Article

2022, Vol. 51(1S) 7 49­S–768S

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Alkali-treated coir fibre- Article reuse guidelines:
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pith composite for waste DOI: 10.1177/15280837211014247
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water treatment

Monnisha Ganesan and

Gobi Nallathambi

Abstract
Coir fibre and pith are eco-friendly material used in the preparation of composites.
Coir fibre and coir pith were treated with sodium hydroxide to study the effect of alkali
for prolonged exposure on its properties. Fibre and pith were treated with different
concentrations of NaOH from 5% to 30% for 24 hours at room temperature. Alkali
treatment removes the impurities and the expose the crystalline cellulose and to
enhance the surface properties. The alkali-treated coir fibre and pith were character-
ized by Scanning electron microscopy for morphology, X-ray diffraction for crystallinity
index, thermogravimetry for thermal stability, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
for structural changes. The chemical composition was analysed for both fibre and pith.
Physical properties such as bulk density, particle density and porosity were determined
for pith. After alkali treatment, the properties (physical and chemical) of the treated
fibre (5% to 20%) has been enhanced. For coir pith the properties has been diminished.
Untreated/treated coir fibre/pith filter (CFP) were developed to study the removal of
heavy metal ions from the waste water, where untreated (CFP) as a control. The
removal efficiency of the developed CFP filter for heavy metal ions were determined
by Inductively coupled plasma - optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). 5% CFP filter
exhibited higher efficiency for removal of heavy metal ions.

Keywords
Coir fibre, pith, alkali treatment, cellulose, heavy metal ion

Department of Textile Technology, Anna University, Chennai, India

Corresponding author:
Gobi Nallathambi, Department of Textile Technology, Anna University, Chennai, India.
Email: gobsnn@gmail.com
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Introduction
In waste water, heavy metal ion is a major problem and it has great threat to human
beings, and animals. Several removal technologies were employed such as adsorption,
chemical precipitation, membrane filtration, ion exchange, coagulation and floccula-
tion. Adsorption is the method widely used compared to other conventional techni-
ques [1]. Cellulosic materials were used due to its low cost, available in abundant
quantity and effective removal of heavy metal ions [2]. Removal of heavy metal ions
(Cu, Zn and Ni) by lignocellulosic fibres from aqueous solutions by extraction was
reported [3]. Cellulose prepared from pineapple leaf fibre was modified for the remov-
al of heavy metal Cadmium (Cd) and Lead (Pb) [4]. Flax fibres were used for the
removal of heavy metals such as Cadmium, Lead and Zinc [5]. Wheat straw as a
natural and modified biosorbent were used for the removal of cadmium, chromium,
Copper, Lead and nickel [6–9]. Nickel was removed from the aqueous solution using
sugarcane bagasse [10]. Coconut trees (Cocos nucifera) are extensively grown in trop-
ical areas and it is used for various applications which are of commercial importance
[11]. Coconut consists of thick fibrous outer exocarp called husk and inner hard
endocarp or shell. Coir pith is a spongy material that binds with the fibre. Coir
fibre and pith are extracted from the outer shell (husk) of the coconut while the
latter is considered as an agro-waste [12–13]. Coir fibre and pith are lignocellulosic,
which consists of crystalline cellulose and amorphous non-cellulosic lignin, hemicel-
lulose, wax and pectin. Coir fibre is biodegradable, cost-effective and possesses good
thermal and mechanical properties, but the coir pith is not easily degradable [13–14].
The incompatibility that exists between the hydrophilic lignocellulosic material and
hydrophobic composite matrix, coir fibre and pith are not preferred as a reinforce-
ment filler for composites. Thus, coir fibre and pith are treated chemically for surface
modification to enhance the properties and to adhere to the composite matrix [13,15].
Previous works have reported the effect of alkali treatment on fibre properties by
varying the concentration of alkali and soaking time. For coir pith, alkali treatment
with different concentrations was not reported. Alkali-treated fibres were used in
preparation of polymer composites and used for different application but not in fil-
tration. In this work, coir fibre and pith were treated with different concentrations of
sodium hydroxide for 24 hours at room temperature (30 ˚C) to study the effect of alkali
treatment on its properties. Alkali treatment was performed to remove the impurities
such as hemicellulose, lignin and wax and to expose the crystalline cellulose present on
the surface of pith and fibre. Development of alkali-treated coir fibre-pith filter and
then the heavy metal ion removal efficiency was investigated.

Experimental
Materials and method
Chemical treatment. Coir fibre and coir pith were collected from a coir processing
unit (Tamil Nadu, India). Using different concentrations of sodium hydroxide
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(Sisco Research Laboratories, India) such as 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30%,
Coir fibre (CF) and Coir pith (CP) were treated for 24 hours at room temperature
to study the effect of alkali treatment on its properties. Both the treatments were
carried out separately.

Chemical composition for fibre and pith

Cellulose content. Coir fibre and coir pith of known weight were soaked in the mixture
of 1.72% w/v sodium chloride and three drops of concentred sulphuric acid for one
hour. After washing and drying 30 ml of liquid ammonia was added for neutraliza-
tion. Then the fibre and pith were washed, dried and weighed. The cellulose content
of treated and untreated fibre was determined by the below equation [16].
C1 � C2
Cellulose content ¼ � 100% (1)
C1
where C1 and C2 are the initial and final weight of coir fibre/pith.

Lignin content. In the process of determination of lignin content of cellulose, 1 g of

coir fibre was immersed in sulphuric acid (H2SO4) with the concentration of 7.6%
and the M:L ratio of 1:300. The experiment was carried out at room temperature
and then refluxed for 2 hours. The residue was taken out, washed, dried and
weighed. A similar procedure was carried out for the coir pith [16].
L1 � L2
Lignin content ¼ � 100% (2)
L1

where L1 and L2 are the initial and final weight of coir fibre/pith.

Hemicellulose content. The fibre and pith of known weight were soaked in 5%
NaOH solution for 30 minutes and then it was neutralized by HCl. Finally, the
samples were dried and weighed [16].
HC1 � HC2
Hemicellulose content ¼ � 100% (3)
HC1

where HC1 and HC2 are the initial and final weight of coir fibre/pith.

Wax content. The wax content of fibre and pith was measured using a Soxhlet
apparatus by immersing in carbon tetrachloride and refluxed for one hour. Then
the fibre and pith were dried in a hot air oven and weighed [16].

W1 � W2
Wax content ¼ � 100% (4)
W1

where W1 and W2 are the initial and final weight of coir fibre/pith.
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Moisture content. Known conditioned (65% RH and 27 � C) quantity of coir pith

and coir fibre was kept in a hot air oven for 2 hours at 105 � C and kept in the
desiccator. Finally, the sample was weighed [16].

M1 � M2
Moisture content ¼ � 100% (5)
M1

where W1 and W2 are the initial and final weight of coir fibre/pith.

Characterisation of fibres/pith
Scanning electron microscopy. The morphology of treated/untreated coir fibre and
coir pith was studied using scanning electron microscopy (Hitachi S-3400N).
The treated and untreated fibre/pith were mounted on the stub and gold sputtering
was done with the operating voltage of 15 kV. The cross-sectional view of the fibre
was also observed using sem.

X-ray diffraction. The X-ray diffraction pattern of treated/untreated fibre/pith was

obtained using Bruker D8 Advance operated at 45 kV with Cu radiation
(k ¼ 1.5406). Samples were placed on the sample holder and measured for 2h
angle range varying from 10˚ to 80˚ at the scanning rate of 1.2˚/min. The crystallinity
index of the treated/untreated fibre and pith were determined by the Segal method.

Icrystalline � Iamorphous
Crystallinity index ¼ � 100% (6)
Icrystalline

where I crystalline and I amorphous were the intensities of crystalline and amorphous
region of fibre/pith respectively.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was

conducted by Shimadzu FT-IR spectrometer in the range of 4000-500 cm�1. FTIR
analysis was performed in Attenuated total reflectance mode and the spectrum is
obtained to study the functional groups of pith and fibre after alkali treatment.

Thermogravimetric analysis. TGA of coir fibre and pith were carried out by Q-50 (TA
Instruments Ins, US) at a flow rate of 30 ml/min under nitrogen atmosphere at a
scanning rate of 35 � C/min from room temperature to 700 ˚C. A thermogram was
obtained for fibre/pith as a function of weight loss percentage against increasing
temperature to examine the thermal stability and decomposition of these lignocel-
lulosic materials.

Bulk density of coir pith. Bulk density is calculated as the ratio of the mass of coir pith
to the volume of coir pith. Coir pith of known mass was taken and filled in
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the graduated cylinder. After filling the sample, the volume of the cylinder was
noted [17].
 
Mass of pith g
Bulk density ¼ (7)
volume of the pith cm3

Particle density of coir pith. The particle density of treated and untreated coir pith was
calculated using a pycnometer by the below-given equation [18].
 
Dw� ðMpcp � Mp Þ g
Dcp ¼ (8)
ððMpcp � Mp Þ � ðMpcpw � Mpw ÞÞ cm3

where
Dw ¼ Density of water (g/cm3)
Mpcp ¼ Mass of pycnometer and coir pith (g)
Mp ¼ Mass of empty pycnometer (g)
Mpcpw ¼ Mass of pycnometer, coir pith and water (g)
Mpw ¼ Mass of pycnometer and water (g)

Porosity of coir pith. The porosity of treated and untreated coir pith was calculated
based on bulk density and particle density [17].

Bulk density
Porosity ¼ 1 � �100% (9)
particle density

Preparation of coir fibre/pith filter. Equal proportion 50% of Coir fibre and 50% of
pith were taken for preparation of filter. Fibres were arranged vertically and pith
has been placed inside the fibre where 5% chitosan solution acts as a binder for
the filter. Filters were prepared with untreated and alkali-treated fibre/pith,
where untreated fibre/pith will act as a control. Construction of filter is represented
in Figure 1. As prepared CFP filters have a length of 10 cm and a diameter
of 2.54 cm. The packing density of the CFP filter was calculated using the formula
given below.

Weight of the filter g

Packing density ¼ (10)
Volume of the filter cm3

Volumetric flow rate. The volumetric flow rate was calculated for both untreated and
treated Coir fibre/pith filter by the formula,
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Figure 1. Development of CFP filter.

V
Q¼ ðml=minÞ (11)
t

Where,
Q¼ volumetric flow rate (ml/min)
V¼ volume of the liquid (ml)t¼ time (min):

Inductively coupled plasma – optical emission spectrometry. Inductively coupled plasma -

optical emission spectrometry (Perkin Elmer Optima 5300DV) was used to study
the concentration of heavy metal ions. Aqueous solution of mixed heavy metals
such as Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb), Arsenic (As), Ferric
(Fe) and Aluminium (Al) with the concentration of 100 ppm was prepared. As
prepared heavy metal ion solution was passed through the coir fibre/pith filter and
the permeate was analysed by ICP-OES for removal of heavy metal ions. Removal
efficiency was calculated by
Cf � Cp
Removal efficiency ¼ �100% (12)
Cf

where,
Cf – Concentration of feed (ppm)
Cp – Concentration of permeate (ppm)
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Results and discussion

Chemical composition and other properties of coir fibre and coir pith
The chemical composition of coir fibre and coir pith is shown in Tables 1 and 2.
Hemicellulose and lignin that surrounds and protects the crystalline structure of
cellulose. When coir fibre and pith are treated with sodium hydroxide, the hydrox-
yl group of hemicellulose is broken, reacts with water molecules and discharged
out. By alkali treatment the crystalline nature of cellulose is not hydrolysed, the
fibre-O-Na chain was formed by cellulose molecules [19]. The cellulose content of
treated fibres and pith was increased from 44.12% to 55.40% and 29.98% to
45.02% respectively. On mild alkali treatment, the crystalline cellulose will be
exposed. As the concentration and immersion time of alkali increased, Cellulose
I (crystalline nature) have been converted to Cellulose II (amorphous). Hence on
increasing the concentration of alkali, the cellulose content also increased.
Hemicellulose was completely removed for treated coir pith and fibre except for
5% treated fibre which implies the partial removal. Wax on the surface of fibre and
pith was removed completely by the alkali treatment [20]. The moisture content of

Table 1. Chemical composition of coir fibre.

NaOH Hemicellulose Lignin Cellulose Wax Moisture

Conc. (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) content (%)

Untreated 15.29 30.09 40.14 1.12 6.40

5 7.76 13.59 44.12 – 7.55
10 – 12.62 43.98 – 7.51
15 – 11.65 47.05 – 8.14
20 – 10.67 50.68 – 8.08
25 – 8.73 52.16 – 8.09
30 – 6.79 55.40 – 8.40

Table 2. Chemical composition of coir pith.

Moisture
NaOH Hemicellulose Lignin Cellulose Wax content
Conc. (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Untreated 14.90 42.05 26.45 6.41 11.46

5 – 18.08 29.98 – 14.00
10 – 17.77 31.92 – 14.01
15 – 17.04 34.68 – 13.41
20 – 16.64 38.97 – 12.71
25 – 15.16 40.81 – 11.97
30 – 13.75 45.02 – 11.90
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treated pith/fibre was increased compared to untreated fibre/pith because of the

removal of hemicellulose and lignin.

Surface morphology
The scanning electron micrographs of the treated/untreated fibre and pith were
represented in Figures 2 and 3. The surface morphology of pith and fibre was
studied to find the impact of alkali treatment. Wax and other impurities present on
the surface of untreated fibre/pith is responsible for the uniform and smoother
surface. The fibre/pith on treatment with sodium hydroxide exposed the rough
surface on the removal of impurities [21]. The pores present on the surface of coir
fibre has been exposed in treated fibre. The cross-sectional view of fibre depicts the
multi-lumen structure of the fibre gets damaged after alkali treatment due to the
removal of lignin.

Effect of alkali treatment on the crystallinity of coir fibre and pith

XRD patterns of treated/untreated fibre and pith were represented in Figures 4
and 5 respectively. Crystallinity Index of fibre and pith was analyzed using the two
peaks which reflects the crystalline phase at 2h ¼ 21� -22� and amorphous phase at
2h ¼ 17� -18� . The crystallinity index of fibre increased for the alkali-treated con-
centration 5% to 20% and decreased for 25% and 30% compared to untreated
fibre. Initially, the alkali solution removes the amorphous hemicellulose, wax,
pectin and exposure of crystalline cellulose which lies between the crystallite
domains [22–23]. As the impurities were removed the crystalline cellulose will be
exposed which results in increase in crystallinity index of alkali-treated fibre (5%
to 20%), compared to untreated. Further increase in concentration, results in
swelling of the fibre, which leads to cleavage of the cellulose chain. Thus, the
cleavage of the cellulose chain causes the disordered structure of cellulose which
results in a decrease of crystallinity index for alkali-treated fibre (25% and 30%).
Fibre can withstand prolonged exposure to alkali treatment but the pith is not
capable. Thus, there is a decrease of crystallinity index of treated coir pith 5% to
30% compared to untreated. Table 3 shows the crystallinity index of fibre and
pith.

Effect of alkali treatment on structural change in fibre/pith

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy graphs of pith and fibre represented in
Figures 6 and 7. In fibre and pith, the peak around 3300 cm�1 and 2900 cm�1was
assigned to OH stretching and C-H stretching of cellulose respectively. The broad-
ening of the peak at 3354 cm�1 was observed for alkali-treated fibre compared to
untreated due to the changes in intra and intermolecular hydrogen bonding of
cellulose. The peak observed at 1241 cm�1 and 1737 cm�1 indicates the presence
of C-O stretching and C ¼ O stretching in the acetyl group of hemicellulose respec-
tively. These peaks were absent for the treated fibres except for 5% alkali
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Figure 2. SEM images of untreated and treated coir fibre (a) untreated, (b) 5% NaOH, (c) 10%
NaOH, (d) 15% NaOH, (e) 20% NaOH, (f) 25% NaOH, (g) 30% NaOH.

concentration which indicates the removal of hemicellulose. For 5% alkali-treated

fibre partial removal of hemicellulose was noticed [24]. The peak at 1029 cm�1 was
due to the presence of (C-O-C) ether linkages in lignin. As the fibres are exposed to
alkali treatment at higher concentration and longer duration, the peak intensity
was reduced when compared to untreated which specifies the breakage of the ether
linkage. The peak at 1423 cm�1 and 876 cm�1 indicates the CH2 scissoring motion
and C-O-C stretching at b-ð1 ! 4)-glycosidic linkage of cellulose respectively [25].
These two peaks describe the crystalline and amorphous nature of cellulose.
Increase in intensity of peak at 876 cm�1 and broadening of the peak at
1423 cm�1 were observed, implies the disordered structure of cellulose [26]. The
cellulose (Cellulose I) started to lose its crystalline nature and converted into
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Figure 3. SEM images of untreated and treated coir pith (a) Untreated, (b) 5% NaOH, (c) 10%
NaOH, (d) 15% NaOH, (e) 20% NaOH, (f) 25% NaOH, (g) 30% NaOH.

amorphous nature (Cellulose II) from 15% to 30% of alkali-treated fibre as the
concentration of alkali increased. Amorphous nature of cellulose will be present
majorly from 15% to 30% of alkali-treated fibre.
In untreated coir pith, the peak observed at 1728 cm�1 assigned for C ¼ O
stretching of hemicellulose disappeared for treated pith after the removal of
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Figure 4. XRD pattern of untreated/treated fibre.

hemicellulose. The intensity of peak at 3323 cm1 corresponds to intramolecular

hydrogen bonding increased for treated pith compared to the untreated due to
demethylation. This implies that the cellulose in treated coir pith started to lose its
crystalline nature and has been converted into amorphous cellulose.
Demethylation of lignin takes place in treated pith as the concentration of
NaOH increases, hence there is an increase in peak intensity at 1030 cm1.
Slowly, the lignin started to degrade in treated pith which indicates the partial
removal of lignin, hence there is a change in intensity of peak at 1610 cm1 [27].

Effect of alkali treatment on thermal properties of fibre/pith

The Thermogram (TG) and Derivative Thermogram (DTG) of treated/untreated
fibre and pith were depicted in Figures 8 and 9. Three stages of thermal degrada-
tion take place for fibre and pith. The first stage of decomposition occurs below
100˚C due to evaporation of moisture and other impurities. The second stage of
decomposition is due to hemicellulose degradation below 300 ˚C because it was
easily hydrolyzed due to the amorphous structure. The final stage of degradation is
by cellulose which starts above 300  C which is responsible for the thermal stability
of fibre and pith [19]. Lignin degradation takes place slowly from 290  C to 600  C.
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Figure 5. XRD pattern of untreated/treated pith.

Table 3. Crystallinity index of fibre and pith.

Crystallinity index (%)

NaOH conc % Fibre Pith

Untreated 45.48 45.90

5 52.73 39.78
10 51.02 37.89
15 49.11 36.80
20 47.09 35.22
25 43.87 27.62
30 41.85 25.83

In DTG, double and single degradation peaks were observed for untreated fibre/
pith and treated fibre/pith respectively. The first peak observed at 290˚C for
untreated fibre is due to the degradation of hemicellulose and the second peak
at 370˚C corresponds to degradation of cellulose [28]. The single peak around 350-
370˚C in treated fibres corresponds to the decomposition of cellulose. The thermal
stability of treated fibre decreased after alkali treatment compared to untreated
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Figure 6. FTIR spectrum of untreated/treated fibre.

Figure 7. FTIR spectrum of untreated/treated pith.

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Figure 8. TG/DTG curve of untreated and treated fibre.

Figure 9. TG/DTG curve of untreated and treated pith.

because of the degradation of cellulose. For untreated pith, the first step and
second step degradation were observed at 320˚C and 460 ˚C corresponds to the
decomposition of cellulose and lignin respectively [29]. For treated coir pith, the
thermal stability was decreased drastically as the single-step degradation was
observed between 310-340 ˚C. The Cellulose I present in untreated pith maintained
the thermal stability of the pith and in treated coir pith the Cellulose I has been
converted to amorphous cellulose (Cellulose II). The amorphous cellulose degrades
soon and hence there is a decrease in thermal stability of treated pith. The residue
content of the treated/untreated coir fibre (26.05% to 32.25%) and pith (9.48% to
42.38%) was increased when the samples are treated at 680  C. Derivative ther-
mogram temperature and residue at 680 ˚C of fibre and pith were represented in
Table 4.
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Table 4. Derivative thermogram temperature and residue at 680˚C of fibre and pith.

Fibre Pith

Residue at DTG Residue at DTG

NaOH conc. (%) 680˚C (%) Peak (˚C) 680˚C (%) Peak (˚C)

Untreated 26.05 370 9.48 460

5 30.65 366 38.81 318
10 31.79 368 40.14 317
15 29.85 358 39.64 339
20 32.06 359 42.42 325
25 34.08 350 38.01 339
30 30.94 356 37.66 327

Bulk density/particle density/porosity

As the concentration of sodium hydroxide increases, bulk density (0.092-0.200 g/cm3)
increased due to the removal of wax, fat and other impurities present in pith [13].
Bulk density is inversely proportional to porosity. Thus, the increase in bulk density
implies low porosity. The untreated pith is more porous than the treated pith as the
porosity decreased from 76% to 10%. Particle density also decreased from 0.388 to
0.123 g/cm3. Porosity and particle density are inversely proportional to particle size.
When the coir pith was treated with alkali its particle size has been increased, as the
impurities were removed from the surface. Thus, there is a decrease in particle density
and porosity. Table 5 represents the bulk density, particle density and porosity.

Properties of pith and fibre with respect to heavy metal ion removal
The properties of pith and fibre influence the heavy metal ion absorption rate. It
was reported that 5% alkali treatment and six hours are the optimal condition to
sustain the properties [19]. The effect of alkali treatment on properties and struc-
tural degradation was analysed by increasing the concentration of NaOH from 5%
to 30%. By alkali treatment, hemicellulose, lignin and impurities were removed
and the internal surface of the fibre was explored. Hemicellulose and lignin were
responsible for hydrophilicity of the fibre and pith. After alkali treatment the
hydrophilicity of treated fibre and pith decreased, which implies that the treated
fibre/pith has lower moisture absorption [30]. Sodium hydroxide reacts with cel-
lulose to break the hydrogen bonds and explore the hydroxyl group on the surface.
This hydroxyl group present on the surface of cellulose plays an important role for
adsorption of heavy metal ions.

Volumetric flow rate

The developed CFP filters were represented in Figure 10. The volumetric flow rate of
the CFP filter is tabulated in Table 6. The volumetric flow rate was measured to
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Table 5. Properties of coir pith.

Bulk density Particle density

NaOH Conc. (%) (g/cm3) (g/cm3) Porosity (%)

Untreated 0.092 0.388 76

5 0.111 0.239 10
10 0.131 0.226 16
15 0.151 0.221 19
20 0.172 0.189 20
25 0.178 0.162 21
30 0.200 0.123 22

Figure 10. CFP filters treated with different concentrations of NaOH.

check the flow of water through the filter. Volumetric flow rate decreased for treated
CFP filter when compared to untreated. Porosity of the all constructed sample (coir
fibre/pith) was maintained as 40% and packing density as 0.6122 (g/cm3). After
alkali treatment, due to increase in crystallinity and by maintaining the same poros-
ity and packing density of 0.6122 (g/cm3), the flow through the filter was decreased.

Inductively coupled plasma - optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES)

After passing heavy metal ion solution through the CFP filter, the collected perme-
ate was analysed through ICP-OES and removal efficiency were given in Table 7 and
Figure 11. Untreated CFP filter acts as a control for treated filters. The 5% CFP
filter absorbed higher heavy metal ions compared to untreated and other treated
filters. Alkali treated CFP filter has better efficiency compared to untreated CFP
filter. Thus, Alkali-treatment was removed the impurities and exposed the crystalline
cellulose. The exposed crystalline structure with higher number of OH groups acts as
an adsorbent for removal of heavy metal ions. Crystalline cellulose has greater
resistance compared to amorphous cellulose against degradation. In general, the
OH groups are interconnected by bonds with hemicellulose and lignin. On alkali
treatment, these hydroxyl group gets activated after the removal of impurities and
acts as an adsorption sites for heavy metal ion. Based on the crystallinity index, 5%
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Table 6. Volumetric flow rate.

CFP filter Volumetric flow rate (ml/min)

Untreated 21.33
5 17.47
10 12.11
15 11.60
20 10.48
25 10.23
30 8.90

Table 7. Heavy metal ion removal efficiency by CFP filter.

Efficiency of filter for heavy metal ion removal (%)

Con. of NaOH for
alkali treatment, % Cu Zn Pb As Cr Fe Al

Untreated 24 11 14 20 24 17 19
5 85 91 94 81 78 86 79
10 81 86 88 79 75 82 76
15 76 81 82 74 71 78 72
20 71 77 79 71 69 73 68
25 58 63 55 57 59 58 54
30 54 59 51 52 55 54 51

Figure 11. Heavy metal ion removal efficiency by CFP filter.

CFP filter which has higher crystalline nature compared to other alkali treated fibres
and thus higher removal efficiency was achieved. As the concentration of alkali
increases, the crystalline cellulose was restructured by disintegration of molecular
chains as amorphous cellulose. Amorphous cellulose is more porous than crystalline
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cellulose which allows to penetrate the heavy metal ion and thus there is a decrease
in removal efficiency for other alkali treated fibres as the concentration of alkali
increased. The decreased porosity of coir pith was another reason which increased
the metal ion removal for treated CFP filter because untreated coir pith has higher
porosity compared to treated coir pith. Porosity of coir pith implies that the heavy
metal ions are filtered based on their size. Thus, the CFP filter acts as a filter as well
as an adsorbent. When comparing all samples the lowest heavy metal ion removal of
the treated CFP filter is higher than the untreated filter.

Conclusion
The morphology of alkali-treated fibre and pith were changed significantly by alkali
treatment by the removal of hemicellulose, wax and a partial amount of lignin from
the surface. Hemicellulose removal and exposure of crystalline cellulose were con-
firmed by FTIR and XRD. The thermal stability has been decreased slightly for
fibre and drastically for coir pith, as the concentration were higher. 5% to 20%
treated fibre maintained the properties (physical, and chemical) though it has been
exposed to longer duration. The CFP filter was developed with treated/untreated
fibre and pith, 5% alkali-treated filter shows higher removal efficiency compared to
other treated filters. Further studies will focus on the varying proportion of fibre and
pith for the preparation of filter and increasing the concentration of the heavy metal
ion and adsorption mechanism of chitosan and CFP filter.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article: This research was supported by University Grants
Commission (UGC), New Delhi, India.

ORCID iD
Gobi Nallathambi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1650-9894

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