.75 m/s × π(0.36m)2/4]

= 2531.839365 mg/s

o The mass flowrate for NO, MfNO = NO × QG

= 124 mg/m3 × [13.75 m/s × π(0.36m)2/4]

= 173.547862 mg/s
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The density of the gas is given by:

Flue gas density, Dfluegas = [Flue gas Mass flowrate] / [Flue gas Volumetric flowrate]

Mass Flowrate of the flue gas, Mfgas = ∑Mass Flowrates of the gas components

Fuel-based Oxides of Nitrogen, NOx, is the sum NO and NO 2 with NO2 constituting about
10% of the NOx for combustion processes occurring at less than 800℃. Therefore, the mass
flowrate of the flue gas is given by:

Mfgas = MfSO2 + MfCO + MfNOx = 1787.263056 mg/s + 2531.839365 mg/s

+ (173.547862 mg/s ×100/90)

= 4511.933379 mg/s

Typical flue gas from coal-powered boilers is known to contain an average of 72-77% N 2, 12-
14% CO2, 8-10% H2O and 3-5% O2, by volume. The typical flue gas temperature at furnace
outlet is about 1200℃ which gradually decrease along the pathway resulting in about 150℃
flue gas exiting the chimney.

Taking the medians of the ranges for N 2 and H2O and the minimum for CO2 and O2 as
assumed for a partially incomplete combustion, the estimation of the unmeasured gaseous
parameters was performed based on the measures gaseous parameters as follows:

Volumetric Flowrate of gas constituent = Constituent % × Flue gas Volumetric Flowrate

N2: 74.5% × 1.399580 m3/s = 1.042687 m3/s

CO2: 13% × 1.399580 m3/s = 0.181945 m3/s

H2O: 8% × 1.399580 m3/s = 0.111966 m3/s

O2: 3% × 1.399580 m3/s = 0.041987 m3/s

Therefore, the measured flue gas constituents altogether constituted 1.5% which is 0.020994
m3/s. As such the volume of each measured parameter would be:

Xv = 0.020994m3/s × Mfx / Mfgas,

where: Xv = volume of each measured flue gas component.

Mfx = component mass flowrate.

Mfgas = total mass flowrate of measured flue gas.

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SO2: 0.020994 m3/s × 1787.263056 mg/s / 4511.933379 mg/s = 0.008316 m3/s

The volume occupied by one mole of ANY gas at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure is equal to 24cm3. This volume is called the molar volume of gases as it represents
the volume of 1 mol for any gas. In general, we can say that the molar volume of a gas
is 24dm3/mol. Using this, we can calculate the volume of any gas as follows:

Volume = mol × molar volume

1000 dm3 = 1m3

However, the 4511.933379 mg/s mass flowrate was a gaseous composition only, excluding
the total suspended particulates, TSP, of the gas stream. The Hwange coal characterization
revealed that the coal which was being used for firing industrial boilers had coal ash ranging
between 15–45% by weight and an average ash content of 32% by weight. Of the 32% ash
content, for chain grate boilers, about 15% is discharged as fly ash while about 85% remains
as bottom ash. As a result, the estimated unabated TSP in the flue gas is:

TSP= ( 100
15
) ×32 %=4.8 % by weight
For an 18-tonne-steam boiler, which combusts 70kg of coal per hour, the estimated TSP
emission rate is:

4.8 1000,000 mg 1hr mg

TSP= × 70 kg × × =933.333333
100 kg 3600 s s

→ TSP concentration in flue gas = (TSP Mass flowrate) / (Flue gas efflux velocity)

= (933.333333 mg/s) / (1.399580 m3/s)

= 666.866726 mg/m3

Therefore, the flue gas mass flowrate becomes:

Mffluegas = Mfgas + MfTSP = 4511.933379 mg/s + 933.333333 mg/s

= 5445.266712 mg/s

Flue gas density, Dfluegas = [Mffluegas] / [QG]

= [5445.266712 mg/s] / [1.399580 m3/s]

= 3890.643416 mg/m3

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According to Wester (2002) the heat capacity of the flue gases can be estimated by weighting
the heat capacity for the different species by the mass fractions.

cp,g YH2O cp,H2O YCO2 cp,CO2 YN2 cp,N2 YAr cp,Ar YO2 cp,O2

3.3 Desulphurization system designing

3.3.1 Design overview
The second step was to design the packed-bed wet scrubber for flue gas desulphurization
using the emissions analysis results.

Prior to the pollutants scrubbing system, the flue gas temperature was moderated by a heat
exchange system whereby the treated and cold, about 50℃, flue gas heat was recuperated by
the raw and hot, 158.8℃, flue gas. The raw and treated flue gas heat exchange helped reduce
evaporation of the water from the quencher while raising the temperature of the treated flue
gas before discharge in order to enhance buoyance and plume dispersion.

The desulphurization system chosen was a hybrid system comprised of a quench section for
further temperature moderation and particulates filtration to avoid clogging of the subsequent
packed-bed wet scrubber which is meant for adsorption and catalytic conversion of SO 2 to
sulphuric acid. Essentially the designs for the quench and the packed-bed wed scrubber
involved reactor sizing and modifications for achievement of the desired SO 2 removal
efficiency in order to meet the legislative limit of <40mg/m3.

3.3.2 The raw and treated flue gas heat exchanger

Hybrid packed-bed wet scrubbing systems are known to achieve more than 98% pollutants
removal efficiency. As such, the treated flue gas density, which is the emissions discharged
into the atmosphere, is generally expected to drop by 98%:

Treated Flue gas Density = DEmission

DEmission = (Raw Flue gas Density) × (100% – Pollutants Removal Efficiency)

DEmission = (3890.643416 mg/m3) × (100% – 98%) = 77.812868 mg/m3

From thermodynamics heat transfer principles, the heat exchange between the raw and
treated flue gas streames is governed by equation 3:

q = mcΔT, [Equation 3]

19 | P a g e
 where: q = Heat released or absorbed

m = Mass of the substance

c = Specific heat capacity of the substance

ΔT = Change in temperature

For an ideal heat exchange system which achieves temperature equilibrium between the two
flue gas streams without heat transfer resistance and heat loses into the surroundings, the
temperature change of the streams is given by:

q1 = q2, → m1cΔT1 = m2cΔT2

→ m1ΔT1 = m2ΔT2, where: m1 = Density of raw flue gas.

m2 = Density of treated flue gas.

ΔT1 = Change in temperature of raw flue gas.

ΔT2 = Change in temperature of treated flue gas.

ΔT1 = (Initial temperature of raw flue gas, ti) – (Final temperature of raw flue gas, tf)

= ti – tf = 158.8℃ - tf

ΔT2 = (Final temperature of treated flue gas, tf) – (Initial temperature of treated flue gas, ti)

= tf – ti = tf – 50℃

Practically temperature equilibrium between the hot and the cold gas stream would not be
achieved due to heat transfer resistance posed by the heat exchanger shell or surface
material. As such an assumption was made that the hot stream retained 15% of the heat
from the hypothetical equilibrium while the cold stream was deprived by the same margin.
Assuming a 10% heat loss into the surrounding from the hot stream which is the heat
reservoir in this case, the final temperature of the emissions, tf, is given by:

(90/100) [m1(ti – tf)] = (85/100) [m2(tf – ti)]

→ 0.9[(3890.643416 mg/m3) (158.8℃ - tf)] = 0.85[(77.812868 mg/m3) (tf – 50℃)]

→ 0.9[(617834.174461 mg/m3.℃) – (3890.643416 mg/m3.tf)]

= 0.85(77.812868 mg/m3.tf) – (3890.643416 mg/m3.℃)

20 | P a g e
→ (556050.757015 mg/m3.℃) – (3501.579074 mg/m3. tf)

= (66.140938 mg/m3.tf) – (3307.046904 mg/m3.℃)

→ (556050.757015 mg/m3.℃) + (3307.046904 mg/m3.℃)

= (66.140938 mg/m3.tf) + (3501.579074 mg/m3. tf)

→ 559357.803919 mg/m3.℃ = 3567.720012 mg/m3.tf

→ tf = 156.8℃

3.3.3 The quench section

The chosen quench orientation is a simple vertical spray tower as this is the least expensive
wet scrubber design. The raw flue gas will be entering from the lower section of the spray
tower and exiting from the upper section of the tower. Concurrently, the sprays will shower
from the top to the sump at the bottom of the tower.

Upon interaction with water in the quencher, before entering the packed-bed scrubber, NO
sparingly dissolves in water, 5.6 mg/100ml at 20℃, and reacts with the oxygen in the water
to form Nitrous acid as per equation 13:

4NO + O2 + H2O → 4HNO2

From thermodynamics heat transfer principles, the heat exchange between the raw and
treated flue gas streames is governed by equation 3:

q = mcΔT, [Equation 3]

where: q = Heat released or absorbed

m = Mass of the substance

c = Specific heat capacity of the substance

ΔT = Change in temperature

For an ideal heat exchange system which achieves temperature equilibrium between the raw
flue gas stream and the quench water, without heat transfer resistance and heat loses into the
surroundings, the optimum water flow rate is given by:

q1 = q2, where: q1 = Heat released by the flue gas.

21 | P a g e
 q2 = Heat absorbed by quench water.

→ m1c1ΔT1 = m2c2ΔT2, where: m1 = Mass flowrate of raw flue gas.

m2 = Mass flowrate of quenching water.

c1 = Specific heat capacity of the flue gas.

c2 = specific heat capacity of the quench water.

ΔT1 = Change in temperature of raw flue gas.

ΔT2 = Change in temperature quenching water.

ΔT1 = (Initial temperature of raw flue gas, ti) – (Final temperature of raw flue gas, tf)

ΔT2 = (Final temperature of treated flue gas, tf) – (Initial temperature of treated flue gas, ti)

Available data: m1 = 5445.266712 mg/s m2 =?

c1 =? c2 = specific heat capacity of water

ti = 158.8℃ tf = 123℃

3.3.4 The Paked-Bed Reaction Chanmber

As indicated by (Danzomo et al., 2012), the flue gas flow rate was the most important
parameter for sizing a reactor. For a steady flow involving a flue gas stream flowing through
a cylindrical control volume of the scrubber system at sections 1 and 2, continuity equation 3
was applicable.

ρ1V1A1 = ρ2V2A2 [equation 3.]

Where, ρ1 and ρ2 are respective densities, A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas and
V1 and V2 are the velocities, respectively.

The liquid-to-gas ratio, ꞵ, which is outlined in equation 4 is another critical aspect which was
determined using the gas velocity and density.

QL/QG = ꞵ [equation 4.]

22 | P a g e
 Where QL and QG are the volumetric flow rates of liquid and gas, respectively.

The overall efficiency, ƞ in equation 5, of the desulphurization system was calculated as

follows (Bandyopadhyay and Biswas, 2006):

Yo = Yi [1 – (ƞ/100)] [equation 5]

Where; Yo = SO2 concentration in flue gas at exit point of desulphurization system.

Yi = SO2 concentration in flue gas at inlet point of desulphurization system.

The height, HT in equation 6, of the packed-bed wet scrubber was calculated as follows
(Bandyopadhyay and Biswas, 2006):

HT = (HTU) (NTU) = (G/(kga.P) [ln (yi/yo)] [equation 6.]

Where; HTU = height of transfer units = G/(kga.P [equation 7.]

 G: is the molar gas flow rate in kmol/m2s.

 kga: is the true volumetric gas side mass transfer coefficient in
kmol/m3s.atm.
 P: is the total pressure of the system in atm.

NTU = number of transfer units = ln (yi/yo) [equation 8.]

 yi: is the mole fraction of SO2 at inlet.

 yo: is the mole fraction of SO2 at outlet.

3.4 Catalytic conversion of SO2 to H2SO4

3.4.1 The chemical reactions and key process parameters
Granular activated carbon or active coke shall be used as the adsorbent packings in a water-
spray desulphurization scrubber with the aim of converting the SO 2 into sulphuric acid
according to equation 9, (Sharif et al., 2021; Strickroth, A. et al., 2020; Blumberga et al.,
2020; Ajdari et al., 2019; Plaček et al., 2011; Popp, 2003).

The packed-bed will clean the flue gas in a co-current scrubbing set up in order to reduce
pressure drop while facilitating for a continuous self-regeneration of the adsorbent which is a
modification of the sulfacid process authored by Strickroth et al., 2020.

SO2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (l) [equation 9.]

23 | P a g e
Therefore: 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (l) [equation 10.]

2(-297kJ) + 0 + 2(-286kJ) → 2(-814kJ)

ΔHrxn = ∑ΔHf (Products) - ∑ΔHf (Reactants)

Therefore, the heat of reaction is -462kJ.

From equation 10;

2 moles of SO2(g) reacts with 1 mole of O2(g) and 2 moles of H2O(l) to give 2 moles of H2SO4(l)

Molar mass of SO2 = (32 + 16×2) g = 64g

Molar mass of O2(g) = (16×2) g = 32g

Molar mas of H2O(l) = (1×2 + 16) g = 18g

Molar mass of H2SO4(l) = (1×2 + 32 + 16×4) g = 98g

2 moles of SO2(g) reacts with 1 mole of O2(g) and 2 moles of H2O(l) to give 2 moles of H2SO4(l)

From the emissions assessment results, the calculated emission rates are:

mg mg s 1 kg kg
SO2 (g): 1787.263056 =1787.263056 ×3600 × =6.434
s s hr 1,000,000 mg hr

For an 8-hour working shift per day, the SO2 (g) emission rate per boiler is:
mg s 1 kg 8 hr kg
SO2 (g): 1787.263056 ×3600 × × =51.473
s hr 1,000,000 mg day day
mg 3600 s 1 kg 8 hr day kg
¿ 1787.263056 × × × ×365 . =18788
s hr 1,000,000 mg day year year

For the estimated 300 boilers the national SO2 emission rate is:

18788 kg 5,636,400 kg tonnes

×300. boiler= =5636 SO 2 (g)
year .boiler year year

mg mg s 1 kg kg
CO (g): 2531.839365 =2531.839365 ×3600 × = 9.115
s s hr 1,000,000 mg hr

mg mg s 1 kg kg
NO (g): 173.547862 =173.547862 × 3600 × =0.625
s s hr 1,000,000 mg hr

24 | P a g e
3.4.2 The process oxygen (O2) demand
From the stoichiometric ratios with regard to equation 10, the oxygen specifically required
for the formation of H2SO4 from SO2 is:

O -1:
2
( 1787.263056
mg
s
. SO 2)
×
(32 g .O 2 )
=446.815764
mg kg
. O 2=1.609 . O 2
( 128 g . SO 2 ) 1 s hr

The specific oxygen demand of the flue gas due to CO gas component is determined from
the oxidation of carbon monoxide which follows equation 11.

CO (g) + ½ O2 (g) → CO2 (g) [equation 11.]

Therefore: 2CO (g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) [equation 12.]

2(-283kJ) + 0 → 2(-393.5kJ)

Enthalpy of combustion: ΔHrxn = ∑ΔHf (Products) - ∑ΔHf (Reactants)

Therefore, the heat of reaction is -221kJ.

Molar mass of CO = (12 + 16) g = 28g

Molar mass of O2 = (16 × 2) g = 32g

Molar mass of CO2 = (12 + 16 × 2) g = 44g

Equation 12 shows that 2 moles of CO react with 1 mole of O 2 to give 2 moles of CO 2.

Therefore, 56g CO react with 32g O2 to give 88g CO2.

From the stoichiometric ratios with regard to equation 12, the oxygen specifically required
for the oxidation of CO to CO2 is:

O -2:
2
( 2531.839365
mg
s
.CO )
×
( 32 g . O2 )
=1446.765351
mg kg
.O 2=5.208 .O 2
( 56 g . CO ) 1 s hr

Upon interaction with water in the quencher, before entering the packed-bed scrubber, NO
sparingly dissolves in water, 5.6 mg/100ml at 20℃, and reacts with the oxygen in the water
to form Nitrous acid as per equation 13:

4NO + O2 + H2O → 4HNO2 [equation 13]

25 | P a g e
The specific oxygen supply from the catalytic decomposition of the NO flue gas component
is determined from the reduction of Nitric oxide which follows equation 14.

2NO (g) → N2 (g) + O2 (g) [equation 14.]

2(90.29kJ) → + 0 + 0

Enthalpy of reaction: ΔHrxn = ∑ΔHf (Products) - ∑ΔHf (Reactants)

Therefore, the heat of reaction is -180.58kJ.

Molar mass of NO = (14 + 16) g = 30g

Molar mass of O2 = (16 × 2) g = 32g

Molar mass of N2 = (14 × 2) g = 28g

Equation 13 shows that 2 moles of NO decompose to give 1 mole of O 2 and 1 mole of N2.
Therefore, 60g NO decomposes to give 32g O2 and 28g NO2.

From the stoichiometric ratios with regard to equation 13, the oxygen specifically required
for the oxidation of NO to NO2 is:

O -2:
2
( 173.547862
mg
s
. NO )
×
( 32 g .O 2 )
=1446.765351
mg kg
. O 2=5.208 . O 2
(56 g . CO ) 1 s hr

As a result, the calculated net oxygen demand for the flue gas desulphurization process is:

[O2 -1] + [O2 -2] + [O2 -3] = O2 (g)

mg mg kg
O2 (g): ( 446.815764 +1446.765351 ) . O2=1893.581115 . O2=6.817 . O2
s s hr

If the source of the oxygen (O2) is atmospheric air, the amount of air required is:

mg 100 % . Air mg kg
Air (g): 1893.581115 .O2 × =9467.905575 . Air =34.084 . Air
s 20 % .O 2 s hr

3.4.3 Thermodynamic of the desulphurization processes

The desulphurization process is expected to generate heat from the following processes:

26 | P a g e
The desulphurization process is expected to sequestrate heat by the following processes:

3.4.3 The minimum water (H2O) demand for the desulphurization process
From equation 10, the stoichiometric ratios show that 2 moles of SO 2(g) react with 1 mole of
O2(g) and 2 moles of H2O(l) to give 2 moles of H2SO4(l). Therefore, 128g SO2(g) reacts with 32g
O2(g) and 36g H2O(l) to give 196g H2SO4(l).

The minimum water required for production of sulphuric acid is:

H2O (l) (: 1787.263056 mgs . SO 2) × (36 g . H 2O ) =502.667735 mg . H 2O=1.810 kg . H O

2
( 128 g . SO 2 ) 1 s hr

At 25℃ and 1 atmosphere, the water demand in volumetric flow is:

mg 1g 1 ml ml
H2O (l):502.667735 . H 2O × × =0.502667735
s 1,000 mg 1 g s

ml 3600 s 1l l
¿ 0.502667735 × × =1.810
s hr 1,000 ml hr

3.4.4 The expected annual sulfuric acid production and export savings
For an 8-hour working shift per day, the expected sulphuric acid production from flue gas
desulphurization per boiler is:

H2SO4(l): (1787.284080 mgs . SO 2) × ( 196 g . H 2 SO 4) =2736.746555 mg . H 2 SO 4

( 128 g . SO 2 ) 1 s

mg 3600 s 1 kg kg
¿ 2736.746555 . H 2 SO 4 × × =9.852 . H 2 SO 4
s hr 1,000,000mg hr

kg 8 hr kg
¿ 9.852288 . H 2 SO 4 × =78.818 . H 2 SO 4
hr day day

From the approximated 300 small coal fired boilers, with an average sulfuric acid
production of 78.818 kg/day per boiler, the annual H2SO4 production is:

kg ( 365 .day )
H2SO4(l): 78.818 . H 2 SO 4 ×300. boiler ×
day . boiler year

27 | P a g e
 kg
¿ 8,630,571 . H 2 SO 4=¿ 8631 tonnes of H2SO4 (l) annually
year

From the United Nations commercial trade data, Zimbabwe imported 42055 tonnes of
Sulfuric acid (Oleum) in 2021 and 19210 tonnes in 2022. Therefore, the 8631 tonnes which
could be produced from flue gas desulphurization at small coal powered boilers would cause
a 20.5% decrease in the Sulfuric acid (Oleum) importation bill in 2021 and a 44.9% decrease
in 2022.

3.5 Clean-flue-gas conditioning system

Upon leaving the packed bed in a co-current and downward flow, the treated flue gas will not
need a mist arrestor to dehumidify the stream as the vapour liquefies and adds to the
sulphuric acid. Instead, before discharge into the atmosphere, the desulphurized flue gas
stream will be reheated in recuperative by heat exchange with untreated flue gas coming out
of the boiler for it to retain its buoyance which is critically needed to ensure dispersion at
greater heights (Sharif et al., 2021; Coykendall, 1962; Jørgensen, 1995; Vawda et al., 2001).

3.6 Reactor simulation

To ascertain the efficiency and uncertainties of the designed desulphurisation system, at least
two of the following numerical simulation methods shall be employed, as determined by
resource availability; Simflow, CFD package ANSYS FLUENT version 14 (Brown, Kalata
and Schick, 2014)., Autodesk CFD.

3.7 Cost evaluation of the design installation and operation

The cost of installing and operating the designed flue gas desulphurization system is
established from the list of materials required for both installation and operation. Cost of
ownership (COO) is estimated using the simplified relationship between capex, annual opex,
and life cycle as shown in Equation 15.

COO = CAPEX + (Annual OPEX × Life cycle) [Equation 14.]

28 | P a g e
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSION
4.1 Emissions survey results and analysis

Date Appliance SO2 (mg/m3) NO (mg/m3) CO (mg/m3) Temp. (°C) Emission Velocity (m/s) Chimney Int. Dia (m) Chimney Height (m) SO2 Discharge (kg/8hr) SO2 Discharge (kg/24hr)
02.07.19 Boiler 1 483 42 720 135 12.3 0.37 20.4 18.397 55.190
02.07.19 Boiler 2 641 44 773 139 12.9 0.33 18 20.368 61.105
02.07.19 Boiler 3 704 44 684 140 12 0.37 20.9 26.160 78.480
03.07.19 Boiler 4 609 43 726 138 11.8 0.37 18.3 22.253 66.758
12.12.19 Boiler 5 1065 160 92 142 16.2 0.38 20.2 56.353 169.058
12.12.19 Boiler 6
XLSTAT 2016.02.28451 1288
- Dixon test133for outliers
105 - Start135
time: 10/5/2023 13.7at 23:39:57 0.33 20.2 43.466 130.397
11.12.19 Boiler 7 1024 210 11565 185 14.1 0.35 19.7 40.007 120.021
Data: Workbook = my XLSTAT BOILER RESULTS.xlsx / Sheet = MAIN / Range = MAIN!$C$1:$C$34 / 33 rows and 1 column
11.12.19 Boiler 8 615 204 8018 199 11.9 0.35 21.8 20.279 60.836
Alternative
26.10.20 Boilerhypothesis:
9 Two-sided210
1370 17323 180 13.4 0.39 21.7 63.159 189.478
Significance
26.10.20 Boilerlevel
10 (%): 51003 208 12302 187 14 0.37 19.6 43.483 130.448
Iterations:
26.10.20 Maximum:
Boiler 11 13401 239 219 151 15.5 0.36 18.6 154.535 463.604
29.10.20
NumberBoiler 12
of simulations: 3194
1000000 2 2029 190 16.8 0.4 20 194.199 582.596
29.10.20 Boiler 13 3297 120 1124 171 14.9 0.37 20.2 152.122 456.365
20.04.23 Boiler 14 681 50 109 133 12.1 0.4 19 29.822 89.466
Summary
20.04.23 statistics:
Boiler 15 706 52 109 134 12.9 0.34 18.4 23.814 71.442
20.04.23 Variable
Boiler 16 Observations
701 51 Obs. with
104 missing133data Obs. without 13.5 missing data 0.36Minimum Maximum 21.7 Mean Std. 27.742deviation 83.226
20.04.23 Boiler 17
SO2 (mg/m3) 696 3351 107 134 0 11.7 33 0.36483.000 3401.000
20.2 1277.000 23.872 769.591 71.615
17.03.23 Boiler 18 1444 162 55 134 13 0.39 20.9 64.584 193.751
17.03.23 Boiler 19 1470 169 55 134 13.3 0.36 18.9 57.313 171.940
Dixon test
17.03.23 for20outliers 1519
Boiler / Two-tailed 161test: 55 183 14.7 0.32 18.9 51.720 155.160
R22 (Observed
16.03.23 Boiler 21 value) 1477 0.074
161 55 152 13.4 0.32 21.1 45.842 137.527
R22 (Critical
16.03.23 Boiler value)
22 1436 0.398
153 116 184 15.7 0.34 18.1 58.951 176.854
16.03.23
p-value Boiler 23
(Two-tailed) 1453 154
0.271 90 183 16 0.35 20.6 64.418 193.253
22.03.23 Boiler 24 1447 153 98 182 15.3 0.35 19.4 61.345 184.035
alpha 0.05
22.03.23 Boiler 25 1445 153 101 183 14.8 0.39 18 73.577 220.731
The p-value
24.04.23 Boiler has
26 been computed
512 using
71.4 1000000 978 Monte 195Carlo simulations.13.1 0.36 19.9 19.662 58.986
99% confidence
27.04.23 Boiler 27 interval on the p-value:
2255 172 1022 161 15.6 0.35 18.2 97.474 292.423
27.04.23 Boiler 28] 0.269, 0.272
769 [ 126.17 576 193.9 12.2 0.38 21.8 30.643 91.930
13.06.22 Boiler 29 701 51 104 133.5 13.5 0.33 20.6 23.311 69.933
13.06.22 Boiler 30 699 63 119 152 12.9 0.32 18.7 20.886 62.657
Test interpretation: 1044
13.06.22 Boiler 31 132 59 142 13.8 0.35 21.9 39.921 119.762
H0: There
14.06.22 is no
Boiler 32 outlier 1465
in the data 177 63 138 12.3 0.37 19.7 55.799 167.398
Ha: The Boiler
14.06.22 minimum33 or maximum
1527 value
166 is an outlier
58 164 14.6 0.39 19.2 76.701 230.104
Mean 1277 123.865758 1809.48485 158.8 13.75454545 0.35969697 19.84242424 54.611 163.834
As the computed
Total p-value is greater than the significance level alpha=0.05, one cannot reject the null hypothesis H0. 1802.176 5406.529

The risk to reject the null hypothesis H0 while it is true is 27.06%.

Figure 2: Boiler emissions survey results, 10 May 2023.
Figure 3: Analysis of SO2 values and testing values for outliers, 10 May 2023.
XLSTAT 2016.02.28451 - Principal Component Analysis (PCA) - Start time: 10/5/2023 at 22:38:18
Observations/variables table: Workbook = my XLSTAT BOILER RESULTS.xlsx / Sheet = MAIN / Range = MAIN!$C$1:$F$34 / 33 rows and 4 columns
PCA type: Pearson (n)
Type of biplot: Distance biplot / Coefficient = Automatic

Summary statistics:
Variable Observations Obs. with missing data Obs. without missing data Minimum Maximum Mean Std. deviation
SO2 (mg/m3) 33 0 33 483.000 3401.000 1277.000 769.591
NO (mg/m3) 33 0 33 2.000 239.000 123.866 64.601
CO (mg/m3) 33 0 33 55.000 17323.000 1809.485 4151.204
Temp. (°C) 33 0 33 133.000 199.000 158.800 23.761

Correlation matrix (Pearson (n)):

Variables SO2 (mg/m3) NO (mg/m3) CO (mg/m3) Temp. (°C)
SO2 (mg/m3) 1 0.329 -0.055 0.231
NO (mg/m3) 0.329 1 0.430 0.390
CO (mg/m3) -0.055 0.430 1 0.444
Temp. (°C) 0.231 0.390 0.444 1

Figure 1: 5:
Figure Correlation matrix
Distribution for
of SO the principal
2 values parameters,
in the sample, 10 2023.
10 May May 2023

29 | P a g e
 An archetypal cost-effective desulphurisation design for coal-powered boilers
generating less than 20 tonnes of steam per hour, which enables compliance with
SI72/2009 emission limit for SO2.
 A design to produce sulfuric acid instead of waste water from wet scrubbing of SO 2
from small coal-powered steam boilers.
 A design to raise flue gas temperature after wet scrubbing for enhanced air pollutants
dispersion upon exiting the chimney.

30 | P a g e
5.0 CONCLUSION
The results indicate that affordable flue gas desulphurization technology exists that could be
adopted by the Zimbabwean industry to reduce SO2 emissions to current legislative limits
and beyond.

31 | P a g e
APPENDICES

Appendix A: Extract; Environmental Management Regulations, Statutory

Instrument 72 of 2009, “Atmospheric Pollution Control”.

Figure 6: Zimbabwean thermal power boiler emission limits, SI 72 of 2009. 32 | P a g e

Appendix B: Sulfuric acid importation data for Zimbabwe

Table 2: Sulphuric acid (Oleum) imported by Zimbabwe in 2021, UN Commercial Trade Data
RefYear RefMonth Period ReporterISO ReporterDesc PartnerDesc CmdCode CmdDesc QtyUnitCode QtyUnitAbbr Qty NetWgt Fobvalue PrimaryValue
2021 52 2021 BWA Botswana Zimbabwe 2807 Sulphuric acid; oleum 8 kg 4 80 271.277 271.277
2021 52 2021 ZAF South Africa Zimbabwe 2807 Sulphuric acid; oleum 8 kg 38083751 38083751.09 3145621 3145620.964
2021 52 2021 ZMB Zambia Zimbabwe 2807 Sulphuric acid; oleum 8 kg 3971300 3971300 776008.4 776008.351
TOTAL 52 2021 - - Zimbabwe 2807 Sulphuric acid; oleum 8 kg 42,055,055 42,055,131.09 3,921,901 3,921,900.592

Table 3: Sulphuric acid (Oleum) imported by Zimbabwe in 2022, UN Commercial Trade Data
RefYear RefMonth Period ReporterISO ReporterDesc PartnerDesc CmdCode CmdDesc QtyUnitCode QtyUnitAbbr Qty NetWgt Fobvalue PrimaryValue
2022 52 2022 IND India Zimbabwe 280700 Sulphuric acid; oleum 8 kg 19 19 443.763 443.763
2022 52 2022 ZAF South Africa Zimbabwe 280700 Sulphuric acid; oleum 8 kg 19210400 19210400 2903182.188 2903182.188
TOTAL 52 2022 - - Zimbabwe 280700 Sulphuric acid; oleum 8 kg 19,210,419 19,210,419 2,903,625.951 2,903,625.951

33 | P a g e
REFERENCES
Azhar Muhammad Ali, Abdul Nasir, Usman Haider, M. Usman Farid, (2014) ‘Development
and Performance Evaluation of an Indigenous Wet Scrubber Unit’, Science
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