Appendix B

Representation of Textures
and their Interpretation

B.l Introduction
The individual crystallites in a material may be randomly oriented or aligned in
a particular preferred crystallographic orientation. The sum of the
crystallographic orientations of the crystallites within a polycrystalline
aggregate is known as the texture of the material (Humphreys and Hatherly
2004). A texture may develop by processes such as electrodeposition, casting,
rolling, forging, extrusion, wire drawing and annealing. The particular type
and strength of the texture is governed both by the material (crystal structure,
phase distribution, purity etc.) as well as the processing route. Since many
aspects of the book are concerned with texture development in metals after
strip casting and further processing such as rolling, forming or heat treatment,
this appendix provides information required to understand and interpret
textures. Further details of textures in materials may be found in Hatherly and
Hutchinson (1979), Bunge (1982), Randle and Engler (2000) and Humphreys
and Hatherly (2004).

B.2 Measurement of textures

The texture of a material can be measured by a range of techniques (Randle and
Engler 2000; Humphreys and Hatherly 2004). Macro-methods include X-ray
and neutron diffraction and micro-methods include electron diffraction in
either the scanning (SEM) or transmission electron microscope (TEM) using the
techniques of electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and TEM microdiffraction.
The commonly used X-ray technique usually involves back reflection to

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 246 Direct strip casting of metals and alloys

generate a pole figure with the mathematical combination of several pole

figures required for more detailed texture information. A limitation of the
technique is the small volume of material examined due to the limited depth of
penetration (< 0.1 mrn) of the X-ray beam into the sample. Furthermore, the
technique is of very limited use for micro-texture studies since the texture
generated is an average from a large number of crystallites.

Diffraction pattern
on phosphor screen

Figure B.1. Typical EBSD configuration in the SEM showing a typical Kikuchi pattern
impinging on a phosphor screen from a point on the sample, after Humphreys
and Hatherly (2004) (with kind permission of Elsevier Limited).

Electron backscatter diffvaction(EBSD)

The EBSD technique has developed over the past decade into a fully-automated
texture analysis facility (Randle and Engler 2000). It allows crystallographic
data to be generated in a microstructural framework for bulk (large) specimens
and utilises the automated computer analysis of EBSD patterns obtained from
the SEM to generate crystallographic data on a point-by-point basis over a
selected area of a sample. A typical EBSD setup is shown in Figure B.l which
comprises a sensitive camera and an image processing system for pattern
averaging and background subtraction. The acquisition software controls the
data acquisition, solves the diffraction patterns and stores the data. Additional
software analyses, manipulates and displays the data.

In the technique, the electron beam of the SEM is focused at a point on the
surface of a highly tilted (-60-70") sample which results in backscattered
diffraction of electrons from that point (Figure B.l). The diffraction
phenomenon generates an EBSD pattern on a phosphor screen and supplies all
the crystallographic information of that particular region of the sample. To
generate a map of the microstructure based on the information extracted from

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 Representation of textures and their interpretation 247

the EBSD patterns, points on the sample are usually arranged in a regular grid
and either the electron beam of the SEM steps to each point in turn or the beam
is held stationary and the specimen stage traverses beneath it. At each step, the
coordinates of the point and crystallographic information are recorded and
stored using the acquisition software. From these data, maps revealing a range
of crystallographic features of the microstructure can be generated.

B.3 Representation of orientations and textures

The textures discussed in this book are produced by: (i) solidification and (ii)
rolling and annealing operations. The former are readily described with pole
figures or inverse pole figures but the latter are usually described in a more
sophisticated way since the major texture components of metal sheet produced
by thermomechanical processing (TMP) are usually distributed as tubes of
orientation or fibres in three dimensional space. These textures are more easily
interpreted using the orientation distribution function (ODF). The following
sections describe the main methods of representing the type of textures
encountered in this book and how they are interpreted.

B.3.1 Pole figures

A pole figure is a stereographic projection showing the distribution of poles of a
particular set of crystallographic planes in the assembly of crystallites (grains)
that constitutes the specimen (Humphreys and Hatherly 2004). To describe the
pole figure, one or more reference directions need to be assigned such as the
drawing direction in wire, the normal direction (ND) and casting direction (CD)
or rolling direction (RD) in strip produced by DSC and TMP, respectively.

Figure B.2a shows the distribution of <001>directions (i.e. poles of {001)planes)

of an arbitrarily-oriented grain in a cubic sample with respect to a set of
orthogonal external sample directions Dl, D2 and D3. There are three <001>
directions per grain and these project onto the surface of a reference sphere and,
by viewing from X, the directions project back onto a 'projection' plane. Figure
B.2b shows the projection plane of the <001> directions with respect to the
sample axes. As an example of nomenclature in sheet metal, a crystallite
oriented with [loo] direction parallel to ND (normal to (100) and [OOl] direction
parallel to RD gives the (001)[001](cube) texture component. The orientation of
any grain in sheetlstrip is usually represented as (hkl)[uvw] where the [uvw]
direction is contained in the (hkl)plane.

The pole figure of a polycrystalline material has a distribution of intensity which

may be represented either by individual points on the pole figure (for
microdiffraction techniques such as EBSD and TEM) or contour lines with
respect to a sample containing grains with a random distribution of

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 248 Direct strip casting of metals and alloys

orientations. Contoured pole figures can be generated both by global texture

analysis (X-ray or neutron diffraction) and discrete texture measurements
(EBSD).

Figure B.2. (a)Distribution of the three <001> directions in a cubic material for a grain
of arbitrary orientation with respect to the external coordinate system and
(b)their projection onto a reference plane to generate the 001
pole figure for this particular grain.

A typical texture in a directionally solidified cubic metal is given in Figure B.3

which shows the orientations of one hundred individual grains. Due to the
orthogonality of the specimen axes, CD is shown at the top of the pole figure
with ND and the transverse direction (TD) represented at the centre and edge of
the pole figure, respectively. This 001 pole figure shows a high density of
orientations near ND but a random distribution around the circumference of
the pole figure and indicates that many of the grains have one of their <001>
directions aligned closely to ND of the strip. There is no preferred alignment of
orientations in either TD or CD which indicates that casting has generated a
strong <OOl>llNDfibretexture.

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 Representation of textures and their interpretation 249

The foregoing examples were concerned with poles of {001}planes to generate

the 001 pole figure but the poles of other crystallographic planes (i.e. the four
poles of {Ill)planes per grain in a cubic material) can be used to generate 111
or higher order pole figures. It is important to note that the poles of a given
grain in a 001 or 111pole figure are distributed differently.

Figure 8.3. 001 pole figure of one hundred grain orientations in a cubic material
showing an ideal <001>//ND fibre typical texture produced
by directional solidification processes.

B.3.2 Inverse pole figures

The inverse pole figure is a useful mode of representing the texture generated
in processes that require the specification of only a single axis. This is suitable
for directional solidification as well as for axisymmetric deformation processes
such as wire drawing or extrusion. The frequency with which a particular
crystallographic direction coincides with the specimen axis is plotted in a single
triangle of a stereographic projection.

Figure 8.4. ND and CD inverse pole figures showing the distribution of the grain
orientations given in Figure 8.3.

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 250 Direct strip casting of metals and alloys

For the solidification texture shown in Figure B.3, the orientations may also be
represented using two or three inverse pole figures, one being used for each of
the principal processing axes ND and CD (and TD if required). Figure B.4
shows an inverse pole figure in both ND and CD, respectively. There is
clustering of orientations close to <001> in ND but with a random distribution
of orientations in CD. Consistent with Figure B.3, this represents a strong
<001>//NDfibre texture.

B.3.3 Orientation distribution function

The orientation distribution function (ODF) allows an orientation to be

represented in three dimensions, termed Euler space. It is a powerful method
of representing texture because a particular texture component {hkl)<uvw>can
be read easily from the diagram. Furthermore, the ODF allows the
identification of texture fibres and quantitative plots of the intensity along these
fibres are possible. For example, fcc and bcc materials generate a range of
characteristic tubes of orientation during TMP and while these are difficult to
identify in pole figures, they can be identified quickly in the ODF. Another
useful aspect of the ODF is the ability to calculate the volume fraction of a given
texture component. The ODF can also be used to represent the texture of
materials of any given crystal structure but its interpretation becomes more
difficult with decreasing crystal symmetry.

Table B.1. Euler angles (") for some common texture components in rolled metals,
adapted from Humphreys and Hatherly (2004).

Component Name 91 a P2

{110)<001> Goss 90 90
0 45
0 45

53 75
{110]<11B Brass 35 45
55 90
35 45
{112]<111> Copper 0 35
39 66

The orientation (hkl)[uvw] of a grain in cast or rolled sheet can be described in

terms of three Euler angles using either Roe or Bunge notation (Bunge 1982).
Using the latter, (hkl) and [uvw] (crystallographic axes) are represented in a
standard projection (Figure B.5) and the specimen orientation is specified by
ND and RD (or CD). The angles 0 and q2 completely specify ND with RD

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 Representation of textures and their interpretation 251
lying in the plane normal to ND. The angle pl therefore completely specifies
RD. The orientation of the grain can be displayed in 3-D with the Euler angles
as axes. For cubic materials, the orientation is completely represented within a
90 x 90 x 90" volume of Euler space. The advantage of the ODF over pole figures
is that a given texture component is completely described by the set of Euler
angles: <D , pl and p, . A family of texture components, {hkl)<uvw>, gives
several sets of Euler angles, Table B.1. It is useful to note that mathematical
relationships exist for converting between Miller Indices and Euler angles
(Bunge 1982).

Figure 8.5. Definition of Euler angles in cubic materials with respect to the standard
<001> projection, after Humphreys and Hatherly (2004) (with kind
permission of Elsevier Limited).

The ODF data of rolled fcc metals are normally represented as a series of slices
taken through Euler space at p2 = 0, 5, 10...90'. This is a result of the
deformation texture usually consisting of a tube of orientations, called the pfibre,
which runs through Euler space from {110)<112>(Brass orientation) through
{123]<634>(S orientation) to {112}<111>(Copper orientation) (Humphreys and
Hatherly 2004). Another important orientation tube in fcc metals is the qcc-fibre
which runs from {110}<112>to {110)<001>(Goss orientation). Figure B.6 is a
schematic representation of one of the branches of both the aft, - and P -fibres in
Euler space. For rolled (and annealed) bcc metals, much of the important
crystallographic information is found within the p, = 45" section of the ODF.
This is illustrated in Figure B.7 which shows the classic a-fibre (<Oll>//RD)and
yfibre (<111>//ND) as well as some other important texture components
featured in this book. There are other orientation tubes of lesser importance for
metals based on either type of crystal structure and these are described elsewhere
(Bunge 1982; Humphreys and Hatherly 2004).

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 252 Direct strip casting of metals and alloys

Figure B.6. 90 x 90 x 90" volume of Euler space showing the qcc- and Pfibres that
develop in rolled fcc materials, after Hirsch and Liicke (1988)
(with kind permission of Elsevier Limited).

I rbre(112)[lTO]

Figure B.7. q, = 45" section of Euler space showing the location of important texture
components in rolled bcc materials, after Hutchinson and Ryde (1997).

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 Representation of textures and their interpretation 253
B.4 Typical textures in metal strip
B.4.1 Solidification textures
Heterogeneous nucleation in the liquid in the vicinity of a mould wall often
generates grains with a random distribution of orientations (52.3). Under
circumstances where further growth of these nuclei is dendritic (§2.2.2.5),
growth occurs in certain crystallographic directions (Table 2.2). The primary
dendrite arms oriented nearest to the heat flow direction are able to outgrow
less favourably-oriented dendrite arms. This growth selection generates a
texture in the casting that varies from random at the mould wall to strong at the
mid-thickness of the casting.

If solidification occurs on the surface of a high thermal conducting substrate

such as the rolls of a twin roll caster, the maximum heat flux is essentially
parallel to ND of the mould wall and growth selection results in the gradual
strengthening of a particular <uvw> crystallographic direction (Table 2.2)
parallel to the maximum heat flow direction. This behaviour is shown in Figure
B.3 for a cubic metal. In the absence of dendrite bending (§5.2.1), this growth
behaviour gives rise to the classic <001>//NDfibre texture which is similar to
that produced in unidirectionally solidified ingots. The strength of the fibre
texture generated by TRC is influenced by alloy type, composition, melt
superheat, mould temperature, mould type and surface chemistry and
topography, movement of liquid metal parallel to the mould wall, furnace
atmosphere (chapter 5).

B.4.2 Texture development during secondary processing

Rolling
The orientation changes that take place in a crystalline metal during rolling are
due to the fact that deformation occurs on certain slip or twinning systems
(Humphreys and Hatherly 2004). The strength of the texture and the balance
between the various texture components after rolling depends on various
factors such as the texture of the as-cast material, degree of deformation,
temperature of deformation, crystal structure, stacking fault energy, as-cast
grain size and shape and the presence of a second-phase.

Annealing
The texture that develops when a deformed metal is annealed has been the
subject of extensive study (Humphreys and Hatherly 2004). Similar to
deformation, the strength and type of texture components that develop during
recrystallization are affected by numerous processing and materials variables.
The texture is usually related directly to the nucleation event during
recrystallization, the orientation dependence of the rate of nucleation in
inhomogeneities of various type and orientation environment, and to the

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 254 Direct strip casting of metals and alloys

nature, energy and mobility of the boundaries between grains of various

orientations. The effect of deformation and annealing on texture development
in a range of strip-cast metals is described in chapter 6.

Phase transformation
The microstructure and texture of a newly solidified casting may be altered
appreciably by controlling the cooling path to room temperature or by
reheating the casting if the alloy can undergo one or more solid-state phase
transformations. Such a radical structural modification by solid-state
transformation is possible in certain strip-cast metals, as discussed in chapters 5
and 6 .

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