Growth Law Academy

LLB Part-II
Sociology-II
Complete Notes

Written by: Azhar Mehmood khokar & Maryam

Chaudhry Advocate High Court
Published by: Growth Law Series
Distributed by: Growth Law Academy
Updated: 2023 syllabus

Admission office: 04237114321

Whatsapp: 03149780470
Location:
Sani centre adjacent Jamia Qadsia, Upper Cakes and Bakes,
Chowk Chubrji Lahore

1|Page
 Sociology-II
LLB-II, Paper-IV

2|Page
COURSE OUTLINE:
PAPER-IV
SOCIOLOGY-II
CONTENT SUMMARY
1. Background
(a) Social forces
(b) Intellectual forces
(c) French Revolution
(d) Enlightenment
2. Development of sociological theory
(a) Theory and Knowledge
(b) Process of theorizing
(c) Types of sociological theories
(d) Inductive and Deductive
(e) Process of Theorizing
(f) Fact, Prepositions and Laws
(g) Sociological Theory between 1600-8800 Ad
Introduction:
Nature of social though and essential component of sociological
theory.
Early social thought:

3|Page
 1. Socrates contribution to social thought dialogical method theory
of concepts identification of social problems importance of
knowledge.
2. Plato, ideal society, social classes, social justice, education,
marriage vocational selection, social change.
3. Aristotle: ideas are in the world, state and society virtues as a
mean social control. The social mean and the middle-class
revolution and its causes.
Classical sociological theory:
1. Auguste Comte, social statistics and social dynamics classification
of success, religion of humanity, social reconstruction these
stages off human thought. Relation of the stages of thought to
social organization.
2. Karl Marx: is Marx a sociologist, is Mars outmoded? Dialectical
method, social classes and class struggle dialectics applied to
history and human society, economics such structures and
cultural super strictures, class less society.
3. Emile Durkheim: Social Fact levels of social reality division of
labour, amole social representation collective conscience, the four
types of suicide and social current, sociology of religion (scared
and purpose totemic and collective effectiveness social reform).
4. Max Weber: Methodology, social action, Ideal type social
organization, theory of religion, sociology of bureaucracy
meaning and kind of authority critics of the theory of
bureaucracy.
5. W.G. Summer: Folkways and Mores, In-group and out-group,
Basic motives.
6. Herbert Spencer: The Law of Social Evolution, Concept of
Society, Laissez-faire.
Muslim Sociological thinker:
4|Page
 1. Ibn Khaldun as father and founder of sociology, concept of history
and social progress empirical and speculative methodology;
division of al Imran (Sociology) effect if climate on human habits
concepts of asabiyat origin of state rural and urban society; rise
and fall of nations; religion as bond of social unity.
2. Shah Waliullah: Evolution of society Causes of social life, societal
disease, concept of perfect society.
3. Shah Waliullah: Methods; Individual and society origin and rise
of human society (four irtefaqat) importance of Jehad and Ijtihad,
social and political philosophy economics view.
4. Iqbal: Iqbal role in Muslim renaissance, Ijtihad dynamic view of
history ego, concept of „millet‟ individual and society.
5. Feminism: introduction, different forms of feminism, renaissance
and modern processors share waves of feminism Marxist
Feminine.
11. Introduction
1. Crime, Criminology & Criminal Law
2. Criminology and its scope
3. Criminology and other branches of learning
12. Crime and Society
1. Related concepts: deviancy, sin, vice
2. Crime as a social phenomenon
3. Crime and social organization (Institution)
4. Crime and social structure
5. Crime as a social Problem
13. Juvenile Delinquency
5|Page
 1. Juvenile delinquency and crime
2. Crime prevention on Juvenile level:
a. Juvenile courts
b. Juvenile reformatories
c. Probation
d. Other preventive programs
14. Crime and Criminals
1. The occasional criminal
2. The habitual criminal
3. The professional criminal
4. The white-collar criminal
5. The organization crime
15. Explanations of Criminal Behavior
A. Choice and Trait Theorizers
1. The Classical School
(a) Ceseare Beccaria
2. The Positivistic School
(a) Ceeare Lombroso
(b) William Sheldon
3. The Psychological School
(a) Sigmund Freud

6|Page
 (b) Erik Erikson
(c) Lawrence Kohlberg
B. Social Structure Theories
1. The Chicago/ Ecological School
(a) Robert Ezra Park
(b) Shaw & Mckay
2. Cultural Deviance School
(a) Albert Cohen
(b) Richard Cloward & Lloyd Ohlin
(c) Wright Mills
3. Anomie & Strain School
(a) Emile Durkheim
(b) Robert K. Merton
C. Social Process Theories
1. Social Learning School
(a) Edwin Sutherland & Different Association
2. Social Control & Social Reinforcement School
(a) Walter Reckless
(b) Travis Hirsch
(c) David Matza and Gresham Sykes
D. Social Reaction Theories

7|Page
 1. The Labeling School
(a) Howard Becker
(b) Erving Goffman
2. The conflict School
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Richard Quenney
VI. Crime Statistics
1. Sources, difficulties and need
2. National crime statistics and its sociological interpretation
3. International crime statistics and its sociological Interpretation
4. Problems of reliability and validity
VII. Detection of Crime
1. Agencies of Detection: formal, informal
2. Techniques of detection
3. Problems in detection
VIII. Trial and Conviction of offenders
1. Agencies: formal, informal
2. Criminal courts: Procedures and Problems
IX. Punitive and Reformative Treatment of Criminals
(Including Islamic Hudood, Qasas and Tazir)
1. Corporal, punishment
2. Transportation for life
3. Capital punishment
4. Imprisonment

8|Page
 5. Prison and related problems
6. Probation
7. Parole
8. Rehabilitation of criminals
X. Prevention of crime
1. Long-term measures
2. Short-time measures

9|Page
 Context
1. Discuss the contribution of the following social forces in the
development of social thought: French Revolution and
enlightenment. (2018-S)
 Define sociological theory. Also explain social forces in the
development of sociology. (2020-
S)
2. Explain the Karl Max theory on class system in society.
(2018-A) (2019-A)
3. Explain any two theories of Max Weber in sociology.
(2018-S) (2019-A)
 The concept of social Action is the center of all social ideas of
Max Weber. Elaborate. (2019-S)
 Ideal type is a tool to understand social reality. How Max Weber
view the concept of „social action‟ and „Ideal type‟. Elaborate.
(2021-A)
4. Discuss the theories of Biological and social evolution by
Herbert Spencer. (2019-S)
5. Discuss Plato’s theory of education and Justice in detail.
(2021-A)
6. Discuss early contribution of Plato, Socrates in the
development of social thought. (2019-S)
 Define social thought. And briefly explain the contribution of
Plato in the development of social thought. (2020-A)
 Define social thought. Briefly explain the contribution of Aristotle
in the development of social thought. (2020-S)
 Which theorist, according to you has the most significant
contribution to early social thought? Discuss the theories of that
theorist to show his significance. (2018-S)
7. Discuss any two theories of August Comte. (2020-A)

10 | P a g e
  Explain the contribution of August Comte in sociology. (2020-S)
8. Explain Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.
(2020-S)
 Write a note on Lawrence Kohlberg theory. (2020-A)
9. Explain Edward Sutherland differential association theory.
(2020-S)
10. Discuss the theories of Allama Iqbal or Shah Wali
Ullah. (2018-S)
11. Discuss the contributions of Ibn-e-Khaldun to
sociological theory. (2018-A) (2019-S) (2020-A)
 Discuss the concept of Asabiyat by Ibn-e-Khuldun? (2020-S)
 Explain the viewpoint of Ibn-i-khuldun on “Rise and Fall of
Nations” and “Rural and urban society”. (2021-A)
12. Discuss contributions of Shah Wali Ullah to
sociological theory. (2019-A)
 Explain shah Waliullah four different Irtefaqat. (2020-S)
 Elaborate on the societal diseases mentioned by Hazrat Shah Wali
Ullah. What he suggests to improve the socio-political, religious,
and economic conditions of the Muslims. (2021-A)
13. Define theory and discuss the process of theorizing.
(2018-A) (2021-A)
 Discuss the contribution of the following social forces in the
development of social thought: French Revolution and
enlightenment. (2018-S)
 Define sociological theory. Explain the process of theorizing in
detail. (2021-A)
 Define sociological theory and discuss the types of sociological
theories. (2020-A)
 Define sociological theory. Also explain social forces in the
development of sociology. (2020-S)

11 | P a g e
 14. Highlight the major statement of social control theory;
explain the role of Travis Hirsch, Social Control/ social
bonding theory in minimizing crime. (2019-S)
15. Define Juvenile delinquency and discuss how criminal
justice system of Pakistan deals with it.
(2018-A) (2019-A) (2019-S)
 Write a note on Juvenile delinquency. (2019-A)
 Define Juvenile delinquency. Discuss how juvenile delinquency
should be treated according to law. (2020-A)
 Define Juvenile delinquency. Write a note juvenile justice system
and the role of juvenile courts in Pakistan. (2021-A)
16. Define criminology and discuss its importance as a
subject. (2018-A)
 Define criminology and discuss the relationship between
criminology and law. (2020-A)
17. Differentiate between crime, criminology and criminal
law. Highlight the nature and scope criminology.
(2019-S)
 Differentiate between white collar crime and street crime. Which
type of crime is more dangerous for society? Elaborate with
examples. (2019-S)
 Compare and contrast white collar crime and street crime. Which
type of crime is more dangerous for society? Discuss with
example. (2018-A)
 Define crime and explain different types of crime. (2020-A)
 Differentiate between crime, criminology and criminal law.
Elaborate the characteristics of crime. (2021-A)
 Write a note on white collar crime. (2021-A)
 Write a note on organized white collar crime. (2019-S)
 Write a note on organized crime. (2020-S)

12 | P a g e
  Recent data shows that white collar have increased in Pakistan.
Define white collar crime and discuss which theory, according to
you best explains this kind of criminal behavior in Pakistan?
(2018-S)

18. Write a note on criminal Justice System.

(2018-S) (2019-A) (2021-A)

19. “Crime is a social phenomenon”. Discuss with examples

from the Pakistani society. (2018-S)
 What is meant by the social distribution of crime? How crime is
distributed in Pakistani society. (2021-A)
 Define crime. Explain how and why crime is a social
phenomenon with examples from Pakistani society. (2019-A)
20. Do you think Capital punishment should be part of the
criminal justice system? Give your arguments FOR and
AGAINST capital punishment. (2018-S)
21. Define prevention of crime. Discuss what long term and
short-term measures should be taken to minimize crime rate
in Pakistani society. (2019-A) (2020-A) (2021-A)
22. Write a note on probation and parole. (2018-A)
 Write a note on probation. (2019-A)
 Differentiate between probation and parole. Discuss the
functionality of probation in Pakistan society. (2019-S)
23. Recent data shows that sexual crime against women is
on a rise in Pakistan. According to you, which theory would
best explain this kind of criminal behavior in Pakistan?
(2018-A)

13 | P a g e
 24. Which is a formal and informal agency of crime
detection? Discuss their techniques and problems of
detection. (2018-S)
 Discuss the problems in crime detection also give possible
solution of these problems. (2020-S)
25. Define suicide and discuss the types of suicide as
explained Emile Durkheim. (2019-A) (2020-
S)
26. Discuss the any two theories from psychological school
of criminology:
i. Sigmund Freud (2020-A)
ii. Erik Erikson (2020-A)
27. Define feminism and briefly explain the different school
of thoughts within feminist theory. (2018-A)
 Write a note on feminism. (2018-S) (2019-S)
 Define feminism and discuss different schools of thoughts with
feminism theory. (2019-A)
 Define „Feminism‟ and discuss the types of feminism in detail.
(2020-A)
 Write a note on Marxist Feminism. (2020-S)
28. Write a note on following:
a. Dialetical Method (2019-A) (2019-S)
b. Labeling theory (2021-A)

14 | P a g e
1. Discuss the contribution of the following social forces in the
development of social thought: French Revolution and
enlightenment. (2018-S)
 Define sociological theory. Also explain social forces in the
development of sociology. (2020-S)

Context
I. Prologue
II. Meaning of social force
III. Definition of social force
IV. Explanation of social force
V. Social force in the development of sociological theory
VI. French revolution
VII. The industrial revolution and the rise of capitalism
VIII. The rise of socialism
IX. Feminism
X. Urbanization
XI. Religious change
XII. Conclusion

I. Prologue
A social force is an element of the society that is capable of causing
cultural change or influence people. Examples include education,
religion, activism, economic status, the media and social media, friends,
belief systems, and so on. It is basically based upon the motives and
derives. It leads fundamental type of association and group relationship.
II. Meaning of social force

15 | P a g e
Specifically, a social force is a consensus on the part of a sufficient
number of the members of society to bring about social action or social
change of some sort. In the plural, the social forces are the typical basic
derives or motives which lead the fundamental types of association and
group relationship.
III. Definition of social force
An element in society that is capable of causing a change in cultural
ideas and influences people.
IV. Explanation of social force
There are number of examples of social forces such the usage of the
universal credit card to defer payment for product and services. This
human-created invention became a “social force” that encouraged
unprecedented numbers of people to spend money ahead their earnings.
If we compare the history with present time the concept of social forces
has been entire different. The cellphone is a technology that was
invented to free them from landline phone and to allow them to
communicate with others while on the move. There is no doubt that
social force has changed the way people communicate.
V. Social force in the development of sociological theory
It was utmost significance in 19th and 20th century in the development
of sociology. This is truth of sociology which is not derived from that
setting as its subject matter.
VI. French revolution
In 1789 French revolution carried over through the 19th century that
was the most immediate factor in the rise of sociological theorizing.
The impacts of this revolution were very enormous and bring many
positive changes. The French population participated actively in the

16 | P a g e
new political culture created by the Revolution. The interest in the
issues of social order was one of the major concerns of classical
sociological theories especially Comte, Durkheim and Parsons.
VII. The industrial revolution and the rise of capitalism
The industrial revolution was happened in the 19th century. It was not
exclusive event but also many interrelated developments that climax in
the transformation of the western world from a largely agricultural to
an overwhelmingly industrial system. There were large number of
people that left the farms and agricultural land and work for the
industrial occupations offered in the factories due to industrial
revolution.
VIII. The rise of socialism
According to Oxford Dictionary of Sociology,
“An economic and political system based on collective or state
ownership of the means of production and distribution although like
capitalism the system of takes many and diverse forms”.
There are some sociologists who favored socialism and some personally
opposed it.
Karl Marx
Karl Marx was an active supporter of the overthrown of the capitalist
system and its replacement by a sociologist system. He spent great deal
of time criticizing various aspects of capitalist society without
developing a theory of socialism.
Max Weber and Emile Durkheim
Max Weber and Emile Durkheim were opposed to the socialism
although they recognized the problems with capitalist theory. They

17 | P a g e
sought social reform within capitalism rather than the social revolution
argued for by Marx.
IX. Feminism
According to Oxford Dictionary of Sociology,
“A social movement, combining theory with political practice, which
seeks to achieve equality between men and women”.
X. Urbanization
According to Oxford Dictionary of Sociology,
“Narrowly defined, Urbanization refers to city formation”.
XI. Religious change
Social changes brought on by political revolution the industrial and
urbanization had a profound effect on religiosity, many early
sociologists can from religious backgrounds and were actively and in
some cases professionally involved in religion. Durkheim‟s major work
on religious and morality played a vital role in the Durkheim‟s
sociology. A large portion of Weber‟s work is also in the Talcott
Parsons. Weber also devoted his work to the religion of the world.
Marx had also interest in the religiosity but his orientation was for
more critical.
XII. Conclusion
An element in society that is capable of causing a change in cultural
ideas and influences people is a social force. Furthermore, a social force
is a consensus on the part of a sufficient number of the members of
society to bring about social action or social change of some sort. The
French revolution in 1789 carried over through the 19th century was
the most immediate factor in the rise of the sociological theorizing.

18 | P a g e
 * ** * *

2. Explain the Karl Max theory on class system in society.

(2018-A) (2019-A)
Context
I. Introduction
II. Background of Marx
III. Marx’s Education
IV. Marx as a theoretician
V. Theories of Marx
VI. Theory of historical materialism
VII. Dialectical Materialism of Marx
VIII. Marxian Theory of social class
IX. Marxian theory of class struggle
X. Marxian concept of classless society
XI. Main works of Karl Marx
XII. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Karl Marx was one of the most influential social thinkers of the 19th
century. He is known to the world as the architect of socialism and the
champion of communism. He was a good organizer, committed
revolutionary and voracious reader. He was a Germen scholar, a
historian, an economist, a political propagandist, a journalist, a great
humanitarian, a philosopher and an effective writer.
II. Background of Marx

19 | P a g e
Karl Marx was the eldest son of Neinrich and Henrietta Marx. He was
born on May 05th, 1815 in the Rhenish city of Trier in Germany.
III. Marx’s Education
Marx got his early education at Trier. In 1835, he joined the law
faculty at Bonn University and ultimately he took his law degree from
Berlin University in 1836. In 1841, Marx received the doctorate in
philosophy from the University of Jena. His thesis was on “The
Difference between the Democritean and the Epicurean Philosophy”, it
was a dry philosophical topic.
Marx started his career as a joiurnalst in “Rheinsche Zeiting” and later
become its chief editor within ten months.
IV. Marx as a theoretician
With the due help of his friend Engels, he founded the “Theory of
Scientific communism”, enunciated the laws of “Dialectical and
Historical Materialism” and discovered the “theory of surplus value”.
V. Theories of Marx
Marx nowhere called himself a sociologist. Still his social thoughts and
ideas have great sociologist significance. During the recent years great
attention was given to the Marxian thought and towards his
contribution to the fields such as history, economics, political science
and sociology.
VI. Theory of historical materialism
The theory of historical materialism is very much associated with the
names of Karl Marx and Engels, the pioneers of communism. The
theory of historical materialism is also known as the materialistic
interpretation of history. The idea of this theory was derived from the
most fundamental principle of Marx, namely, “dialectical materialism”.
20 | P a g e
 VII. Dialectical Materialism of Marx
It is the one of the basic principle of the Marx. The word „Dialectic‟
means discussion. It is the study of contradicts which lie at every heart
of existence.
Essential of Dialectical Materialism
According to the argument of dialectical materialism the opposite
forces which are always present constitute the moving force of history.
Hence it is very clear that Marx had borrowed dialectical materialism
from Hegel.
History of materialism
Materialism interpretation of history is another basic principle of
Marxism.
(1) Applied the principle of dialectical materialism to the
interpretation of history: Marx applied the principle of
dialectical materialism to the interpretation of history. As
Marx has stated economic conditions determine historical
phenomena.
“Human being must eat and drink and obtain shelter and clothing
before they can pursue politics, science, religion and art. Thus the stage
of advancement of the production, distribution and exchange of goods
and organization of society resulting therefrom, determine in the final
analysis, the political, social and cultural developments.”
(2) Historical materialism: historical materialism is the
interpretation of economic interpretation of history: that is, all
evolution is the result of the economic forces alone. Marx
regarded the economic forces as the predominant dynamic
agency of human society and its history.

21 | P a g e
 (3) Essential aspects of the economic interpretation:
a. According to Marx, the material or economic conditions are more
important than the ideological or the spiritual things. He did not
accept spiritualism and idealism, but based his concept of
dialectics on materialism. He declared that “it is no; sue
consciousness of the man that determines their existence, but
their social existence that determines their consciousness”.
b. The form and structure of every society is determined by their
economic structure. This economic structure is referred to as the
“Infrastructure” of society. This infrastructure consist of two
things, first one is material forces of production and secondly, the
indispensable “relations of production”.
c. The economic infrastructure constitutes the basis on which the
social, political, religious, moral, educational, legal and other
institutional network referred as super structure is built.
d. The forces of conflict which are associated with the historical
development within the society have brought about conflict
within the economic infrastructure, which is between the “forces
of production” and “relation of production”.
e. The productive forces of the society determine its total
conditions. A change in the system of production brings about
transformation in the social, political, legal and cultural
institutions. Thus according to Marx, the form of production is
the cause of difference between the legal, political intellectual and
religious institutions.
VIII. Marxian Theory of social class
According to Marx
“Class is the manifestation of economic differentiation”.
Marxian point of view

22 | P a g e
According to Marx, class is basically economic in nature, though it had
great social importance. From the Marxian point of view, class is not
determined in the occupations or income but by the position an
individual occupies.
Dominant class
Those who own and control the means of production slave owners,
feudal landowners, or the owners of property such as factories and
capital are the dominant class.
Subordinate class
Those who work for them slaves, peasants or industrial laborers are the
subordinate class.
Relationship between two classes
The relationship between two classes is not only one of dominance and
subordination but also of exploitation. Marx linked “the economic base of
society influences the general character of all other aspects of culture and social
structure such as law, religion, education and government. The dominant class
is able to control all of these institutions and to ensure that they protect its own
interests. The laws, therefore, protect the rich not the poor. The established
religion supports the social order as it is not as it might be. Education teaches
the virtues of the existing system, not its vices. Government upholds the status
quo rather undetermined it”.
Types of social Groups
According to Marx, a class is a social group where numbers share the
same relationships to the forces of production. Thus during the feudal
stage, there are two main classes distinguished by their relationship to
land, the major force of production.
They are the
23 | P a g e
 a. Feudal nobility who has the land and,
b. The landless serfs who work on the land.
c. The bourgeoisie or I capitalist class which owns the forces of
production.
Staged in the Evolution of Society and Development of Social
Class
Marx believed that human society evolves through different stages
according to the means of production that is dominant at each stage:
a. The first is primitive communism, on which there is no private
property.
b. The second is slavery in which one class owns and exploits the
member of another.
c. The third is feudalism in which a class of aristocratic landowners
exploits the mass of peasants.
d. The fifth stage socialism occurs when the industrial workers have
finally revolted.
IX. Marxian theory of class struggle
Marxian sociology is often called “the sociology of class conflict”. The
idea of class war emerges from the theories of dialectical materialism,
materialistic interpretation of history, and surplus value.
Essential aspects of Marxian theory of class conflict:
Marx developed his theory of class conflict in his analysis and critique
of the capitalist society.
a. The development of Proletariat
Accentuation of capital is the essence of capitalism in Raymond Aron‟s
words, “The essence of capitalist exchange is to proceed from money
than one had at the outset”.

24 | P a g e
 b. Importance of property
According to Marx, the most distinguishing feature of any society is its
form of property. An individual‟s behavior is determined by his
relations to property.
c. The theory of surplus value
Marx believed that the capitalists accumulate profit through the
exploitation of labor. In fact, the relationship between the capitalists
and workers is not only one of dominance and subordination but also of
exploitation.
d. Class solidarity and antagonism
With the growth of class consciousness among the working class, their
class solidarity becomes crystallized. The working class becomes
internally more homogenous and this would help to intensify the class
struggle.
X. Marxian concept of classless society
Meaning of classless society:
Classless society means a society without antagonistic classes or strata.
It means a society in which the classes with opposing interests such as
the land owners and the landless workers and management, freemen
and slaves, the rich and the poor, exploiters and the exploited,
capitalists and laborers etc. are not found. Such a type of society never
existed in the past. The very statement of Marx, “the history of the
hitherto existing society is the history of the class struggle” makes it
evident that he knew that classes had been in existence from the very
beginning of history.
Marxian though about the concept of classless society:

25 | P a g e
In the Marxian thought, the concept of “classless society remains” as a
figment of imagination of Marx. A classless society devoid of all kinds
of exploitation and conflicts is the only imaginary. Marx never aspired
for revolution just for the sake of a revolution. He wanted to establish
an egalitarian society known for equality and social coherence. He
intended to see a “classless society” free from all types of exploitation.
XI. Main works of Karl Marx
a. The Germen Ideology, 1845.
b. The Poverty of Philosophy, 1847.
c. The class of Struggles in France, 1848 to 1850.
d. The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, 1852.
e. The holy Family.
f. A contribution to the Critique of Political Economy.
XII. Conclusion
To conclude that the legacy of the Karl Marx can be divided into two
parts, practical politics and social analysis. There are many works of
Karl Marx in which main works are The Germen Ideology, 1845, The
Poverty of Philosophy, 1847, The class of Struggles in France, 1848 to
1850, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, 1852, The holy
Family and A contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. He
also shed the light on the concept of classless society,
*****

3. Explain any two theories of Max Weber in sociology.

(2018-S) (2019-A)
 The concept of social Action is the center of all social ideas of
Max Weber. Elaborate. (2019-S)
 Ideal type is a tool to understand social reality. How Max Weber
view the concept of „social action‟ and „Ideal type‟. Elaborate.
(2021-A)
26 | P a g e
 Context
I. Introduction
II. Sociological theory an introduction Max Weber
III. Theories of Max Weber
IV. Main works of Max Weber
V. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Max weber was a theorist in the early 20th century. He was a Germen
thinker. During his time Pareto was a thinker in Italy and Thomas was
a great philosopher in America. They were the three same thinkers of
the same time.
II. Sociological theory an introduction Max Weber
In Germany, Karl Marx were getting popularity about Socialism. His
thoughts were being appreciated by laboring class of the industrial
areas of Europe that is why he was holding great position in Great
Britain. Kant was another philosopher who was growing popular in
Germany. Besides the theories of two philosophers Max Weber put his
own ideas the form of theories being important today. He joined
material and spiritual ideas. He became popular not only in Germany
but in the Western Europe whole.
III. Theories of Max Weber
There are following are theories of Max Weber, which re given below:
1. Theory of Action
Meaning of action

27 | P a g e
According to Max Weber, social action is originates logically from
action. He says that a tendency or behavior of a man in which the actor
relates it a subjective meaning is called action. Action is an internal
tendency or direct action in which the actor relates with it the maing of
his subject.
Study of sociology
The action which influences others in their behavior is called the study
of sociology. In this way, Weber derives a new definition of sociology,
“The study of Social action is called sociology”.
According to Max Weber
Social action is a type of a behavior in which there are meanings of the
action for the actor. Meaningful action is that which can be observed
and measured on the principles of statistics. Until, an action is
meaningful it will be useless for the actor.
Understanding an Action
For understanding an action, human behavior can be understood by
this stage. Generally, human behavior cannot be measured on the
principles of Mathematics and Statistics. We can understand the
meaning of an action but cannot measure it mathematically.
Understanding the motives of an action
Another method used for understanding the meaning of an action is to
understand the motives of an action. The motive is a meaningful
complex which appears to the actor due to his action or attitude toward
action.
It is clear from that a rational social action comes into existence with
the external behavior and its motives are clearly understood with
meaning.
28 | P a g e
Types of action
Max Weber has given four types of social sction:
i) Purposeful logical action
In this action, the actor is free to select his sources purely on his
capability. This action has a few qualities. It has direct relationship
with social institutions. It has several sources and purposes.
ii) Value oriented action
After selection of the sources according to the ability of the actor, the
purposes are fixed in the first stage. Such an action will be rational
which has been selected according to the values of the people.
iii) Affective action
Such as action is affective when the emotions have been included in the
fixation of purposes and its sources. In this case, the relations of love
and hatred can be counted.
iv) Traditional action
It is the action in which the sources and the purposes of the action are
fixed, according to the customs and ceremonies of society.
2. Theory of Authority
The philosopher and sociologist Max Weber discerns the three types of
authorities- Traditional, Legal-Rational, and Charismatic; each of
which correspond to a form of leadership that operate in a
contemporary society. The one thing which is common in all the three
authorities is “legitimacy.” A legitimate authority is justified by both
the ruler and the ruled. Let‟s discuss all the three authorities, given by
Max Weber, in detail:

a. Traditional authority

29 | P a g e
Traditional authority can be defined as the power legitimized by
respect for long-established cultural patterns. It comes from unwritten
rules that are maintained over time. Leaders in traditional authority are
people who depend on an established order or tradition. This leader is a
dominant personality and the existing order in the society entrusts him
the mandate to rule. Traditional leadership is reflective of everyday
conduct and routine. People respect traditional authority because “It
has always been that way.”
Examples- Hereditary monarchies, Roman Catholic Church, Tibetan
Buddhism, etc.

b. Charismatic authority
Charismatic authority can be defined as the power legitimized by
exceptional, unusual, and extraordinary personal abilities which inspire
devotion and obedience. Weber identified this extraordinary attribute
as „Charisma‟ whereas Robert Bierstadt called it leadership and not an
authority at all.

Examples- History equips us with a list of classical examples of such

leaders like Jesus Christ, Mahatma Gandhi, Napoleon, Hitler, Mao,
Julius Caesar, Alexander the Great, Winston Churchill, and many
more.
c. Legal or bureaucratic authority
Legal authority can be defined as a bureaucratic authority, where power
is legitimized by legally enacted rules and regulations such as
governments. This form of authority is the one that is grounded and
clearly defines laws with explicit procedures that define the obligations
and rights. This is largely respected due to the competence and
legitimacy that laws and procedures bestow upon the people in the
authoritative position.

30 | P a g e
Examples- Elected Governments, Police, Courts, etc.
3. Theory of Bureaucracy
Definition of Bureaucracy:
It is the type of organization of classes in which the work of many people is
arranged through wisdom: which they perform for the achievement of
administrative actions on large scale.
Principles of Bureaucratic form:
Max Weber listed six major principles of the bureaucratic form as
follows:

1. A formal hierarchical structure: In a bureaucratic organization, each

level controls the level below it. Also, the level above it controls it.
A formal hierarchy is the basis of central planning and centralized
decision-making.
2. Rules-based Management: The organization uses rules to exert
control. Therefore, the lower levels seamlessly execute the decisions
made at higher levels.
3. Functional Specialty organization: Specialists do the work. Also, the
organization divides employees into units based on the type of work
they do or the skills they possess.
4. Up-focused or In-focused Mission: If the mission of the organization is
to serve the stockholders, board, or any other agency that
empowered it, then it is up-focused. On the other hand, if the
mission is to serve the organization itself and those within it (like
generating profits, etc.), then it is in-focused.
5. Impersonal: Bureaucratic organizations treat all employees equally.
They also treat all customers equally and do not allow individual
differences to influence them.

31 | P a g e
 6. Employment-based on Technical Qualifications: Selection as well as the
promotion of employees is based on technical qualifications and
skills.
Reasons behind criticism on Bureaucratic theory:

Here are some reasons:

 The rules are inflexible and rigid. Further, there is too much
emphasis on these rules and regulations.
 Informal groups do not receive any importance. In current times,
informal groups play a huge role in most business organizations.
 Typically, bureaucracy involves a lot of paperwork which leads to
a waste of time, money, and also effort.
 The rules and formalities lead to an unnecessary delay in the
decision-making process.
 While Government organizations can benefit from a bureaucratic
structure, business organization need quick decision-making and
flexibility in procedures. Therefore, it is not suitable for the latter.
 While the technical qualifications of the employee are an important
aspect of his promotion, a bureaucratic organization does not
consider the employee‟s commitment and dedication.
 There is limited scope for Human Resource management.
 Coordinating and communicating is difficult.

IV. Main works of Max Weber

a. General Economic History, 1927.
b. The Protestant Ethics & Spirit of Capitalism 1930.
c. Max Weber on Law in Economy & society 1945.
d. The theory of Social & Economic Organization, 1947.
e. The Methodology of Social Sciences, 1949.
32 | P a g e
 f. The City, 1949.
g. The Sociology of Religion, 1963.
h. Economy and Society three values, 1968.
i. The Religion of China, the religion of India Ancient Judaism.
V. Conclusion
In conclusion, we find a remarkable consistency in Weber‟s thought.
Weber‟s main problematic turned on the question of individual
autonomy and freedom. There are three theories of Weber, such as
theory of action, authority and Bureaucracy. There are some main
works by Weber such as General Economic History, 1927, The
Protestant Ethics & Spirit of Capitalism 1930, Max Weber on Law in
Economy & society 1945, The theory of Social & Economic
Organization, 1947, The Methodology of Social Sciences, 1949, The
City, 1949, The Sociology of Religion, 1963, Economy and Society
three values, 1968 and The Religion of China, the religion of India
Ancient Judaism.
*****
4. Discuss the theories of Biological and social evolution by
Herbert Spencer. (2019-S)
Context
I. Introduction
II. Early life and belonging
III. Theories of Spencer
IV. Essentials of “Spencer’s” theory of evolution
V. Types of society
VI. The Industrial Society
VII. Main Works of Spencer
VIII. Four secondary prepositions

33 | P a g e
 IX. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Herbert Spencer was a prominent British social thinker of 19 th century.
He is often called “the second founding father of sociology”. He is
known to the world as a great, social philosopher, a famous evolutionist
a strong defender of individualism and a prolific writer. He was most
brilliant intellects of modern times. His learning was highly selective.
II. Early life and belonging
Spencer was born on April 27, 1820 in Derby in England in the middle-
class family. He was the oldest of the nine children and the only
survivor in George Spencer‟s family. Due to his ill-health he could not
went to any conventional school. He received education from his father.
His family members were highly individualistic. The education he got
from his father and uncle was more scientific than anyone else. He
belonged to English family. He explains the problems of social order
and change. The main aim of his theories was to trace the process of
social evolution in order to maximum social harmony.
III. Theories of Spencer
Following are theories of Spencer:
1. Spencer’s theory of evolution
Meaning of Evolution:
The term evolution comes from Latin word „evolver‟ which means „to
develop‟ or „to unfold‟. Evolution literally meaning is “unfolding” or
“unrolling”.
Meaning of Social Evolution:

34 | P a g e
The evo
The evolution is borrowed from biological science to sociology.
Whereas the term organic evolution is used to denote the evolution of
organism, the expression “social evolution” is used to explain the
evolution of human society. Here the term implies the evolution of
man‟s social relations. It was hoped that the theory of social evolution
would explain the origin and development of man.
“Evolution theory” or “the Laws of Evolution”:
“Evolution theory” or “the Laws of Evolution” is often regarded as the
greatest contribution of the British sociologist Herbert Spencer to the
realm of social thought. Spencer‟s ideals have left an indelible
impression on the succeeding writers. It is true that his social theories
have caused more controversy than those of any other writer in the
sociological fiend. This controversy that his ideas created of course will
not obscure the important role that he has played in enriching the field
of social thought.
2. Social evolution theory
Two of the main books written by Spencer namely,
(a)
“The study of sociology”
(b)
“The principles of sociology” provide us more details about his
theory of social evolution. Just as then theory of organic
evolution analyses the birth, development, evolution and death
of the organism, in the same manner “the theory of social
evolution”.
IV. Essentials of “Spencer’s” theory of evolution
According to Abraham and Morgan, there are two essentials of
spencer‟s theory:

35 | P a g e
 a. Change from the simplicity to complexity or movement from
simple society to various levels of compound societies.
b. Change from military society to industrial society.
V. Types of society
There are four types of societies in terms of evolutionary levels.
1. Simple Society:

Spencer defined the simple society as “one which forms a single

working whole un-subjected to any other and of which the parts co-
operate with or without a regulating center for certain public ends.”
These societies were predominantly small, nomadic, and lacking in
stable relationship structure. They had low degrees of differentiation,
specialization, and integration. Examples are the Eskimos, the
Fuegians, Guiana tribes, the new Caledonians and the Pueblo Indians.

2. Compound Societies:
Compound societies were presented as having generally come about
through either a peaceful or a violent merger of two or more simple
societies. They tended to be predominantly settled agricultural
societies, although a majority are mainly pastoral, and tended to be
characterized by a division of four or five social strata and an organized
priestly group. They are also characterized by Industrial structures
that show in advancing division of labor, general and local. Examples
are the Teutonic people in the fifth century, Homeric Greeks, Zew
Zealanders, Hottentots Dahomans and Ashantees.

3. Doubly Compound Societies:

36 | P a g e
Doubly compound societies were completely settled, were more
integrated and a larger and more definite political structure, a religious
hierarchy, a more or less rigid caste system and more complex division
of labour. Furthermore, in such societies to a greater and lesser extent,
custom has passed into positive law and religious observances have
grown definite, rigid and complex. Towns and roads have become
general, and considerable progress in knowledge and the arts has taken
place.” Examples are thirteen-Century France, Eleventh Century
England, the Spartan Confederacy, the ancient Peruvians and the
Guatemalans.

4. Trebly Compound Societies:

It includes “the great civilized nations” such as the Assyrian Empire,
the modern Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Russia. Spencer
does not outline their traits in detail but points to their increased
overall size, complexity, division of labor, popular density, integration
and general cultural complexity.

VI. The Industrial Society

According to concept of Spencer, industrial society is one in which
military activity and organization exists but it is carried on at a
distance. It takes place in the periphery of the society and the greater
part of the social organization.
Characteristics of Industrial Society:
a. Recognition of personal rights.
b. “Sustaining system” Possessing a large Degree of Freedom
c. Opportunity for the growth of free associations and institutions.
d. A less rigid class structure
37 | P a g e
 e. Individualism
VII. Main Works of Spencer
1. The Nature and Reality of Religion, 1885
2. The Principles of Biology
3. The Principles of Psychology, 1855
4. The Principles of sociology
5. The Principles of ethics
6. Descriptive sociology
7. Social statistics
8. The study of sociology
9. Data of Ethics
VIII. Four secondary prepositions
A. Persistence of the relationship between the forces (Harmony of all
laws)
B. Principle of formal changes and uniformity
C. Principle of least resistance and greatest attraction.
D. Principle of gradual motion.
IX. Conclusion
To conclude it, Herbert Spencer was born on 27 April, 1820 and died
on December 8, 1903. He was English sociologist and philosopher. He
was early advocate of the theory of evolution. There are four types of
types such as Simple Society, compound societies, Doubly Compound
Societies and Trebly Compound Societies. There are many works by
Spencer‟s such as The Nature and Reality of Religion, 1885, The
Principles of Biology, The Principles of Psychology, 1855, The
Principles of sociology and The Principles of ethics.

* ** * *

5. Discuss Plato’s theory of education and Justice in detail.

(2021-A)
38 | P a g e
 Context

I. Preface
II. The early Greek society
III. Plato analogy of individual and society
IV. Plato concept of education
V. Plato’s scheme of education
VI. Plato’s view of curriculum
VII. Plato’s view of women education
VIII. Plato’s method of instruction
IX. Conclusion

I. Preface
Plato is known to be authority on idealism and philosophical
interpretation of material and metaphysical realm. He is Greek
intellectual, the pupil of Socrates, and the tutor of Aristotle. According
to Plato, education is matter of conversion.
II. The early Greek society
The Greek society is socially, politically, and religiously corrupts.
That‟s why Plato‟s teacher Socrates wants to correct the social evils
through the knowledge in order to know the virtue. Socrates is non-
conformist and ultimately is sentenced to death. That event shocks
Plato. Plato, like his tutor, wants to reform the Greek society.
Therefore he presents an ideal state in his famous book “Republic”.
III. Plato analogy of individual and society
According to Plato an individual basically is the combination of three
powers. That is mind, heart, and desires. And the same is the case with
the society. The mind (the ruler) should rule; the heart (soldier) should
39 | P a g e
defend; and the desires and needs (workers/common people) should
work for social services. This division is the justice in society and in
ideal state, where everyone would get his/her due role to play in the
society.
IV. Plato concept of education
Plato view of education is for the good of the individual and for the
safety of the state. The aim of education, according to Plato, is the
welfare of both the individual and the society. His guiding principle is
that, “Nothing must be admitted in education which does not conduce
to the promotion of virtue. Moreover, Plato‟s treatment of education in
the “Laws” is different from that of his “Republic”. Education in the
“Laws” is to be universal and not restricted, as in the “Republic”, to the
guardian class and is to be compulsory. Children should come to the
school not only if their parents please, but there should be compulsory
education.
V. Plato’s scheme of education
Plato in his famous book “The Republic” has suggested appropriate
kind of education for the ruling and the military classes of community,
but he does not mention anything about the education of the industrial
class. Plato prescribes a general type of Greek education for both the
military and governing classes. It includes the two main divisions of
Greek education-music and gymnastics. He says that the first (i.e.
music) is necessary for the training of soul and the other (i.e.
gymnastics) for the training of the body. Plato also asserts that we
should begin education with music and go on to gymnastics afterwards,
mental education is thus to precede physical education.

VI. Plato’s view of curriculum

Plato prescribed a general type of curriculum prevailing in Greece at
that time. The curriculum for the early training, that occupied first
seventeen years of life, was comprised of music and gymnastics. The
40 | P a g e
word music was used in a much broader sense than we use it today. It
included poetry, drama, history, oratory and music in its more limited
sense. The education of these two subjects aimed at producing an
improved soul and a healthy body. Even moral results were obtained
through them. Music helped the child to grow gentle, graceful and
harmonious. Gymnastics helped him to develop, courage, patience,
reason, consideration, and temperance and whole mindedness. At the
first stage of life i.e. before the age of seven years, the child should not
be educated formally. He should stay with his mother or nurse and be
educated in their company. At this stage the mother or the nurse
should tell him the authorized tales about the gods and heroes of the
nation to develop the trait of noble character in them. For the early
education, Plato recommends the inclusion of dances, hunting and field
exercises in gymnastics. For higher education he emphasizes the study
of numbers and geometry. This will sharpen the minds of students.
Astronomy is another subject recommended by Plato for higher
education. Lastly, music was also included.

VII. Plato’s view of women education

Plato does not suggest separate curriculum for women. Women should
also be educated in music and gymnastics as well as the art of war. He
says that women and girls should undergo the same gymnastic and
military exercises as men and boys.
VIII. Plato’s method of instruction
Plato is in favor of education in a free atmosphere without any
compulsion or check. In this respect he is the predecessor of Froebel
and Montessori. The concept of Kinder Garten finds its roots in the
principles laid down by Plato. Plato is of the opinion that there should
be no compulsion in teaching; rather, it should be a sort of amusement.

IX. Conclusion
To sum up, Plato was the first western philosopher who attempted a
systematic study of society. Plato view of education is for the good of
41 | P a g e
the individual and for the safety of the state. The aim of education,
according to Plato, is the welfare of both the individual and the society.
Plato does not suggest separate curriculum for women. Women should
also be educated in music and gymnastics as well as the art of war.
Plato gave equal status of education to men and women, both.
* ****
6. Discuss early contribution of Plato, Socrates in the
development of social thought. (2019-S)
 Define social thought. And briefly explain the contribution of
Plato in the development of social thought. (2020-A)
 Define social thought. Briefly explain the contribution of Aristotle
in the development of social thought. (2020-S)
 Which theorist, according to you has the most significant
contribution to early social thought? Discuss the theories of that
theorist to show his significance. (2018-S)
Context
I. Prologue
II. Meaning of social thoughts
III. Definition of social thoughts
IV. Essentials of social thoughts
V. Characteristics of social thoughts
VI. Early contribution of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle
VII. Importance of social thought
VIII. Types of sociological thoughts
IX. Sociological theory
X. Conclusion

I. Prologue

42 | P a g e
According to Aristotle, Man is a social animal. Man is not only a
“social being”, but also a reasoning animal. Man is an animal of extra
abilities and capacities. Social thoughts are that thought which refers to
the thought concerning the social life and activities of man. According
to H.E. Jenson social thought is the totality of men‟s thought about his
relationship and obligations to his fellowmen.
II. Meaning of social thoughts
Social thoughts are related to the social events, contexts and situations
either this or that form.
III. Definition of social thoughts
According to Bogardus,
Social thought is thinking about social problems by one or a few person
here and there in human history or at the present.
According to Rollin Chambliss,
Social thought is concerned with human beings in their relations with
their fellows.
According to William P. Scott,
Social thought refers to any relatively systematic attempt to theories
about society and social life, whether it can be classical or modern,
scientific or unscientific.
IV. Essential component of social thoughts
Following are essential component of social thoughts:
1. Emergence of social thought from social system.
2. Related to social problem.
3. Social thought to sign to the Human Development.

43 | P a g e
4. Social thought are differ from its time, context and society.
5. Social thoughts are based on social experience.
V. Characteristics of social thoughts
According to Borgardus, social thoughts have following
characteristics:
1. Social thoughts are originated from social problems.
2. Social thoughts are also related to human social life.
3. It is the result of social interactions and interrelations.
4. Social thoughts are influenced by the time and also place.
5. Social thoughts are based on abstract thinking.
6. It is an integral part of social utility.
7. It helps in promoting social relationships.
8. It is neither absolute nor static. It is evolutionary.
VI. Early contribution of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle
Socrates:
Socrates born in Athens in 470 BC, is often credited as one of the
founders of Western philosophy. His largest contribution was scientific
method. The scientific method is defined as a form of inquiry and
discussion between individuals, based on asking and answering
questions to illuminate ideas. This method is performed by asking
question after question with the purpose of seeking to expose
contradictions in one‟s thoughts, guiding him/her arrive at a solid,
tenable conclusion.
Plato:
Plato a student of Socrates also has mystery surrounding him. His birth
is estimated to fall between 428 BC and 423 BC. Plato‟s contribution
was the theory was created to solve two problems, one of ethics and
one of permanence and change. The ethical problem is: how can

44 | P a g e
humans live a fulfilling life in an ever changing world if everything that
they hold close to them can be easily taken away. For the purpose to
find solution of these problems Plato split the world into two the
material and the physical. Plato leads that this will lead to us finding a
value which is not open to change.
Aristotle:
Aristotle was student of Plato lived from 384 BC to 322 BC. He was
eighteen years old when he joined Plato‟s Academy and remained till
the age of thirty seven. Aristotle believes that a universal is identical in
each of its instances. All round things are similar in that there are the
same universal, characteristics, thought-out.
VII. Importance of social thought
The importance of social thought can be summarized by the following
points:
1. Good direction to society: Social thoughts are always based on
socio cultural processes and experience of social reality.
2. User of social thoughts in personal life: The ideology of thought
becomes very useful.
3. Based on development of theory: Social thoughts help to
formulate the theory.
4. Reflection of society: Each social thought reflects the condition of
society.
5. Useful to understand: Each social thought developed in each
period of time stimulates to the emergence of another thought.
VIII. Types of sociological thoughts
There are three types of sociological thoughts:
a. Individual social thought

45 | P a g e
Individual social thought is such thought of person in the society which
is delivered with limited objectives. This thoughts remains as highly
influenced by narrow personal selfishness.
b. Collective social thought
The thought emerged being concerned with the condition of overall
aspect of society is called collective social thought.
c. Scientific social thought
Scientific social thought is that type of thought based on each social
event, behave, process, problems, etc.
IX. Sociological theory
A theory is a proposed relationship between two or more concepts. In
other words, a theory is an explanation for why a phenomenon occurs.
Sociological theory is developed at multiple levels, ranging from grand
theory to highly contextualized and specific micro-range theories.
X. Conclusion
In conclusion that, a perspective is simply a way of looking at world. A
theory is a set of interrelated propositions or principles. Social thought
is that branch of thought which is primarily concerned with men‟s
general social life and its problems as created, expressed and endured
by human interrelations and interactions.
*****
7. Discuss any two theories of August Comte. (2020-A)
 Explain the contribution of August Comte in sociology. (2020-S)
Context
I. August Comte
II. Theories of August Comte
46 | P a g e
 III. Main work of Comte
IV. Conclusion

I. August Comte
Auguste Comte was a French philosopher born in Montpellier, France,
in 1798, just after the French Revolution. Comte's parents had
supported the royal family during the revolution, but as Comte came of
age, he began to see the value of the revolution and the ideals that had
led to it. Specifically, he became very interested in the way that society
molded itself and the laws that it followed. Through his philosophical
exploration of society, Comte would change the way the world viewed
society, philosophy, and even science.
II. Theories of August Comte
August Comte believed in the power of positivity. Success can come in
virtually any form and anyone can achieve their own definition of
success. He believed that a society operated under its own set of laws,
just like nature, so it should be studied in the same way. By using
mathematics and physics, Comte proposed that we could look at the
world through social sciences as well. His sociology theory would
become the first scientific look at human social behaviors.
Socialism and the Sociology Theory:
In his younger years, Comte was heavily influenced by a utopian
socialist theorist by the name of Henri de Saint-Simon. He worked for
several years with Saint-Simon as a secretary and a collaborator,
eventually parting ways over an authorship dispute.

Once on his own, the influence of Saint-Simon remained. He began to

see that society could be utopian in nature, but it would require human
intervention in order for it to be achieved. To discover the places where
47 | P a g e
interventions would need to occur, Comte realized that the structures
of society could be viewed through the same research lens as other
areas of science.

This realization led Comte to develop the idea of positivism. It is the

fundamental concept that is offered in his six-volume work published
under the title Course of Positive Philosophy.

Positivism in the Sociology Theory:

Comte believed that positivism was an idea that could only come from
scientific knowledge. If you can experience something, then you have
the opportunity to find a specific truth. He felt that the same laws
which governed the natural world would govern the sociological world
in some way. This led him to develop the law of three stages.

All knowledge, according to Comte, developed through three

successive stages.

1. Theological stage. 2. Metaphysical Stage.

3. Positivist Stage.

Everything starts at the theological stage. In this form of knowledge,

people assign events or circumstances that are beyond their
comprehension to certain deities. This is why many of the ancient
cultures, according to Comte, had multiple gods. It is a stage that is
dominated by the idea that gods create and control everything. A
society is ready to transition to the next stage when it comes to a
monotheistic perspective, assigning all duties to a singular God instead
of multiple gods.

The second stage is a transitional stage. It‟s a place where society

recognizes that there are still mysterious forces that are at work, but
that there may be a natural force (instead of a supernatural force) that is
in charge of the mystery. By studying the unknown, it becomes possible

48 | P a g e
to solve the mysteries and learn more about the workings of the world
or the universe.

The final stage is the highest stage of the sociology theory from Comte.
In this stage, society looks for invariant laws that govern the forces
that were once a mystery. By creating definition, one creates science.
And when science is discovered, truth will be there.

Contribution of sociology theory to modern science:

August Comte may have been the first person to coin the term
“sociology,” but his work to prove the existence of positivism is what
stands out still today. This is because Comte identified three basic
methods that could be used to find the invariant laws that societies
would strive to find in his final stage. Those methods are observations,
experimentation, and comparison. This means social scientists would
be bound to their studies through what they could discover with their
senses. This information, once verified by the truths that data can only
provide, could then be used to encourage social changes at any cultural
level. People, argued Comte, are more willing to adapt to change when
it has a basis in fact instead of a basis in the supernatural. Comte also
took a unique approach to how he saw the structures of a societal
system. Instead of looking at individuals, he felt that the true social unit
in any society was the family. A family would join other families to
create a tribe. Tribes would then work together to form nations.

Social Statics Vs Social Dynamics in the Sociology Theory

Comte separated statics from dynamics in his approach to sociology
and this is, perhaps, his greatest contribution to modern sociology.
Statics are defined as the components of a social system or structure
that interacts with other systems or structures. It also looks at the
structure of the relationships between each part of the system and how
it relates to the entire system as a whole. Comte often discounted
statics in favor of dynamics when developing his sociology theory.

49 | P a g e
Dynamics, or the social changes which occur within a society, follow a
system of progressive evolution so that people, as a group, become
more intelligent over time. Eventually egoism is suspended in favor of
altruism. Most importantly, according to Comte, this is a process that
people can control on their own, accelerating or decelerating it based
on their unique perspectives.

When the final stage of sociology was achieved, the stage of positivism,
Comte believed that it could change the way people lived their lives.
Yet there were unique personal influences within the theory he
developed which would ultimately create weaknesses that his critics
could exploit.

The goal of this separation was to create a society that was based on
naturalistic science. In Comte‟s view, it would be able to explain how
humans developed in the past, giving those living in the present an
opportunity to predict the future course of civilization. This knowledge
would provide the circumstances that could provide for social stability
in any culture at any time. Progress and order would put people
together, working toward a common goal of mutual betterment.

The Issues with Comte’s Sociology Theory

Comte didn‟t believe in gender equality. He believed that men were
smarter and that women were more altruistic and affectionate. This
meant that men were more practical, making them better in the
supervision of change. Women, he declared, where better suited to
being the conscience of the men. This is likely because of how Comte
view the social structures that existed within society. He saw the family
unit as one structure, which meant each person within that structured
had to play a specific role in order for it to survive. He also believed in
the power of the working force, what we would call the Middle Class
today. The wealthy classes, Comte felt, were too conservative to
advocate for the changes that he was proposing. It was through the
division of labor, focused on the gifts and talents that each laborer

50 | P a g e
could provide to the greater well, that could bring about the utopia
where knowledge was the pursuit of everyone.

III. Main work of Comte

1. “The prospectus of the scientific works required for the
reorganization of society” 1822.
2. “Positive philosophy” 1830 to 1842.
3. “Positive Polity”, 1851 to 1854.

IV. Conclusion
To conclude it, Auguste Comte was a French philosopher born in
Montpellier, France, in 1798, just after the French Revolution. He gave
the various theories. Positivism has great importance in all theories.
Furthermore, he emphasizes upon the three stages successive stages
such as Theological stage, Metaphysical Stage,
and Positivist Stage.

*****
8. Explain Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.
(2020-S)
 Write a note on Lawrence Kohlberg theory. (2020-A)
Context
I. Introduction of Lawrence Kohlberg
II. Key points
III. Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
IV. Critiques of Kohlberg’s theory
V. Conclusion

I. Introduction of Lawrence Kohlberg

51 | P a g e
Lawrence Kohlberg outlined one of the best-known theories addressing
the development of morality in childhood. Kohlberg‟s stages of moral
development, which include three levels and six stages, expanded on
and revised the ideas of Jean Piaget‟s previous work on the subject.
II. Key points

 Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work

of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral
development of children, which he believed follows a series of
stages.
 Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development: pre-
conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level has
two distinct stages.
 During the pre-conventional level, a child's sense of morality is
externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules
of authority figures, such as parents and teachers, and they judge
an action based on its consequences.
 During the conventional level, an individual's sense of morality is
tied to personal and societal relationships. Children continue to
accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now because they
believe that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order.
 During the post-conventional level, a person's sense of morality is
defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People
now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or
eliminated.
 Kohlberg's theory has been criticized for its cultural and
gendered bias toward white, upper-class men and boys. It also
fails to account for inconsistencies within moral judgments.

III. Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

52 | P a g e
Throughout the pre-conventional level, a child's sense of morality is
externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority
figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-conventional
morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions
regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on
external consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

Stage 1 focuses on the child's desire to obey rules and avoid being
punished. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong
because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the
act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the "what's in it for me?" position, in which right

behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their
best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs
of others, only to the point where it might further the individual's own
interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty
or intrinsic respect, but rather a "you scratch my back, and I'll scratch
yours" mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his
parents to do a chore. The child asks "what's in it for me?" and the
parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.
Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child's sense of morality is tied to

personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the
rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is
necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence

53 | P a g e
to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a
rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to

avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people
being "nice" to others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of

their importance in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as
being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is
"supposed" to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning in
stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage
three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there
is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active
members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still
predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Level 3: Post-conventional

Throughout the post-conventional level, a person's sense of morality is

defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now
believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated.
This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are
separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live
by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such
basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful
but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be

54 | P a g e
obeyed without question because post-conventional individuals elevate
their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their
behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of
those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that
many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and

values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to
each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather
than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should
be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest
number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and
inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based
on stage five reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using

universal ethical principles. Generally, the chosen principles are
abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality,
dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in
justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to
disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to
follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way,
the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because
he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is
expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg
insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals
who consistently operated at that level.
IV. Critiques of Kohlberg’s theory

55 | P a g e
Kohlberg has been criticized for his assertion that women seem to be
deficient in their moral reasoning abilities when compared to men.
Carol Gilligan (1982), a research assistant of Kohlberg, criticized her
former mentor‟s theory because it was based so narrowly on research
using white, upper-class men and boys. She argued that women are not
deficient in their moral reasoning and instead proposed that males and
females reason differently: girls and women focus more on staying
connected and maintaining interpersonal relationships.
Kohlberg's theory has been criticized for emphasizing justice to the
exclusion of other values, with the result that it may not adequately
address the arguments of those who value other moral aspects of
actions. Similarly, critics argue that Kohlberg's stages are culturally
biased—that the highest stages in particular reflect a westernized ideal
of justice based on individualistic thought. This is biased against those
that live in non-Western societies that place less emphasis on
individualism.
Another criticism of Kohlberg‟s theory is that people frequently
demonstrate significant inconsistency in their moral judgements. This
often occurs in moral dilemmas involving drinking and driving or
business situations where participants have been shown to reason at a
lower developmental stage, typically using more self-interest driven
reasoning (i.e., stage two) than authority and social order obedience
driven reasoning (i.e., stage four). Critics argue that Kohlberg's theory
cannot account for such inconsistencies.
V. Conclusion
To conclude it, there are different stages of development in Kohlberg‟s
theory. In a nutshell, Lawrence Kohlberg was inspired by Jean Paget‟s
work on moral judgment to create a stage theory of moral development
in childhood. The theory includes three levels and six stages of moral
thinking. Each level includes two stages. The levels are called pre-

56 | P a g e
conventional morality, conventional morality and post-conventional
morality.
*****
9. Explain Edward Sutherland differential association theory.
(2020-S)
Context
I. Introduction
II. Key points
III. Origin
IV. Preposition of differential association theory
V. Understanding the approach
VI. Critiques
VII. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Differential association theory proposes that people learn values,
attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior through their
interactions with others. It is a learning theory of deviance that was
initially proposed by sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939 and revised
in 1947. The theory has continued to be enormously important to the
field of criminology.
II. Key points
 Sociologist Edwin Sutherland first proposed differential
association theory in 1939 as a learning theory of deviance.
 Differential association theory proposes that the values, attitudes,
techniques, and motives for criminal behavior are learned through
one‟s interactions with others.

57 | P a g e
  Differential association theory remains important to the field of
criminology, although critics have objected to its failure to take
personality traits into account.

III. Origin

Before Sutherland introduced his theory of differential association, the

explanations for criminal behavior were varied and inconsistent. Seeing
this as a weakness, law professor Jerome Michael and philosopher
Mortimer J. Adler published a critique of the field that argued that
criminology hadn‟t produced any scientifically-backed theories for
criminal activity. Sutherland saw this as a call to arms and used
rigorous scientific methods to develop differential association theory.
Sutherland‟s thinking was influenced by the Chicago School of
sociologists. In particular, he took cues from three sources: the work of
Shaw and McKay, which investigated the way delinquency in Chicago
was distributed geographically; the work of Sellin, Wirth, and
Sutherland himself, which found that crime in modern societies was the
result of conflicts between different cultures; and Sutherland's own
work on professional thieves, which found that in order to become a
professional thief, one must become a member of a group of
professional thieves and learn through them.

IV. Preposition of differential association theory

Sutherland‟s theory doesn‟t account for why an individual becomes a

criminal but how it happens. He summarized the principles of
differential association theory with nine propositions:
1. All criminal behavior is learned.
2. Criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others via a
process of communication.
3. Most learning about criminal behavior happens in intimate personal
groups and relationships.

58 | P a g e
4. The process of learning criminal behavior may include learning
about techniques to carry out the behavior as well as the motives and
rationalizations that would justify criminal activity and the attitudes
necessary to orient an individual towards such activity.
5. The direction of motives and drives towards criminal behavior is
learned through the interpretation of legal codes in one‟s
geographical area as favorable or unfavorable.
6. When the numbers of favorable interpretations that support
violating the law outweigh the unfavorable interpretations that
don‟t, an individual will choose to become a criminal.
7. All differential associations aren‟t equal. They can vary in frequency,
intensity, priority, and duration.
8. The process of learning criminal behaviors through interactions
with others relies on the same mechanisms that are used in learning
about any other behavior.
9. Criminal behavior could be an expression of generalized needs and
values, but they don‟t explain the behavior because non-criminal
behavior expresses the same needs and values.

V. Understanding the approach

Differential association takes a social psychological approach to explain
how an individual becomes a criminal. The theory posits that an
individual will engage in criminal behavior when the definitions that
favor violating the law exceed those that don‟t. Definitions in favor of
violating the law could be specific. For example, “This store is insured.
If I steal these items, it‟s a victimless crime.” Definitions can also be
more general, as in “This is public land, so I have the right to do
whatever I want on it.” These definitions motivate and justify criminal
activity. Meanwhile, definitions unfavorable to violating the law push
back against these notions. Such definitions can include, “Stealing is
immoral” or “Violating the law is always wrong.”
VI. Critiques

59 | P a g e
Differential association theory was a game-changer in the field of
criminology. However, the theory has been criticized for failing to take
individual differences into account. Personality traits may interact with
one‟s environment to create outcomes that differential association
theory cannot explain. For example, people can change their
environment to ensure it better suits their perspectives. They may also
be surrounded by influences that don‟t espouse the value of criminal
activity and choose to rebel by becoming a criminal anyway. People are
independent, individually motivated beings. As a result, they may not
learn to become criminals in the ways differential association predicts.
VII. Conclusion
In conclusion, differential association takes a social psychological
approach to explain how individual becomes criminal. Basically it is a
theory related to how people learn attitude and behavior from each
other. There are different prepositions of differential association theory.
*****
10. Discuss the theories of Allama Iqbal or Shah Wali Ullah.
(2018-S)
Context
I. Introduction
II. Iqbal’s conception of Khudi (EGO)
III. Iqbal’s concept of Millat
IV. Iqbal’s concept of Individual and society
V. Iqbal’s concept of Ijtehad
VI. Conclusion

I. Introduction

60 | P a g e
Allama Iqbal was the poet, the philosopher and a great Muslim thinker
with the help of his poetry tried to awaken the Muslims of the sub-
continent. He believed in the separate identity of Muslims as a nation.
During the period of struggle for Pakistan, this was made clear by the
Qquaid-e-Azam more than one. For instance, he refused Mr. Gandhi‟s
offer in 1944 that the Muslim majority areas could separate from an all-
India union by invoking the right of self-determination on a territorial
basis.
II. Iqbal’s conception of Khudi (EGO)
The conception of khudi has been the most important contribution of
Iqqbal to the realm of political thought. According to the Iqbal‟s view,
khudi or ego does not signify pride or arrogance, but the spirit of self-
determination. Every object of the universe exhibits this spirit in some
way or other. Even the creator of this universe could not help
expressing his ego and created this world in order to be known.
One Hadith alludes to this fact in these words:
“I was a hidden treasure. I wished that I may be recognized, therefore I created
the whole creature.”
III. Iqbal’s concept of Millat
Iqbal‟s cardinal philosophy is the philosophy of the self. This
individualistic concept of Iqbal reveals the fact that earthly fear is
meaningless to an upholder of the “secret of self” which gives him a
noble and sublime character for the betterment. Thus, Iqbal gives the
individualistic idea only to see a powerful Millat.
IV. Iqbal’s concept of Individual and society
Ideal human beings create ideal society. Islam brought together God
and the world and this was a preparation for the realization of an ideal

61 | P a g e
society. Iqbal visualized this role of the religion in shaping the ideal
human being.
In his seventeenth lecture entitled “Is Religion Possible?” he says:
“Both nationalism and atheistic socialism, at least in the present state of
human adjustments, must draw upon the psychological forces of hate, suspicion
and resentment which tend to impoverish the soul of man and close up his
hidden sources of spiritual energy. Neither the technique of medieval mysticism
nor nationalism nor atheistic socialism can cure the ills of a despairing
humanity. Surely, the present moment is one of the great crisis in the history of
modern culture. The modern world stands in need of biological renewal. And
religion, which in its higher manifestations is neither dogma, nor priesthood,
nor ritual, can alone ethically prepare the modern man for the burden of the
great responsibility which the advancement of modern science of the great
responsibility which the advancement of modern science necessarily involves,
and restore to him that attitude of faith which makes him capable of winning a
personality here and retaining it hereafter.”
The knowledge of self is the key to the knowledge of God. The Holy
Pophet (Peace be upon him) says,
“He who knows himself well, knows God”.
Iqbal emphasize upon the combination of the knnowledge of self and
God creates the Ideal man. Both God and soul are invisible or confined
to space and time and outside the categories of quantity and quality.
Nor can the ideas of shape, colour or size be attached to them. The
Holy Prophet said;
“God created man in his own likeness”.
V. Iqbal’s concept of Ijtehad

62 | P a g e
According to Iqbal‟s view, “the ultimate spiritual basis of all life, as
conceived by Islam, is eternal” and that a “a society based on such a
conception of reality must reconcile, in its life, the categories of
permanence and change”.
Iqbal refers to Ijtehad which “Literally means to exert” as the principle
of movement in the structure of Islam. Seeking the revaluation and re-
codification of the Islamic Fiqh and stressing the critical need for
Ijtehad by contemporary Muslims, Iqbal said, I know the „Ulema of
Islam‟ claim finality for the popular schools of Muslim Law, though
they never found it possible to deny the theoretical possibility of a
complete Ijtehad. For fear of disintegration the conservative thinkers of
Islam focused all their efforts on the one point of preserving a uniform
social life for the people by a jealous exclusion of all innovations in the
law of Sharia as expounded by the early doctors of Islam.
VI. Conclusion
To conclude that Iqbal the poet, the philosopher and a great thinker
with the help of his poetry tried to awaken the Muslims of the sub-
continent. He believed in the separate identity. He gave the courage to
the nation. He emphasizes upon the concept of Khudi, Millat and
Ijtehad. Iqbal died on 21st April 1938 due to severe throat infection that
lasted for long till his death. He will be remembered for good.
Aasmaan teri lahad per shabnam afshani kare
Sabze e noorasta is ghar ki nigah baani kare!
Iqbal also emphasize on the concept of khudi which is completely based
upon separate identity rather than pride or arrogance. Once he said in
his famous poem,
Khudi ko kar baland itna Ke har taqdeer se pahle

63 | P a g e
 Khuda bnde se pochy bta teri raza kya hai!

11. Discuss the contributions of Ibn-e-Khaldun to sociological

theory. (2018-A) (2019-S) (2020-A)
 Discuss the concept of Asabiyat by Ibn-e-Khuldun? (2020-S)
 Explain the viewpoint of Ibn-i-khuldun on “Rise and Fall of
Nations” and “Rural and urban society”. (2021-A)
Context
I. Introduction
II. Theories of Khaldoon
III. Methodology
IV. Theory of Al-Asabiya (social solidarity)
V. Theory of Rise and Fall of Nations
VI. Theory of Rural and Urban Society
VII. Theory of social change
VIII. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Ibn-e-Khaldoon was a great thinker in the middle age. He was most
talented and versatile person of the world ever saw. He was also
Muslim philosopher and also practicing politician and expert historian.
He was born in 14th century in Tunisia, Africa. He wrote many books
including rise and fall of nations.
II. Theories of Khaldoon
Ibn-e-Khaldoon wrote so much on history. He was a great thinker of
his time. His thoughts are still accepted by the modern social scientists.
III. Methodology

64 | P a g e
By this method he has been included among the modern scientist this
method has described in his book Mokadima he has explained the
methods of logic as the scientific method. He devised these methods for
the study of social sciences. These methods are used in the study of
relationship between historical events and facts he says that there is
close relation among historical political and social events.
IV. Theory of Al-Asabiya (social solidarity)

Meaning of Asabiyya:
ASABIYYA, Arabic word meaning originally 'spirit of kinship' (the
'asaba are male relations in the male line) in the family or tribe. Already
used in the hadith in which the Prophet condemns 'asabiyya as contrary
to the spirit of Islam, the term became famous as a result of the use to
which it was put by Ibn khaldun, who made this concept the basis of his
interpretation of history and his doctrine of the state.
Asabiyya, fundamental bond:
'Asabiyya is, for Ibn khaldun, the fundamental bond of human society
and the basic motive force of history; as such, the term has been
translated as 'esprit de corps' (de Slane), by 'Gemeinsinn' and even by
'Nationalitaetsidee' (Kremer), which is an unjustified modernism. He is
the inventor of this theory it is the force which unites the people with
one and another leads to the creation of the state people get together by
joining their minds and values and create solidarity among themselves
which lead to Asbiaya.
Basic factor of Asabiyya force:

65 | P a g e
The basic factor of this asbiya force is to unite the people together in a
term of the society or in the term of the state. He says in his famous
book Mokddma Asabiya is the emotion of similarity which keep the
people of a group united together having common effective actions.
Importance of mutual relation:
He said mutual relation is also the base of society which is also stated
as the source of asbiya. Solidarity is very important in state and the
social life.
Importance of Solidarity for students:
This concept of asabiya is very important for the students of the
sociology as soon the solidarity is created the group become invincible
force. Asabiya is the great force among people uniting them together
and making them solid into one united whole and it is the spirit of
forces among people. They have emotion of similarity which unite them
together and these emotion works as an effective force of action. The
tribes, societies and states maintain their unity and forces and values
until the Asabiya exist in them. Asabiya provide force of and authority
to tribes, societies and states. He also say that the religious belief and
values also sharpen the forces of Asbiya in religion no movement can
succeed without the Asabiya that it why it is easy to control the state in
those countries which lack the spirit of Al Asabiya. Khuldoon state that
no state can stand without the Asabiya he called this spirit of Solidarity.
He says that the all the state and societies stand on the force of Asabiya
and it provide strong force to live and face the external powers and
various regions of the world.
V. Theory of Rise and Fall of Nations
Given political stability, for the rise of the nations, there must be:

66 | P a g e
 1. A firm establishment of private property rights and freedom of
enterprise.
2. Rule of law and a reliable judicial system for the establishment of
justice.
3. The security of peace and the security of trade routes.
4. Low taxation in order to increase employment, production and
revenues.
5. Less bureaucracy and a much smaller efficient army.
6. No government involvement in traded, production and
commercial affairs.
7. No price fixing by the government.
8. A rule that does not give monopoly power to anyone in the
market.
9. Stable monetary policy and independent monetary authority that
does not play with the value of money.
10. A larger education system for independent thinking and
behavior.
11. The collective responsibility and internal desire to establish
a just system to encourage good deeds and prevent vice.
VI. Theory of Rural and Urban Society
“Ibn-i-khaldoon” believed that, human society differs from animal
society. It supersedes the animal society because of the following traits;
1. Human is endowed with wisdom.
2. Human beings need a leader to look after their wellbeing and guide
them through difficult situations. Human beings always search the
means of livelihood.
3. They live together, coordinate and cooperate, which lead towards the
creation, of state.
Types of society:
67 | P a g e
However, mentioned traits lack in animals “Ibn I khaldoon” has
described two types of societies in his book “Badvi” and “Hazri”.
Badvi and Hazri society:
According to his theory “Badvi” is rural society whereas; “Hazri” is
urban society.
Explanation:
Individuals living in Badvi society are united and have strong force of
Al-Asabia. They have robust physical structure; live in deserts where
satisfying basic needs are quite difficult. However, they have to
struggle hard for their survival, therefore, they are physically strong.
The traits and description provided by “Ibn-Ikhaldoon” of the
individuals, living in Badvi society, are similar to those people who live
in villages and small valleys or rural areas. On the other hand, people
living in “Hazri” society are described; similar to those people, who live
in urban society. They are unlike the people of “Badvi” society. They
cannot defend them self against, external aggression; individuals of
“Badvi” society are dependent on state security. They are not physically
strong for the reason that, basic needs of life are easily available to
them. In Hazri society, individuals do not have to struggle hard for
their survival. Characteristics of Hazri society The hazri are the people
like our urban people they depend upon the forces of Army and police
that is why they are physical weak and coward they cannot face the
enemy bravely they live a luxurious life which weakened their force of
Asbiya Badvi Society He says that the tribes live in the nomadic life
which is of rural type. He says that in this type of society the group life
is found at the highest. The tough life of dessert enable them to face
and defeat the enemies on the other hand when the tribes become
sedentary the group life become weak and this society according to
khuldoon is called urban.

68 | P a g e
 VII. . Theory of social change
He says that the human society is ever changing he stated that the
change in the human society follows clockwise pattern and the circle is
completed and repeated after the 120 year in the given society. He
observed that there are the fixed definite and clear stages of this cycle.
Principles of social change:
Each stage having average duration of forty years, He describe the
three principles of the social change in the society
1. The physical boundary of the state should remain in control
2. The physical age of the state is about 120 years divided into 3
stages equal stages of 40 year each.
3. Rise and fall in the nation is turn by turn one nation rises once
and other rises after its fall.
VIII. Conclusion
To conclude it, Ibn-e-Khaldoon was a great Muslim philosopher. He
attained a great achievement in his time due to his work. He gave many
theories and concepts to the people of that time. The most famous
thought left Ibn-e-Khaldoon is “Ilmul-Imran” which was later turned
into “Imraniyat” (sociology). The thoughts left by him are called
“Khaldoniyat” the sociology of Ibn-e-Khaldoon.
*****

12. Discuss contributions of Shah Wali Ullah to sociological

theory. (2019-A)
 Explain shah Waliullah four different Irtefaqat. (2020-S)
 Elaborate on the societal diseases mentioned by Hazrat Shah Wali
Ullah. What he suggests to improve the socio-political, religious,
and economic conditions of the Muslims. (2021-A)

69 | P a g e
 Context
I. Prologue
II. Shah Wali Ullah Birth, Early life and Education
III. Importance of Ijtehad
IV. Importance of Jihad
V. Economic view
VI. Social Philosophy of Shah Wali Ullah
VII. Economic services of Shah Wali Ullah
VIII. Political Philosophy of Shah Wali Ullah
IX. Stages of Social Development
X. Conclusion

I. Prologue
Shah Wali Ullah was an Islamic scholar and author in India during the
declining years of the Mughal Empire. He was entitled as one of the
earliest supporters of the Islmaic Independence from India, a movement
which would eventually lead to the creation of Pakistan. After the death
of Aurangzeb, Islam in the sub-continnet faced many problems in 18th
century such as sectarian conflict, low moral tone of the society and
poor understanding of the Holy Quran and Hadith.
II. Shah Wali Ullah Birth, Early life and Education
Birth:
Hazrat Shah Wali Ullah was born in pious family of Delhi on 21 st Feb,
1703 four years before the death of Auranzeb. His real name wa qutub-
ud-Din and later on came to be known as Wali Ullah.
Early Life:

70 | P a g e
 He was enganged in the compilation of Fatawa-i-Alamgiri by the
emperor Aurangzeb. His father died at the age of 77 years when he was
17 years old. After the death of his father Shah Wali Ullah began
teaching at Madrassa Rahimiya of Delhi where he thought for 12 years.
Education:
Shah Wali Ullah received his early education in spiritualism and
mysticism from his father. When he was seven years old he memorized
The Holy Quran. He received education in Tafsir, Hadis and acquired
spiritual discipline from his father. He also studied metaphysics, logics
and Ilm-ul-Quran. He also studied Shahi-al-Bukhari, branches of
jurisprudence (Fiqah), Sharh-i-Waqaya and Hidiya, some portion of
Urul-i-Fiqah, Mujzal Qanun of Hikmat and sharh-i-Hikmat in the filed
of medicine and Tib.
III. Importance of Ijtehad
He adopted a balanced approach and understanding towards religious
matters. He thoroughly studied all school of thoughts and expressed
what was right and just in a mild and sophisticated. Way without
hurting anyone. He presented Islam in a morl rational way.
IV. Importance of Jihad
He got in touched with rulers and impressed upon them to enforce
Islamic laws. He also argued them to mould their lives, according to
the Islamic way. He also educated Muslim soldiers on the importance of
Jihad for the glorification of Islam.
V. Economic view
He asked the traders to adopt fair principles of trade as practiced by
The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). He emphasized upon the
trade according to the Islamic injunctions.

71 | P a g e
 VI. Social Philosophy of Shah Wali Ullah
He was also a great social reformer. He advised Muslims that shun all
to customs and rites of the Hindus. Therefore, once he remarked,
“We are strangers as our ancestors had been strangers to the Indian Peninsula,
and for us the Arab lineage and Arabic language are the things o pride, as they
take us closer to The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). We can pay for this
great blessing by adhering as far as possible, to the customs and rites of Arabia
the birth place of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). We must not adopt
the habits of the Hindus and rites of the non-Muslims”.
He also abhorred all anti-Islamic customs and traditions. He was also
against the large sum of Haq Mehr in marriages. He also criticized
extravagance of the festivals. He prohibited the Muslims to mourn
move than three days after the death of their relatives.
VII. Economic services of Shah Wali Ullah
He was also great economist in addition to social, religious and political
reformer. He pointed following concepts to strengthen economy:
1. There must be economic equilibrium.
2. There must be equal distribution of wealth.
3. Heavy Taxes must not be imposed.
4. He also criticized accumulation of wealth.
He also presented some economic principles as:
1. Those people who have the rights of the nation who work hard
for the prosperity of the country.
2. Economic prosperity depends upon the hard worker of its
laborers. Hence, laborers are backbone of the economy.

72 | P a g e
 3. He advised Mughals to be conscious of their duties and not to
indulge in the accumulation of wealth. Such system should be
ended where there is a lot of economic inequality.
4. Such economic system is dangerous for the development of
country where laborers, artisans and peasants failed to get basic
right of living.

VIII. Political Philosophy of Shah Wali Ullah

1. After the death of Aurangzeb the downfall of the Muslims started.

Marhattas and Sikhs started resurgence and the Mughal
Emperors were not in a position to withhold the supremacy of
their rule which was jeopardized by the emergence of Marhattas
and Sikhs, and other non-Muslim forces. Marhattas raided Delhi,
the capital of Mughal Empire. They wanted to crush Muslim rule
for ever.
2. By critically analyzing the concepts and beliefs of Shah Wali
Ullah we came to know that:
a) He regarded the Muslims as a separate community from Hindus.
b) He wanted the installation of Islamic System in India.
c) He wanted the domination of Kufr to an end.
d) After the domination of the Muslims, he wanted practical
application of the Islamic code of life in which wealth as to be
divided equally and fairly according to the Injunctions of Islam.
IX. Stages of Social Development
First Stage of Social Development:
This stage has likeness to social life of nomads, and dwellers of
remote mountain peaks. These small social groups maintain closer
contact through language. They rely on agriculture, tree plantation and

73 | P a g e
taming of animals in order to meet basic human needs. Gradually
they devise rules of marriage, means to settle mutual disputes, and
contrive means to ensure safety of the group. These fundamentals gain
Improvement with the passage of time, and evolution to next stage
occurs.
Second Stage of Social Development:
This stage is reached by those residing in urban areas and cities.
Human social organizations abound in cities, and requirements of
life become more complex. Increased challenges and problems open
avenues of experimentation in search of answers to the difficulties. The
rulers are enabled, to draw better lessons from these endeavors.
Third Stage of Social Development:
This stage of social evolution follows the successful completion of stage
two. Mutual interaction among citizens continues. Jealousy and
protraction sets in bargains, which results in denial of the rights of
others. In society, individuals obsessed with base passions and others
with inborn trait to kill and plunder come forth. Such a state of affairs
is not conducive to the well-being of society. No individual is in a
position to shoulder the task of serving the interests of society
Single-handed by. Creation of the agency of government becomes
ineluctable. Taxes are then imposed to run the affairs of
thegovernment. The stage is gradually set to move to next phase of
social developments.
Fourth Stage of Social Development:
This stage covers the nature and kind of relations that exist among
citizens of different countries. It also describes the quality of
governance and the state of rule of law prevalent in each country. The
need for this stage arises when independent rulers are tempted to
extend the boundaries of their countries. This temptation could be the
result of personal gain of the ruler, hostility against the neighboring
ruler, or the desire for preference for warlike means in settling
disputes. Under such conditions, the populace feels the urge for
the establishment of the office of an authority superior than the
existing ruler. Shah Wali Ullah mentioned numerous qualities
required of the superior authority (khalifah). Ability to rule justly
was considered to be the prime quality in him. Shah Wali Ullah was of
74 | P a g e
the view that in the evolution process societies do not evolve
mechanically. Also it is not essential that every society moves through
each stage. Societies may be judged from the existing level of
social development, and accordingly decide with regard to their
particular stage of development
X. Conclusion
To conclude it, Shah Wali Ullah was great Muslim philosopher and
social, religious and political reformer. He was always emphasized upon
the teachings of Islam. He advised Muslims of his time to adopt the life
style according to the teaching of Islam. He shed light on the economic
and political stages, according to Islam in his time.
** * **
13. Define theory and discuss the process of theorizing.
(2018-A) (2021-A)
 Define sociological theory. Explain the process of theorizing in
detail. (2021-A)
 Define sociological theory and discuss the types of sociological
theories. (2020-A)
Context
I. Introduction
II. Meaning of theorizing
III. Definition of theorizing
IV. Functional theorizing
V. Ecological theorizing
VI. Stage model evolutionary theorizing
VII. Basic rules for theorizing
VIII. Sociological theory
IX. Types of theorizing
X. Conclusion
I. Introduction
75 | P a g e
Social theorizing has been differentiated into number of general
theoretical perspective as well as special theoretical perspective.
Sociologist analyzes the social phenomenon at different levels and from
different perspectives. Sociologist studied everything from specific
events the micro level of analysis of small patterns to the big picture
the macro level of analysis of large picture.
II. Meaning of theorizing
According to Merriam Webster Dictionary,
To think of or suggest ideas about what is possibly true or real at least
unlikely, in the near future.
III. Definition of theorizing
According to Greeks,
Theorizing means you concentrate on the phenomenon and stay with
it, and trying in this way to understand it.
IV. Functional theorizing
Functional theorizing was sociology‟s first theoretical perspective.
V. Ecological theorizing
In both, Spencer‟s and Durkheim‟s functional theories were a theory of
human economy.
VI. Stage model evolutionary theorizing
The early functionalist Comte, Spencer and Durkheim all developed
stage models of societal etc.
VII. Basic rules for theorizing
Rule 1: Observe and chose something interesting

76 | P a g e
You can only theorize on the base of observation.
Rule 2: Name and formulate the central concept
Give a name to what you observe and try to formulate a central concept
based on it.
Rule 3: Build out the theory
Give the body to the central concept by outlining the structure, pattern
or organization of the phenomenon.
Rule 4: Complete the tentative including the Explanation
Formulate a model a tentative theory of phenomenon with special
emphasis on the explanation the constitutes a natural process of
theorizing.
VIII. Sociological theory
According to Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology,
Any form of sustained reasoning or logic that endeavors to make sense
of observable realities of social life via the use of concepts, metaphors,
models, or other forms of abstract ideas may be legitimately classified
as a sociological theory.
IX. Types of theorizing
Following are types of sociological theories:
1. Voluntarism
This term is applied to that type of sociological theory in which the
explanation for action lies in the intentions of the actor. This is, actors
act „voluntarily‟; their actions are not determined by their biology or
the social structure.

77 | P a g e
No sociologist is a complete voluntarism, for it all action was entirely a
product of unconstrained free will, there would be no society, social
structure or social action.
2. Structural-Functionalism
This is the name usually given to the functionalist sociological theory
associated with Talcott Parsons, probably the leading figure in US
sociology from the 1940s to 190s. Person‟s increasingly elaborate
theory came to appear inflexible and in danger of circularity. It also fell
foul of logical and methodological criticisms leveled at functionalism
generally.
The term structural-functionalism is also sometimes applied to the
work of the functionalist in social anthropology such as Alfred R.
Radcliffe-Brown and Bronisaw Mainowski.
3. Critical Theory
Critical Theory is a type of theory that aims to critique society, social
structures, and systems of power, and to foster egalitarian social
change.
X. Conclusion
To conclude it, Theorizing means you concentrate on the phenomenon
and stay with it, and trying in this way to understand it. There are four
basic rules of theorizing such as observe and chose something
interesting, name and formulate the central concept, build out the
theory and complete tentative including. There are three types of
sociological theorizing such as voluntarism, structure-functionalism
and critical theory.
*****

78 | P a g e
14. Highlight the major statement of social control theory;
explain the role of Travis Hirsch, Social Control/ social
bonding theory in minimizing crime. (2019-S)
Context
I. Introduction
II. Meaning of social control
III. Elements constitute the social bond
IV. Statement of social control
V. Social control theory developed by Travis Hirschi
VI. Role of Travis Hirsch, Social Control/ social bonding
theory in minimizing crime.
VII. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Social control theory was developed by Travis Hirschi in 1969. It is
also known as social bond theory. Under the social control theory,
individuals break the law due to a breakdown with their societal bond.
II. Meaning of social control
Social control is a tool used by societal groups to maintain order and
ensure that their collective will is being followed by members. Group
leaders do not directly intervene in the lives of individual members,
however. Rather, social control is the process by which members of a
group regulate themselves to prevent negative deviance and preserve
the beliefs, principles, and values that are generally accepted.
III. Elements constitute the social bond
Hirschi refers to four elements which constitute the social bond. These
bonds include:
79 | P a g e
 1. Attachment to others.
2. Commitment to following rules.
3. Involvement by typical social behaviors.
4. Belief a basic value.
IV. Statement of social control
Social theory gained prominence during 1960s as sociologist sought
conceptions of crime. It was during this period that Travis put forth his
innovative rendering of social control.
“A theory builds upon existing concepts of social control. Hirschi‟s social
control theory asserts that ties to family, school and other aspects of society serve
to diminish one‟s propensity for deviant behavior.”
V. Social control theory developed by Travis Hirschi
Social control theory is also known as social bond theory. It is
developed by Travis Hirschi in 1969.
VI. Role of Travis Hirsch, Social Control/ social bonding
theory in minimizing crime.
Hirschi: Bonds of Attachment
Family attachment is one factor that is strongly correlated with
delinquency. In their book, Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency, Sheldon
and Eleanor Glueck indicated that the amount of affection that mothers
and fathers give to their children is a powerful indicator of delinquency.
Those who had stronger emotional ties to their parents were less likely
to be delinquent. As those whose parents know when they are away
from home are those who inform their parents about their whereabouts,
well-supervised children are those who have close relationships with
their parents. Attachment to school is another well-established
predictor of delinquency. Students who report liking school and caring
about the opinion of their teachers are less likely to be delinquent.
Meanwhile, those who have negative thoughts about school see it as
less effective as a moral force.
80 | P a g e
Commitment
In social control theory, commitment is the idea that conforming to
one's behavior protects and preserves what one has, while crime and
delinquency put it at risk. Delinquents calculate the costs and benefits
of crime. What someone has to lose from committing a crime depends
on one's assets, prospects, accomplishments, and aspirations? This is
expressed through academic achievement. Indeed, of all the measures of
school-related activities, grade point average has been considered to be
the best predictor of delinquency. Students with high grade point
averages are likely to aspire to further education and less likely to
commit delinquent acts or get into difficulties with the police. This
grade point average connection also forms an indirect connection
between IQ test scores and delinquency: those with higher IQs are
more likely to obtain a higher grade point average, strengthening their
commitment to the school.

Involvement
Involvement signals involvement in conventional activities. According
to social control theorists, people who do conventional things, such as
walking, playing sports, doing homework, engaging in hobbies, or
talking to parents, are, in doing these activities, unable to commit
delinquent acts regardless of their delinquent tendencies.

The idea of involvement has contradicted evidence. Multiple

researchers, such as Agnew, have found that adolescents carrying out a
seemingly conventional activity having a job are more, rather than less
likely to be delinquent. Counts of the amount of time that adolescents
spend carrying out conventional acts have also shown little correlation
between involvement and delinquency. The concept of involvement in
control theory shows little connection to actual rates of delinquency,
scholars argue, for two reasons. First of all, most criminal acts require
little time to complete perhaps minutes, or even seconds. Thus, an
offender can commit a large number of offenses in a short period of
time. Someone could steal several expensive coats, or several video
game cartridges, in a matter of seconds. Crimes can be committed
almost everywhere, making the prospect of preventing them by

81 | P a g e
occupying a potential offender a largely feckless one. The other
problem facing the concept of involvement is that it neglects the fact
that the opportunities for crime reside in the ability for the offender to
find opportunities for crime. Objective conditions as well as the
perceptions of actors matter in whether or not a crime occurs.
According to control theory, people differ in the strength of their bonds
to society. People, in this view, who are strongly bonded to society are
less likely to both engage in activities that provide opportunities for
delinquency as well as seeing these opportunities in the first place as
they arise

VII. Conclusion
To sum up, social control is a tool used by societal groups to maintain
order and ensure that their collective will is being followed by
members. Group leaders do not directly intervene in the lives of
individual members, however. Rather, social control is the process by
which members of a group regulate themselves to prevent negative
deviance and preserve the beliefs, principles, and values that are
generally accepted. The social control theory is also known as social
bond theory. It is developed by Travis Hirschi in 1969.
*****
15. Define Juvenile delinquency and discuss how criminal justice
system of Pakistan deals with it.
(2018-A) (2019-A) (2019-S)
 Write a note on Juvenile delinquency. (2019-A)
 Define Juvenile delinquency. Discuss how juvenile delinquency
should be treated according to law. (2020-A)
 Define Juvenile delinquency. Write a note juvenile justice system
and the role of juvenile courts in Pakistan. (2021-A)
Context
I. Introduction
82 | P a g e
 II. Famous Notion
III. Meaning of Juvenile
IV. Interpretation of Juvenile Delinquency
V. Definition of Juvenile Delinquency
VI. Basic causes of Juvenile Delinquency in Pakistan
VII. Ways for prevention of Juvenile Delinquency
VIII. Role of Juvenile Courts
IX. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Juvenile delinquency refers to criminal acts performed by juveniles. It
is being very common due to illiteracy and short temperament. Youth
crime is an aspect of crime which receives great attention from the
news media and politicians. In Pakistani society children are dependent
to their parents and are thought immature commit crime due to lack of
training by family, educational institutions and society.
II. Famous Nation
Famous nation believe that “Save the youth of today from becoming the
criminals of tomorrow”.
III. Meaning of Juvenile
According to Black‟s Law Dictionary,
“A person who has not reached the age at which one should be treated
as an adult by the criminal Justice system”.
IV. Interpretation of Juvenile Delinquency
According to Black‟s Law Dictionary,

83 | P a g e
Antisocial behavior by a minor; especially behavior that would be
criminally punishable if the actor were an adult, but instead as usual,
punished by special laws pertaining only to minor.
V. Definition of Juvenile Delinquency
Legal definition:
Only those juveniles who after arrest by police, after due process of law
are officially labeled by the courts as delinquents having been convicted
of an offence are known as Juvenile delinquents which are creating
Juvenile Delinquency.
According to Merriam Webster,
A conduct by a juvenile characterized by anti-social behavior that is
beyond parental control and therefore subject to legal violation.
According to Oxford Dictionary,
Offences committed by people below the age of legal responsibility.
VI. Basic causes of Juvenile Delinquency in Pakistan
There are some basic causes of juvenile delinquency in Pakistan:
1. Customary causes
Tradition and customs exists in our society attracts juvenile to commit
crime. For example, it is very famous, Zun, Zar, Zameen, we can say
money grab, property, honour and habit.
2. Sociological causes
The social structure of our society also attracts juvenile to commit
crime. For example, bad company, ignorance by others, etc.
3. Mental causes

84 | P a g e
Mental causes are also very big source of juvenile‟s crime. For example,
drug addict, psychotic, cable, internet and pornography, etc. as brain is
the main part of the body so by controlling it through drugs enhances
the chances of criminality.
4. Economic causes
It is another cause that juvenile attracts to commit crime due to
economic causes. For example, poverty, unemployment, black
marketing etc.
5. Family causes
Family causes are also another reason because happy family always
attracts positivity and happiness. But in case of toxic family, juvenile
attracts to commit crime. For example, Broken home, step mother or
father or brother or sister, irritant parents and deprivation, etc.
6. Moral neglect
Moral neglect is also another reason of juvenile crimes because juvenile
has not proper education of moral values.
7. Neglect of Religion
As the religion is the source of revolution in the human life and society.
The juvenile of today seems to be unaware of their religion which paves
their way to bad life.
VII. Ways for prevention of Juvenile Delinquency
There are following ways which can prevent Juvenile Delinquency:
1. Family counseling

85 | P a g e
Society should place a high priority on the needs and well-being of the
family and of all its members. Family counseling is a good step to
prevent the society from juvenile delinquency.
2. Basic Educational Programs for parents and Juveniles
The Government should introduce basic educational programs for
parents and juvenile to prevent the society from juvenile delinquency.
3. Community based services
There must be community based services to prevent the society from
juvenile delinquency.
4. Mass Media
The role of mass media plays a vital role. The mass media should
encourage ensuring that young persons have access to information and
material from a diversity of national and international sources.
5. Community Involvement
Community involvement of girl‟s scouts and boys scouts can also
prevent the society from juvenile delinquency.
6. Educational support
Illiteracy is the main cause of crim. There must be educational support
to youth for the purpose to prevent the society from juvenile
delinquency.
7. Recreational Activities
One of the immediate benefits of recreational activities is that they fill
unsupervised after school hours.
8. Youth sheltering

86 | P a g e
Youth sheltering is used in two meanings one is that to provide
protection to those children who are homeless having no parents alive
and relative denies accepting them. Secondly to provide shelter to those
children who run away from their home due to some social issue.
Hence, by providing shelter to both kind of children can prevent the
society from juvenile delinquency
9. Parent-child Interaction: Training Program
Parents and children have always some gap due to busy schedule of
their lives. In west, parent child interaction training program is started
and it strengthens the relation between both parents and children.
There must be some training Centre to prevent the society from
juvenile delinquency.
10. Termination of child labour
According to Article 11 of The Constitution of Islamic Republic of
Pakistan, 1973 slavery and forced labour is prohibited. But
unfortunately this law is not practical in our country. Termination of
child labour is very necessary to prevent the society from juvenile
delinquency.
VIII. Role of Juvenile Courts
Definition of Juvenile Courts:
Juvenile courts means a court established under section 4 of the
Juvenile Justice system Act, 2018.
Disposal of cases:
a) Neglected juveniles may be sent to care or welfare homes such as
Edhi center and others.

87 | P a g e
 b) Delinquent juvenile may be dealt in a slightest manner to advise
them and extreme action may be an order of custody in Borstal
special School or to release on probation.
Juvenile courts under section 4 of the Juvenile Justice system
Act, 2018:

(1) The Government in consultation with the concerned High Court

shall by notification in the official Gazette establish or designate one
or more juvenile Courts, within a period of three months of the
commencement of this Act.
(2) A Juvenile Court may be established for one or more sessions
divisions and in that case the Juvenile Court may hold trial of a case
at such place as the High Court may specify.
(3) No person shall be appointed as a judge of a juvenile Court unless
he is or has been a Sessions Judge or an Additional Sessions Judge or
a Judicial Magistrate vested with powers under section 30 of the
Code or a practicing advocate who has at least ten years standing at
Bar and the latter shall be appointed on such terms and conditions as
the Government may determine in consultation with the concerned
High Court.
(4) The Juvenile Court shall have exclusive jurisdiction to try cases
in which a juvenile is accused of commission of an offence.
(5) Subject to Sub-section (4), on commencement of this Act all cases
pending before a trial court in which a juvenile is accused of an
offence shall stand transferred to the Juvenile Court having
jurisdiction.

88 | P a g e
 (6) The Juvenile Court shall not, merely by reason of a change in its
composition or transfer of a case under sub-section (5) be bound to
recall or re-hear any witness who has given evidence and may act on
the evidence already recorded.
(7) If any court taking cognizance of an offence finds that an accused
brought before it is a juvenile, it shall transfer his case to the
Juvenile Court for further proceedings.
(8) On taking cognizance of an offence, the Juvenile Court shall
decide the case within six months.
(9) Where the case is not decided within six months in terms of sub-
section (8) the Juvenile Court shall seek extension from the High
Court concerned explaining the reasons for not being able to decide
the case within prescribed time limit. If no such extension has been
sought by the Juvenile Court, the complainant or the juvenile may
make an application to the High Court in this respect.
(10) The Juvenile court may hold its sitting at a place, other than the
place in which the ordinary courts hold sittings for trial of other
cases.
Trial:
1. The state must make available to child legal aid.
2. The court while deciding the case must prefer the interest of the
child.
3. The child must have right to have an adverse Judgment.
Sentence:
1. No child under the age of 18 should be punished with death
sentence and life imprisonment.

89 | P a g e
 2. During detention the juvenile delinquents must be kept separate
from the adult criminals.

IX. Conclusion
In conclusion, a conduct by a juvenile characterized by anti-social
behavior that is beyond parental control and therefore subject to legal
violation is said Juvenile Delinquency. There are some causes of
juvenile delinquency such as customary, economic, family and mental
causes which attract children to commit crime. But, there are also some
ways which can prevent the society from juvenile delinquency, such as
family counseling, youth shelter to needy, termination of child labour,
educational activities and parent-child training program. The juvenile
Justice system Act, 2018 exclusively deals with the juvenile
delinquency.
* ** * *
16. Define criminology and discuss its importance as a subject.
(2018-A)
29. Define criminology and discuss the relationship between
criminology and law. (2020-A)
Context
I. Introduction
II. Criminology
III. Criminal law
IV. Definition of criminology
I. Role of Criminology in society
V. Scope of criminology
VI. Criminology and relation with other branches
VII. Criminologist

90 | P a g e
 VIII. Schools of thought within criminology
IX. Conclusion

II. Introduction
Criminology is the branch of sociology. It has only been relatively
recently, though that it has been recognized as scientific disciple in its
own right. The nature of crime and criminals make criminology as an
interdisciplinary science involving the biological and behavioral
sciences such as anthropology, biology, psychology, psychiatry,
sociology, political science and economics and the police sciences such
as criminal law, public administration, penology, ethics and corrections.
III. Criminology
According to oxford Dictionary of Law,
Criminology is the study of crime. Criminology is an interdisciplinary
field that combines aspects of legal theory and substantive legal
disciplines with approaches based on psychology, sociology, and moral
philosophy.
IV. Criminal law
Criminal law is the body of law that defines criminal offenses, regulates
the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected persons, and fixes
penalties and modes of treatment applicable to convicted offenders.
V. Definition of criminology
According to Black‟s law dictionary,
The study of crime and criminal punishment as a social phenomenon;
the study of causes of crime and the treatment of the offender.
According to Dr Kenny,

91 | P a g e
The branch of criminal science which deals with crime-causation,
analysis, and prevention of crime.
According to Law Lexicon,
The study of crime, their nature, the causes, the detection and
prevention of crime.
VI. Role of Criminology in society
The field of criminology has lead to improvements across our criminal
justice system, including our response to crime and our treatment of
both victims and criminals.
VII. Scope of criminology
The mankind showed interest in crime in every era of its history. Such
interest emerged depending on the situation in the form of such
feelings as fear, revenge, mercy or support.
VIII. Criminology and relation with other branches
Criminology and The Criminal
Both are related in behavioral sciences and inquiring why human
beings behave the way they do in a given society. why do people
commit murder, terror, extraction, kidnapping, rape, assault, robbery,
dacoity, burglary and theft against fellow human beings.
Criminology and Crime
Human behavior is not criminal unless it is designated as such by the
legal system. Crime designates the legal definition of behavior of the
criminal imposed by the criminal justice system. The study of human
behavior also includes the behavior of police, lawyers, prosecution and
judges.

92 | P a g e
Criminology and Criminal law
Criminal law is evolved from human societies and the emergence of
state based on political power and authority. Criminal law was
developed in the pre-scientific era and is not subject to scientific
verification.
Scientific Criminology
It is the goal the study and understanding of human behavior in order
to prevent crime and criminal behavior through treatment, while the
goal of legal criminality is to find moral guilt and a criminal mind to
punish deviant behavior within the system of criminal law and prisons.
Criminology and Criminal Justice
Criminal justice refers to the agencies of social control composed of
police, victim assistance, prosecution, judiciary, probation or parole and
prison.
IX. Criminologist
Criminologists look at a broad range of topics related crime.
Criminologist focuses on the following:
1. Frequency of crimes
2. Location of crimes
3. Causes of crime
4. Types of crimes
5. Social and individual consequences of crimes
6. Social reactions of crimes
7. Governmental reactions to crime.
X. Schools of thought within criminology
There are three schools of thought in criminology, as:

93 | P a g e
 1. Classical school
The classical school of criminology championed by Italian attorney
Cesare Beccaria, embraces concepts and theories of crime based on
these four basic ideas:
a. Individuals have free will to make choices and to act on their own
accord.
b. People will generally seek pleasure and avoid pain, and they will
rationally calculate the cost versus the benefit when choosing to
commit an act.
c. Punishment can be used to deter crime, and the severity of the
punishment must be proportional to the crime itself.
2. Positivist school
The positivist school suggests that there are other factors at work in
deviant behavior besides simple pleasure seeking and pain avoidance.
Positivism supposes external and internal factors that may be beyond
the control of the individual.
3. Chicago School
Chicago school also known as ecological school, the Chicago school was
first developed during the 1920s in the sociology department of the
University of the Chicago.
This school of thought advanced the idea that human behavior was at
least partially determined by social structure. It takes into account
psychological and environmental factors in seeking to determine the
causes of deviant behavior.
XI. Conclusion
To conclude it, Criminology is the study of crime. Criminology is an
interdisciplinary field that combines aspects of legal theory and

94 | P a g e
substantive legal disciplines with approaches based on psychology,
sociology, and moral philosophy. The field of criminology has lead to
improvements across our criminal justice system, including our
response to crime and our treatment of both victims and criminals.
There are three school of thoughts within criminology such as classical
school, positivist school and Chicago school.
*****
17. Differentiate between crime, criminology and criminal law.
Highlight the nature and scope criminology. (2019-
S)
 Differentiate between white collar crime and street crime.
Which type of crime is more dangerous for society? Elaborate
with examples.
(2019-S)
 Compare and contrast white collar crime and street crime.
Which type of crime is more dangerous for society? Discuss
with example.
(2018-A)
 Define crime and explain different types of crime. (2020-
A)
 Differentiate between crime, criminology and criminal law.
Elaborate the characteristics of crime. (2021-
A)
 Write a note on white collar crime.
(2021-A)
 Write a note on organized white collar crime.
(2019-S)
 Write a note on organized crime.
(2020-S)

95 | P a g e
  Recent data shows that white collar have increased in Pakistan.
Define white collar crime and discuss which theory, according
to you best explains this kind of criminal behavior in Pakistan?
(2018-S)

Context
I. Introduction
II. Crime
III. Criminology
IV. Criminal law
V. Essential of crime
VI. Stages of crime
VII. Types of crime
VIII. Criminal
IX. Types of criminal
X. White collar crimes
XI. Difference between white collar crime and street crime
XII. Organized crime
XIII. Difference between crime, criminology and criminal law
XIV. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Crime is an unlawful act or default which is an offence against the
public. The study of crime is called criminology. Criminal law is the
body of law the legislature deems crimes. The criminal law is enforced
by the police and prosecuted in courts by the prosecuting attorneys.
According to James Stephen, Crime is such an act which is prohibited
or forbidden both by law of land and moral values of the society.

96 | P a g e
 II. Crime
According to Black’s law dictionary,
A positive or negative act in violation of penal law.
According to Austin,
A wrong which is pursued at the discretion of the injured part or his
representatives in a civil injury, a wrong which is pursued by sovereign
or his sub ordinates is a crime.
According to Islamic law,
Crimes are generally associated with sin. Thus crimes have to be
morally wrong. Further this morality is not based upon what the public
may consider to be right or wrong, that is, moral or immoral, rather it
is the law giver who determines the morality or immorality of an act.
III. Criminology
According to oxford Dictionary of Law,
Criminology is the study of crime. Criminology is an interdisciplinary
field that combines aspects of legal theory and substantive legal
disciplines with approaches based on psychology, sociology, and moral
philosophy.
IV. Criminal law
Criminal law is the body of law that defines criminal offenses, regulates
the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected persons, and fixes
penalties and modes of treatment applicable to convicted offenders.
V. Essential of crime
There are following essentials of crime:

97 | P a g e
 a) Human being
The main essential of crime is human being that act must be committed
by a human being.
b) MENS REA
There must be intention of human being called MENS REA which is
another essential of crime.
c) ACTS REA
There must be an act committed which is unlawful or prohibited.
d) Injury to another
Injury simply means to cause damages or hurt to another person.
VI. Stages of crime
There are following stages of crime:
Intention (MENS REA)
There must be intention of human being called MENS REA which is
another essential of crime. It is also first stage of the crime. There is an
intention to commit an offence.
Preparation
The second stage after the intention is preparation. Here the intention
to cause harm forms itself into physical actions of the offender.
Preparation consists of arranging or building things that are needed to
commit crime. For example, purchasing poison to kill someone.
Actual commission of crime
This is the final stage where the crime is actually done or committed by
the criminal. For example, A shoots B with gun and B gets shot and
98 | P a g e
dies in consequences or gets injured. Hence, an actual commission of
crime is happened.
VII. Types of crime
There are different kinds of crime, which are given below:
Violent crime
Violent crime plagues many communities around the country.
Research on violent crime tends to focus on homicide and on rape and
sexual assault.
Property crime
Crimes against property are common and usually happen against
private properties. They are obtained or snatched from someone
through force or other violent measures. Common property crimes
include burglary, vandalism, robbery, shoplifting, arson and carjacking.
White-collar crime
White-collar crime is a non-violent crime where the primary motive is
typically financial in nature. White-collar criminals usually occupy a
professional position of power and/or prestige, and one that commands
well above average compensation.
Organized crime
Organized crime is a group of individuals, local, national or
international, that engage in criminal enterprises for profit. The
rationale behind why they are formed varies because they may be
politically motivated, financially motivated or an organized criminal
''gang.''
Consensual crime or victimless

99 | P a g e
 A victimless crime is an act that is illegal but has no direct victim. For
example, trespassing onto private property does not harm another
person, as long as the person who is trespassing does not intentionally
cause harm to someone on the property.
VIII. Criminal
Mean of Criminal According to Black’s Law Dictionary,
One who has committed a criminal offence; one who has been
convicted of a crime.
Definition of criminal according to Merriam Webster
Dictionary,
Relating to crime or to the prosecution of suspects in a crime.
IX. Types of criminal
There are following kinds of criminal:
Occasional criminals
Occasional criminals are those criminals who are not habitual criminals.
They commit crime due to some special reason. For example, a m
person sees his wife or discovers his wife with a man who is stranger to
him in his bed room. He kills both.
Professional criminals
Professional criminals are those who increase their income through
crime such as drug mafia, corruption, bribery, blackmailing, money
laundering.
Abnormal criminal
In this category circumstances affects the criminal in commission of
crime e.g. where a person is ill or his blood pressure is unstable.
100 | P a g e
 Habitual criminal
Those criminals who commit crime due to their habits for example,
gambling, unnatural sex with children, raping women, playing gambles
and night clubs etc.
Subsidiary criminal
Subsidiary criminals are those criminals who commit crimes on
opportunity or in a situation where they are convinced that no one is
there witnessed. For example, destroying ATM machines, stealing
goods from shop, staeling money, etc.
X. White collar crimes
Meaning of White Collar crimes According to Black’s Law
Dictionary,
A non-violent crime usually involving cheating or dishonesty in
commercial matters.
Definition of white collar crime according to Edwin H.
Sutherland:
A crime committed by a person of responsibility enjoying respectability
and a high social status in the course of his/her occupation.
Factors for growth of white collar crime:
There are following factors for growth of white collar crime:
1. Industrial revolution
2. Advancement of science and Technology
3. Two world War
Types of white collar crime:
Following are types of white collar crime:
101 | P a g e
1. Bribery (corruption)
When money, goods, services, information or anything else of value is
offered with intent to influence the actions, opinions or decisions of the
taker.
2. Blackmail
A demand of money or other consideration under threat to do bodily
harm, to injury property, etc.
3. Extortion
When one person illegally obtains property from another by actual or
threatened force, fear or violence.
4. Forgery
When a person passes a false or worthless instrument.
5. Conspiracy
Conspiracy is an agreement between two or more persons to commit
criminal act.
6. Cyber crime
Where computer hackers steal information sources contained in
computer such as bank information, credit cards, etc.
7. Counterfeiting
Counterfeiting occurs when someone copies or imitates an item without
having been authorized to do so.
8. Money laundering
The investment or transfer of money from racketeering, drug
instructions or other embezzlement schemes.
102 | P a g e
White collar crimes in Pakistan:
Business, trade, commerce and industry crimes
Food and drug adulteration
Violation of taxation laws s
Corruption in Government and Politics
Crime in Medical Profession
Crimes committed by lawyers
Causes of White collar crime
Following are cause of white collar crime:
1. Economic survival plea
2. Becoming rich in no time
3. Excessive demands
4. Quick benefits
5. Uneven deals
Measures for prevention of white collar crime
Following measures should be adopted for prevention of white collar:
1. Check and balances.
2. Strong internal controls.
3. Aggressive Prosecution
4. Terminate corrupt employees
5. Social awareness
6. Promotion of professionalism
XI. Difference between white collar crime and street crime
Sr. no Difference street crime White collar
crime
1. As to meaning Crimes against White-collar
persons are those crimes are usually

103 | P a g e
 that involve bodily financially
harm, the threat of motivated and non-
bodily harm, or other violent.
actions that are
committed against
the will of the victim.
2. As to example Assault, battery, Bribery, Check
sexual assault, fraud, Copyright
homicide, domestic infringement,
violence, and Corporate fraud,
robbery, and also Cybercrime,
property crimes Election law
include burglary, violations, Forgery,
motor vehicle theft, Fraud against the
vandalism, and government,
shoplifting are Health care fraud,
example of street Money laundering,
crime. fraud, Phone and
telemarketing
fraud, Public
corruption are
examples of white
collar crime.

XII. Organized crime

According to Merriam Webster Dictionary,
A group of professional criminals who work together as part of a
powerful and secret organization. He has links to organized crime.
Classification of organized crime:
1. White collar crime

104 | P a g e
A crime committed by a person of responsibility enjoying respectability
and a high social status in the course of his/her occupation. For
example, copyright infringement, Corporate fraud, Cybercrime,
Election law violations, Forgery, Fraud against the government,
Health care fraud, Money laundering, fraud, Phone and telemarketing
fraud, Public corruption are examples of white collar crime.
2. Corporates crime
In criminology, corporate crime refers to crime committed either by a
corporation such as business entity having a separate legal personality
from the natural persons that manage it activities.
3. Drug related crime
Illegal drugs are related to crime in multiple ways. It is a crime to
possess, manufacture or distribute drugs classified as having a potential
for abuse. Such as, cocaine, heroin, morphine, etc.
4. Smuggling
Smuggling is the illegal transportation of objects, substances,
information or people, such as out of house or buildings into a prison or
across an international border, in violation of applicable laws or other
regulations.
5. Offences relating to property
Property crime is category of crime that includes, among other crimes
burglary, larceny, theft, motor vehicle theft etc.
6. Offences relating to kidnapping, Abduction and Hijacking
The crime of unlawful seizing and carrying away a person by force or
fraud, or seizing and detaining a person is said to commit kidnapping.
The illegal carrying or enticing way of a person especially by

105 | P a g e
interfering with a relationship is said to commit abduction and an act of
illegally seizing an aircraft, vehicle, or ship while in transit; a hijack.
XIII. Difference between crime, criminology and criminal law
Sr. Difference Crime Criminology Criminal law
no
1. As to A wrong Criminology is Criminal law is
meaning which is the study of the body of law
pursued at the crime. that defines
discretion of Criminology is criminal offenses,
the injured an regulates
part or his interdisciplinary the apprehension,
representatives field that charging,
in a civil combines and trial of
injury, a aspects of legal suspected
wrong which theory and persons, and
is pursued by substantive fixes penalties
sovereign or legal disciplines and modes of
his sub with approaches treatment
ordinates is a based on applicable to
crime. psychology, convicted
sociology, and offenders.
moral
philosophy.

XIV. Conclusion
To conclude it, crime is an act prohibited by law. And the study of
crime and behavior is called criminology. Criminal law explains the
nature and punishment of crime. There are various kinds of crime such
as white collar crime and street crime. Furthermore, criminology is the
scientific study of the nature, extent, management, causes, control,
consequences and prevention of criminal behavior both on the

106 | P a g e
individual and social levels. Criminal law is the body of law the
legislature deems crime. The criminal law is enforced by police and
prosecuted in courts by the prosecuting attorney.
*****
18. Write a note on criminal Justice System.
(2018-S) (2019-A) (2021-A)
Context
I. Introduction
II. Criminal Justice System
III. Characteristics of criminal Justice System
IV. Criminal Justice System in Pakistan
V. Problems in Pakistan’s Criminal Justice system
VI. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Criminal justice system is the set of laws. It has great importance in
every civilized state. Society in order to exist and progress has to
exercise a certain control over its members since any marked deviation
from the established ways is considered threat to its welfare. Criminal
Justice system is the system of practices and institutions of
governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and
mitigating crime or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal.
II. Criminal Justice System
Criminal Justice System is the set of laws and principles which are
applied on convicted ones on their transgressions. An individual will be
treated, if finds guilty as with the awarding of life-imprisonment or
short period of time or sentenced with execution based on the crime.
Further, it aims to furnish the peace, to eradicate the crimes and to
deliver justice to the victims.

107 | P a g e
 III. Characteristics of criminal Justice System
a. Important ingredients: criminal justice system is one of the most
important ingredients of any society of the world.
b. Describe the offences: criminal Justice system describes the
offences, punishments, procedures and ways to punish those who
break laws of the society.
c. Creates deterrence: it is the criminal justice system which
creates deterrence in society.
d. Without effective criminal justice system: without effective
criminal justice system, a society or country cannot survive for
long.
e. Components of modern world criminal justice system: police,
prosecution and judiciary are components of criminal justice
system.
IV. Criminal Justice System in Pakistan
There are also three components of criminal justice system in Pakistan,
Police, prosecution and Judiciary. If we give a bird eye view on the
justice system of Pakistan, there was only two institutes before 2007 in
justice system police and judiciary. Later, prosecution department was
introduced. Before 2007, there was no concept of independent
prosecution. Due to its short life, this department is still not
independent and effective and also not fully functional in criminal
justice system of Pakistan.
V. Problems in Pakistan’s Criminal Justice system
The criminal justice system of Pakistan is outdated and in dismal
condition. There are so many loopholes in the Justice system of
Pakistan that it becomes very easy for any offender to got clean chit
from courts.
1. Police in Pakistan’s Criminal Justice system:

108 | P a g e
 Police officer and investigating team is the main role in the criminal
justice system of Pakistan. Criminal Justice system starts with police
and investigating team. Police and investigating teams are main role in
all civilized societies. If we talk about Pakistani system, it also starts
with investigating team. The main cause for the failure of criminal
justice system in Pakistan is incompetency of Police officer. The
negligence of investigating police officer is also another reason of
failure of justice system. It is very clear that criminal justice system is
begins with investigation of Police and it is very stage when most of
the cases are destroyed due to non-professional and corrupt
investigation.
2. Prosecution Pakistan’s Criminal Justice system:
Another component of judicial system is prosecution. There was no
concept of independent prosecution system in Pakistan before 2007.
There were only branch of prosecution in police station who works on
behalf of government. Later, prosecution department was established.
But unfortunately they are not working independently due to
government strategies and criminal justice system. Provisional
Governments in Pakistan provinces are failed to provide prosecution
with adequate resources and essential legislation which is essential for
the working of current criminal justice system. Prosecutors are
powerless. They are not independent due to police and judiciary.
3. Judiciary Pakistan’s Criminal Justice system:
There are three organs of state, legislature, judiciary and executive.
Legislative to enact the laws, judiciary is to interpret the laws. And an
executive to implement the laws and Judiciary is very foremost organ
of the state. It is no doubt that Government has invested lot of money
on judiciary and resources as well. Unfortunately, it is still in bad shape
and fails to deliver positive decisions. As judges are highly paid as

109 | P a g e
compare to police and prosecution department but their performance is
disappointed. The main reason behind this system is previous practices.
A practice from the beginning is always repeated. There are very less
chances for newly appointed judges to take decision according to their
knowledge and competency. Judges are also pressurized due to
favoritism that is why it is not performing well. There are also some
other reasons of inefficiency of courts in Pakistan‟s Criminal Justice
System.
Solutions/ Suggestions
There are three components of criminal justice system. There are
different reasons behind the failure of criminal justice system in
Pakistan. There are some suggestions which may be effective in
criminal Justice system:
1. Competent police officer:
There police officer must be highly qualified and competent.
2. Professional police officer:
The police officers must be professional in every criminal matter.
There should be no chance of favoritism.
2. Trained investigation officer:
Investigation officer is very significant essential in criminal system.
IO should be competent and properly trained for the post of
investigation officer.
3. Checks and balances:
There should be proper checks and balances upon the police officers
regarding their performances.
4. Independent prosecution:
110 | P a g e
 As it is previously discussed, there was no concept of independent
prosecution in Pakistan before 2007. But after development of the
prosecution department has no enough powers to utilize and perform
their duties accordingly. Actually, prosecutors are sandwich between
police and judiciary due to previous practice. For the improvement of
criminal justice system of Pakistan this practice should be changed and
independence of prosecution is very essential.
5. Powers of prosecutor:
As the powers of prosecutor are given independently in Section 10 of
The Punjab Criminal Prosecution Service Act, 2006 but unfortunately
these powers are not utilizing independently by prosecutor due to
pressure. The powers of prosecutor should be utilized accordingly
Section 10 of The Punjab Criminal Prosecution Service Act, 2006.
6. Judges should be independent:
Judges are very competent and authorized officer. They are highly
qualified and paid but there is no independency in Judiciary which
affects our criminal justice system. The judges should be independent
in making decisions without any force, favoritism and pressure.
7. Moderation:
It is good to keep the genial relations between bar and bench. But
some lawyers misuse this relation and pressure judges to prolong the
matter which affects badly our criminal justice system. There must be
moderation between the relation of bar and bench. To maintain and
provide the justice should be first priority of both lawyers and judges.
VI. Conclusion
The system of criminal justice is belongs to the institutes of the state.
There are three main components of criminal justice system of every

111 | P a g e
civilized stated such as police, prosecutor and judiciary. In Pakistani
criminal justice system, there are also three main components which
play a vital role. Unfortunately there are some reasons of failure in
Criminal Justice system of Pakistan but also some solutions as well.
Criminal justice system describes the offences, their punishment and
procedure
*****
19. “Crime is a social phenomenon”. Discuss with examples from
the Pakistani society. (2018-S)
 Define crime. Explain how and why crime is a social
phenomenon with examples from Pakistani society. (2019-A)
 What is meant by the social distribution of crime? How crime is
distributed in Pakistani society. (2021-A)

Context
I. Introduction
II. Interpretation of crime
III. Definition of crime
IV. Essentials of crime
V. Reasons/Causes of crime
VI. Social distribution of crime
VII. Crime in Pakistan
VIII. Main causes of crime in Pakistan
IX. Prevention of crime
X. Steps taken for prevention of crime
XI. Conclusion

112 | P a g e
 I. Introduction
A crime is an act which is prohibited by law and morality as well. It
must be punishable by law. Crimes are often viewed an atomistic events
which committed by individuals and in specific places can be fully
understood through analysis of event level information. It is spreading
day by day due to lack of education and economic issues in a society.
There are three stages of crime firstly there must be intention; secondly
there must be a preparation and thirdly action of commission of offence.
It can be controlled by taking positive steps in society.
II. Interpretation of crime
According to Black’s law dictionary,
A positive or negative act in violation of penal law.
Literal meaning:
Crime means activities that invoke breaking the law, an illegal act or
activity that can be punished by law.
III. Definition of crime
According to Austin,
A wrong which is pursued at the discretion of the injured part or his
representatives in a civil injury, a wrong which is pursued by sovereign
or his sub ordinates is a crime.
According to Islamic law,
Crimes are generally associated with sin. Thus crimes have to be
morally wrong. Further this morality is not based upon what the public
may consider to be right or wrong, that is, moral or immoral, rather it
is the law giver who determines the morality or immorality of an act.

113 | P a g e
According to Pakistan Penal Code, 1860
An offence which is made punishable in the law for the time being in
force.
According to James Stephen,
Crime is such an act which is prohibited or forbidden both by law and
moral values of society.
IV. Essentials of crime
There are following essentials of crime:
a) Human being
The main essential of crime is human being that act must be committed
by a human being.
b) MENS REA
There must be intention of human being called MENS REA which is
another essential of crime.
c) ACTS REA
There must be an act committed which is unlawful or prohibited.
d) Injury to another
Injury simply means to cause damages or hurt to another person.
V. Reasons/Causes of crime
There is always some reason behind any unwanted thing in a society.
There are following reasons which become cause of crime in every
society:
1. Unemployment

114 | P a g e
 2. Corruption
3. Poverty
4. Illiteracy
5. Jealousy, revenge, greed or pride, etc.
VI. Social distribution of crime
There are variations in the distribution of crime by social
characteristics such as:
1. Gender
2. Age
3. Social class
4. Ethnicity
5. Locality
Illustration
Men are more likely to commit crime as compare to women, poor
areas are generally have higher crime rates, young are more often
involved in crime as compare to older, etc.
VII. Crime in Pakistan
It is very unfortunate that crime ratio is rapid increasing in Pakistan.
There are number of criminal cases reported as compare to other
countries. It may be due to unemployment, poverty and illiteracy rate.
Due to increasing ratio of crime country is not doing well in economic,
social, cultural, technological, environmental, moral and spiritual fields
as well. Hence, increasing ratio of crime in Pakistan is effecting badly.
VIII. Main causes of crime in Pakistan
There are some causes of crime in Pakistan:
1. Unemployment

115 | P a g e
Unemployment is the main cause of crime in our society. There are no
enough opportunities for employment. Therefore, it becomes main
cause of crime in our society.
2. Corruption
Corruption is another basic reason of crime in our society. It is being
very common practice day by day. That is why it becomes the cause of
crime in our society.
3. Discrimination
There is discrimination in our society due to race, color and sex. It is
long term discrimination. Therefore, it becomes another cause of crime
in our society.
4. Disobedience of rule of law
It is understood that where there is no rule of law there is no justice.
Disobedience of rule of law is another cause of crime in our society.
5. Inequality
“Everyone is equal before the eye of law” but unfortunately, it is not
applicable in our society.
6. Poverty
Poverty is very hard fact of our society. it is also another reason of
crime in our society.
7. Hunger
In our society there are not enough sources of income. Due to hunger,
most people commit crime.
8. Lack of proper resources

116 | P a g e
There is no proper system of resource control in our country.
Therefore, it is also another cause of crime.
9. Illiteracy
There are very low literacy rate in our state. Hence, illiteracy is
another cause of crime in our society.
10. Lack of health facilities
The lack of health facilities in our country is another cause of crime.
11. Inappropriate care of children
It is the duty of the parents to train their children in a noble and good
environment. Due to inappropriate care of children, most children joins
bad company.
12. Role of media
It is not wrong to say that media is becoming fourth pillar of the state.
It plays a vital role in the growth of society. There are two phase of
mass media positive and negative. The negative picture of mass media
becomes the cause of crime.
13. Incompetent police system
Police system is very important part of every state. Unfortunately, our
police system is very incompetent which the reason behind increasing
ratio of crime becomes. There must be proper competent system.
14. Proper law and order
There is no implementation of law and order which becomes the main
cause of crime. The principle of MIGHT IS RIGHT is applying by
everyone. There should be termination of favoritism and equality must
be before the eye of law.

117 | P a g e
 IX. Prevention of crime
Crime prevention is the attempt to reduce victimization and to deter
crime and criminals. It is apply by the efforts of Government to reduce
crime, enforce the law and maintain criminal justice.
X. Steps taken for prevention of crime
Following measures should be adopted for the prevention of crime in
society:
1. Law implementation authorities
The law implementing authorities must be reasonable. There are three
pillars of criminal Justice system Police, court and prosecution.
2. Proper police system
Thana culture should be abolished and proper police system should be
adopted. Reformations must be made in police system.
3. Reduction of poverty
Due to poor economic situation a person is induced to commit crime.
Hence, the government should take initiative to reduce poverty in our
society.
4. Proper court system
For the speedy justice it is very necessary there must be a proper and
active court system available in the country.
5. Termination of illiteracy
By terminating illiteracy the ratio of crime will decrease in our society.
6. Parents character

118 | P a g e
The role of parents is very pertinent. Parents should be positive and
frank with their children. It may prevent the society from crime.
7. Proper distribution of land
The improper distribution of land is another cause of crime. The
distribution of property should according to law and order. It can also
prevent the society from commission of offence.
8. Rule of law
The implementation of rule of law is very necessary to prevent the
society from crime.
9. Independence of judiciary
There must be independence of judiciary in the country. When
judiciary will be independent every organ of state shall run correctly
and smoothly as it keeps Eagle eyes on them.
10. Provide employment
Educated people should be employed on merit basis. The merit culture
in jobs should be introduced.
XI. Conclusion
To conclude it, crime is an act which is prohibited by law and
punishable by law. There are various reasons of crime in our society
such as lake of education, unemployment, poverty, hunger, disobedience
of rule of law and role of mass media. Beside it, there are some
suggestion by adopting it can reduce the reason of crime in our society
such as by implementation of law, competent police system,
independence of Judiciary, reduction of poverty, rule of law and proper
court system.
*****
119 | P a g e
20. Do you think Capital punishment should be part of the
criminal justice system? Give your arguments FOR and
AGAINST capital punishment. (2018-S)
Context
I. Introduction
II. Meaning of punishment
III. Definition of punishment
IV. Cross reference
V. Object of punishment
VI. Kinds of punishment
VII. Capital punishment should be part of criminal justice
system
VIII. Conclusion

I. Introduction
According to Glanville William connects the punishment in all its form
is a loss of rights or advantages consequent on breach of law. In a well-
established society, the punishment is a source of stabilization in the
society. Basically, the main purpose of punishment is to create
deterrence in society.
II. Meaning of punishment
In literal sense, punishment means penalty inflicted on an offender after
finding of guilt.
III. Definition of punishment
Legal definition:

120 | P a g e
Some pain or penalty warranted by law, inflicted on a person, for the
commission of a crime or misdemeanor, or for the omission of the
performance of an act required by law, by the judgment and command
of some lawful court.
According to Oxford Dictionary of Law:
A penalty imposed on a defendant duty convicted of crime by
authorized court.
IV. Cross reference
Section 53, of The Pakistan Penal Code, 1860 deals with the kinds of
Punishment.
V. Object of punishment
The main object of punishment is to prevent the society from crime.
VI. Kinds of punishment
There are various kinds of punishment which are given below:
1. Death sentence
Death sentence means the ending of life. It is sentenced in heinous
offences such as murder, rape, hijacking, terrorism, etc.
2. Life imprisonment
Life imprisonment means the remaining part of life should be passed in
imprisonment. It is awarded in offences like sedition, culpable homicide,
attempt to murder, etc.
3. Imprisonment
Imprisonment is the act of confining a person especially in a prison and
restraining him from his liberty against some criminal act.

121 | P a g e
  Kinds of imprisonment:
There are two kinds of imprisonment:
1. Rigorous imprisonment: The offender is put into hard labor.
2. Simple Imprisonment: The offender is confined in jail.

 Maximum period of imprisonment

The maximum period of imprisonment is fourteen years.
 Minimum period of imprisonment
The minimum period of imprisonment is twenty four hours.
4. Fine
Apart from other punishments, the convict can be fined a sentence. And
the amount of fine should be according to the prescribed law and nature
of offence.
5. Forfeiture of property
Forfeiture means the loss of a right, privileges or property because of
crime.
6. Qisas
It is Islamic punishment. It means copy the other or to follow the path,
followed by the other. The main aim of this punishment is to cause
same hurt at same place. It is applicable in Qatl-i-amd and hurt,
according to The Pakistan Penal Code, 1860.
7. Diyat
It is also Islamic punishment based on the principles of Islam. It means
the compensation granted the heirs of the victims by the offender.
122 | P a g e
Section 323, of The Pakistan Penal Code, 1860 deals with the value of
Diyat. It should not be less than the value of thirty thousand six
hundred thirty grams of silver. It should be paid when offender is
guilty of Qatal-i-amad and Qisas is not liable.
8. Arsh
Arsh is another punishment. It is also according to the injunctions of
Islam. The Pakistan Penal code, 1860 specifically prescribes the
amount of money which is paid by the offender.
9. Daman
The word Daman means compensation payable by the offender to the
victim for causing hurt.
10. Hadd
Hadd means punishment ordained by the Holy Quran and Sunnah.
Hadd punishment is fixed by Allah Almighty and there is no discretion
of court. For example, cutting of hand in case of theft, stoning to death
in case of Zina, etc.
11. Tazir
Tazir means any punishment other than Hadd.
12. Detention in reformatories
Juvenile offenders sentenced to imprisonment may be sentenced to and
detained in a Reformatory School for their own good.
13. Corporal punishment
Punishment that involves hitting someone, physical punishment is
called corporal punishment.
14. Capital punishment
123 | P a g e
 Capital punishment is also known as death penalty. Crimes that are
punishable by death are known as capital crimes. Such as murder,
war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide. Etc.

VII. Capital punishment should be part of criminal justice

system
Meaning of Capital term:
The term capital derived from Latin word „Capitalis‟ which means
„head‟.
Capital Punishment:
Capital punishment is also known as death penalty. Crimes that are
punishable by death are known as capital crimes. Such as murder, war
crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide. Etc.
Historical view:
1. Capital punishment for murder, treason and rape was widely
employed in ancient Greece under the laws of Draco.
2. The Romans also used it for a wide range of offenses through
citizens were exempted for a short time during the republic.
3. Followers of Judaism and Christianity also claimed capital
punishment in the bible passage.
4. An eye for eye, a tooth for tooth, a life for a life, which appears in
the Babylonian code of Hammurabi, was invoked in some societies
to ensure that capital punishment was not disproportionately
applied.
Islamic Law:

124 | P a g e
In Islamic law, s expressed in Quran capital punishment is condoned.
Although, the Quran prescribes the death penalty for several Hadd,
fixed crimes including robbey, adultery and apostasy.
Arguments FOR and AGAINST capital punishment:
1. If we discuss in the favor of capital punishment, it is good to deter
others and to prevent the society from crime.
2. If we discuss against the capital punishment it should be stopped
because no one has right to take life of any person even
government or any person.
VIII. Conclusion
To conclude it, punishment means penalty inflicted on an offender after
finding of guilt. A penalty imposed on a defendant duty convicted of
crime by authorized court is called punishment. The main objective of
imposing punishment is to save the society from crime and to create
deterrence. There are number of punishments such as death penalty,
imprisonment for life, Hadd, tazir, diyat, arsh, daman, fine and
forfeiture of property. The one of the foremost and heinous punishment
is capital punishment. It is awarded for heinous offences. There are two
types of arguments of capital punishment some discussion is FOR
capital punishment and some AGAINST capital punishment.
*****
21. Define prevention of crime. Discuss what long term and
short-term measures should be taken to minimize crime rate in
Pakistani society. (2019-A) (2020-A) (2021-A)
Context
I. Introduction
II. Crime meaning and definition
III. Strategies for action
125 | P a g e
 IV. Long term measures
V. Short term measures
VI. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Crime is an act done which is prohibited by law is called crime. The
main objective of prevention of crime is to save the society from crime.
In view of this, crime prevention policies have been incorporated in
national economic development plans. The medium term Development
Plan embodies as one of the policy frameworks the improvement of law
and order.
II. Crime meaning and definition
Literal meaning of Crime:
Crime means activities that invoke breaking the law, an illegal act or
activity that can be punished by law.
Definition of crime
According to Austin,
A wrong which is pursued at the discretion of the injured part or his
representatives in a civil injury, a wrong which is pursued by sovereign
or his sub ordinates is a crime.
According to Islamic law,
Crimes are generally associated with sin. Thus crimes have to be
morally wrong. Further this morality is not based upon what the public
may consider to be right or wrong, that is, moral or immoral, rather it
is the law giver who determines the morality or immorality of an act.

126 | P a g e
 According to Pakistan Penal Code, 1860
An offence which is made punishable in the law for the time being in
force.
According to James Stephen,
Crime is such an act which is prohibited or forbidden both by law and
moral values of society.
III. Strategies for action
The plan enumerates the following strategies:
1. Professionalizing and modernizing the military and the police.
2. Pursuing peace agreements using the holistic approach.
3. Mobilizing the citizenry for peace and order through various
citizens‟ organizations against crime and the instrumentality of
the local peace and order councils.
4. Promoting respect for human rights, improving the
administration of justice and intensifying anti-crime initiatives.
IV. Long term measures
Increasing crime and murder rates are one of the biggest problems in
today‟s world. It can be controlled by taking following steps:
1. Funding education
Education plays an integral role in the growth of every society. During
the first three years of child‟s life they develop their cognitive and
behavioral traits.
V. Short term measures
1. Target Hardening
Making your property harder for an offender to access. Such as:
 Upgrading the locks on your doors, windows, sheds and outbuildings
 Fitting sash jammers to vulnerable doors and windows
127 | P a g e
 Using secure passwords to prevent criminals hacking your online
accounts
2. Access Control
Looking at measures that will control access to a location, a person or
object. Such as:

 Locking your doors and windows to both your house and your vehicle
 Ensuring that fencing, hedges, walls and other boundary treatments
are in a good state of repair
 Putting a security system in place at a commercial site (entry barriers,
security guards, ID cards)

3. Increase the Chances of Being Caught

Increasing the likelihood that an offender will be caught to prevent
crime occurring. Such as:

 Making use of dusk to dawn security lighting is in place and in working

order
 Using good quality CCTV and/or alarm systems, especially on
commercial sites and public places
 Upgrading security to delay an offender, meaning they have to spend
more time to gain access
VI. Conclusion
To conclude it that in order to reach long term objectives, short term
measures and decisions clearly represent important starting points in
terms of both practical achievements and symbolic commitments.
*****
22. Write a note on probation and parole. (2018-A)
 Write a note on probation. (2019-A)
 Differentiate between probation and parole. Discuss the
functionality of probation in Pakistan society. (2019-S)
Context

128 | P a g e
 I. Introduction
II. Meaning of Probation
III. Meaning of Parole
IV. Probation of Offenders Ordinance, 1960
V. Points considered on release on probation
VI. To whom probation is not given
VII. Object of probation
VIII. Functionality of Probation and Parole in System of Pakistan
IX. Purpose of Parole
X. Points considered by Parole board before granting parole
XI. Object of Parole
XII. Difference between Probation and Parole
XIII. Conclusion
I. Introduction
Probation and Parole both terms are used in the sense of releasing
offender from the prison on justified grounds. According to
Probation of Offenders Ordinance, 1960 the trial court may keeping
in view the age, character, health and background of offender release
the offender on probation after viewing the nature and circumstances
of the offence. Parole is the early release of a prisoner who has served
part of his or her prison sentence.
II. Meaning of Probation
According to Black‟s Law Dictionary,
A court-imposed criminal sentence that, subject to stated conditions,
releases a convicted person into the community instead of sending the
criminal to jail or prison.
III. Meaning of Parole
According to Black‟s Law Dictionary,

129 | P a g e
The release of a prisoner from imprisonment before the full sentence
has been served.
IV. Probation of Offenders Ordinance, 1960
According to section of the Probation of Offenders Ordinance, 1960 the
following courts are empowered to exercise the power:
1. High court
2. Court of Session
3. Judicial Magistrate
Probation is the suspension of imposition of a sentence of imprisonment
or the postponement of final judgment in a court case. It is just like a
warning given to offender according to prescribed law.
V. Points considered on release on probation
There are some points which should be considered on release on
probation which are given below:
1. Age of the offender
2. Nourishment of convict
3. First time offender
4. Gender, especially women
5. Attitude of the convict at the time of FIR and trial
6. Crime against property
7. Crime without MENS REA
8. Deprived person
9. Clean and neat past of convict family
10. Religious knowledge
11. Political struggle
12. Media and Journalist character
VI. To whom probation is not given

130 | P a g e
There are following circumstances in which probation is not awarded.
Such as:
1. Fixed sentenced.
2. History sheet holding, previous record of crime
3. Convict gave false evidence in the matter of murder
4. Sexual offenders
5. Hardened habitual offenders
6. Such offence in which punishment is death sentence
7. Dacoit, robber, members of dacoit groups, etc.
VII. Object of probation
There are following object of Probation:
1. Convict must recover his attitude by liberty.
2. It is also objective of probation that law and supremacy of law
must be promoted.
3. Probation is only once granted in a whole life of an offender.
VIII. Functionality of Probation and Parole in System of
Pakistan
In 1960, The Probation of Offenders Ordinance, 1960 was introduced
to release an offender on probation in lieu of imprisonment under the
supervision of a Probation Officer. Probation is the right of every
offender once in a whole life but it is not allowed in the matter serious
offences. Probation and parole both are not awarded in case of heinous
offences.
IX. Purpose of Parole
The main purpose of parole is to allow well-behaved convicted
offenders to spend the rest of imprisonment as a good conduct person
near his family.
X. Points considered by Parole board before granting parole
131 | P a g e
There are following points which should be considered by Parole board
before granting Parole:
1. Whether the convict had profited by his stay in the institution.
2. Whether he was so reformed that he was unlikely to commit
another offence.
3. Whether any suitable employment awaits him or release.
4. Whether he had a home or other place to go.
5. How serious his crime was and in what circumstances it was
committed.
XI. Object of Parole
There are following objects of Parole:
1. Release of convict on proper time from prison according to the
law.
2. Parole should be given more and more.
3. Released convicts must not commit new crime and repeat the
same.
4. Convict should not be involved in violence cases.
5. Convict should not be habitual offender.
6. Offence should not be heinous.
7. Parole Board decision should be appreciated.
XII. Difference between Probation and Parole
Sr. no Difference Probation Parole
1. As to meaning According to According to
Black‟s Law Black‟s Law
dictionary, Dictionary,
probation is “a Parole is “The
court-imposed release of a
criminal prisoner from
sentence that, imprisonment
subject to stated before the full

132 | P a g e
 conditions, sentence has
releases a been served”.
convicted
person into the
community
instead of
sending the
criminal to jail
or prison”.

2. As to award Probation isParole is

given by authorized by
Judiciary. the executives.
3. As to sentence Probation refers Parole is given
to suspending in the last
the sentence or portion of the
postponement of sentence after a
decision. prisoner‟s has
completed
mandatory
imprisonment.
4. As to responsibility The judiciary is The executive is
responsible for responsible for
probation parole
revocation. revocation.

XIII. Conclusion
It is concluded that probation and parole both are used in the sense of
releasing offender from the prison on justified grounds. Probation is
given by the Judiciary whereas parole is authorized by the executives.
There are difference between probation and parole as to meaning,
responsibility, award and sentence.
*****

133 | P a g e
23. Recent data shows that sexual crime against women is on a
rise in Pakistan. According to you, which theory would best
explain this kind of criminal behavior in Pakistan?
(2018-A)
Context
I. Introduction
II. Crime
III. Sexual crimes against women
IV. Explanation on theoretical base
V. Conclusion

I. Introduction
When we consider interpersonal violence of all kinds including
homicide, assault, robbery, and rape and sexual assault women face
more as compare to men. This fact explains that women are innocent
and they are raped and sexually assaulted. Finally, women are more
likely than men to be victims of domestic violence, or violence between
spouses and others with intimate relationships. In Pakistan, it is also
being very common practice. Sexual crimes against women are a
complex to discuss.
II. Crime
Literal meaning of Crime:
Crime means activities that invoke breaking the law, an illegal act or
activity that can be punished by law.
Definition of crime
According to Austin,
134 | P a g e
A wrong which is pursued at the discretion of the injured part or his
representatives in a civil injury, a wrong which is pursued by sovereign
or his sub ordinates is a crime.
According to Islamic law,
Crimes are generally associated with sin. Thus crimes have to be
morally wrong. Further this morality is not based upon what the public
may consider to be right or wrong, that is, moral or immoral, rather it
is the law giver who determines the morality or immorality of an act.
According to Pakistan Penal Code, 1860
An offence which is made punishable in the law for the time being in
force.
III. Sexual crimes against women
1. Sexual crime against a woman is complex issue.
2. There are number of explanations from different theories offered
to understand it.
3. It is concluded by research against different countries that
domestic violence still occurs, which is major problem in public
health and social problem as well.
4. The term violence against women has been defined as the range
of sexually, psychologically and physically coercive acts used
against the women.
5. It is difficult to estimate the prevalence of violence against women
due to inconsistency.
6. It is also another truth a women is battered usually by her
intimate partner, all over the world.
7. In our country, domestic violence is always kept in one room and
called it private matter.
8. According to report, estimated 80% to 90% of Pakistani woman
are subjected to domestic violence.
135 | P a g e
IV. Explanation on theoretical base
1. There are different theories and frameworks given by different
authors to explain the phenomenon of violence against women.
2. Unfortunately, there are no single theories which can explain
completely violence against women.
Ecological Framework:
1. The nested ecological framework is one of the most
commonly used to study this issue.
2. Brofenbrenner is one of the most widely read and cited
author concerning this framework.
3. The frameworks suggest that behavior is shaped
through interaction between individual human beings
and their social environment.
4. The framework propose five levels including
individual, microsystem, mesosytem, exosystem and
macrosystem levels.
Feminist theory:
a. Feminist theory views social phenomenon as determined by the
patriarchal structure of most societies.
b. According to this theory women abuse is one of the outcomes of a
structure that allows prostitution and other sexists restrictions to
keep women in servile positions.
c. The feminist view also holds that little will change.
d. It is a deeply embedded social problem that has to be addresses by
social change.
Bandura’s Social Learning theory:

136 | P a g e
 (a) This theory is based on the principle that both perpetration
and acceptance of physical and psychological abuse is a
conditioned and learned behavior.
(b) Bandura believes that the social situation is most important
in determining the frequency from circumstances and target
of aggressive actions.
Exchange theory:
 Exchange theory is a variant of learning theory.
 It proposes that batterers hit people because they can.
V. Steps to stop sexual crime against women
1. By providing safety to every women.
2. By imposing strict laws and their implementation.
3. By giving training to girls “How to fight against their
defense” in case of emergency.
4. By providing awareness to men against the
consequences of crime.
VI. Conclusion
To conclude it, we can say that sexual crime against woman is being
very common all over the world. It is also observed domestic violence
is considered as a private matter. It is also come to know that 80 to 90%
of women in Pakistan are suffering from domestic violence. According
to Pakistani activists, there are estimated more than thousand killings
in the context of honor every year.
*****
24. Which is a formal and informal agency of crime detection?
Discuss their techniques and problems of detection.
(2018-S)
 Discuss the problems in crime detection also give possible
solution of these problems. (2020-S)
137 | P a g e
 Context
I. Introduction
II. Meaning of detection
III. National agencies of detection of crime
IV. International agencies of detection of crime
V. Techniques of detection of crime
VI. Controversial method
VII. Role of forensic science
VIII. Suspect identification
IX. Interrogation and confession
X. Conclusion

I. Introduction
The act of discovering or revealing something that was hidden is
known as detection. In some countries, the responsibility of detection of
crime is on the shoulders of Police. There are prescribed law relates to
it. There are different ways to detect the crime such as procedure for
customs department is different as compare to others.
II. Meaning of detection
According to Black‟s Law Dictionary,
The act of discovering or revealing something that was hidden, to solve
a crime.
III. National agencies of detection of crime
There are following agencies which are divided into two categories
such as:
Police Agencies:

138 | P a g e
  CB (Crime branch)
 SB (Special branch)
 CID (Criminal Investigation Department)
 CIA (Criminal Investigation Agency)
 CLC (Car Lifting Cell, in Karachi)
 PRU (Police Response Unit in Punjab)
 Dolphin Force
 ARF (Anti Response Force)
 Mujahid Force
 CTD (Counter Terrorism Department)
Other forces:
 ANF (Anti-Narcotics Force)
 Elite Force (Commands of Punjab Police)
 ATF (Anti-terrorism force, Commandos )
 BC (Balochistan Constabulary)
 FC (Frontier Corps)
IV. International agencies of detection of crime
There are following international agencies of detection of crime:
 UNAFEI (The United Asia and Far East Institute for the
prevention of crime and the treatments of offenders)
 INTERPOL (International Criminal Police Organization)
 EUROPOL (European Police Office)
 UNODC
 IPA (International Police Association)
V. Techniques of detection of crime
There are following techniques of crime detection:
 The discovery that a crime has been committed.

139 | P a g e
  The identification of a suspect.
 The collection of sufficient evidence to indict the suspect before a
court.
VI. Controversial method
There are some crimes which are not detected by only police for
example illicit drugs or prostitution. Therefore, to detect such crimes
controversial method is required for detection such as electronic
eavesdropping, surveillance, interception of communications and
infiltration of gangs.
VII. Role of forensic science
Forensic science plays a vital role in the investigation of heinous
offences:
1. It identifies individuals by their fingerprints.
2. Fingerprint evidence was first accepted in Argentine
court.
3. Police officer collecting finger prints.
4. It gives confirmation for match of fingerprints.
VIII. Suspect identification
 Visual identification is a stranger by a victim. The police
generally present victims or witnesses who believe that they can
recognize the offender with an album containing photographs of a
large number known criminals.
 Police agencies had begun to implement the more careful
procedure that eyewitness researchers had proposed.
IX. Interrogation and confession
 Many countries place restrictions on the scope and methods of
interrogation in order to ensure that suspects are not enforced
into confessions.

140 | P a g e
  The statement of rights that is read to suspects, known as the
Miranda Warnings was established in the case of Miranda V.
Arizona 1966. Failure to advice a suspect of those and other
rights can result in the rejection of a confession as evidence.
X. Conclusion
It is concluded that, the act of discovering or revealing something that
was hidden, to solve a crime is called detection. There are different
agencies of detection of crime. The national agencies are CID (Criminal
Investigation Department), CIA (Criminal Investigation Agency), CLC
(Car Lifting Cell, in Karachi), PRU (Police Response Unit in Punjab),
Dolphin Force, ARF (Anti Response Force), Mujahid Force and CTD
(Counter Terrorism Department). Similarly, there are also some
agencies at international level such as UNAFEI (The United Asia and
Far East Institute for the prevention of crime and the treatments of
offenders), INTERPOL (International Criminal Police Organization),
EUROPOL (European Police Office), UNODC and IPA (International
Police Association).
*****
25. Define suicide and discuss the types of suicide as explained
Emile Durkheim. (2019-A) (2020-S)
 Elaborate on Durkheim’s theory in sociology. (2018-A)
 Explain why Emile Durkheim argued that society with
mechanical solidarity is characterized by repressive law and
organic solidarity by recitative laws? (2020-S)

Context
I. Introduction
II. Suicide
III. Theories of Durkheim
IV. Types of suicide

141 | P a g e
 V. Main works of Durkheim
VI. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Emile Durkheim was French Philosopher. He was born on 15th April,
1858. He was professor of physics. He invented a new science called
social science. He was follower of Comte. He also studied encircle
group of solidarity and social facts. He died on 15th November, 1917.
II. Suicide
Death caused by self-directed injurious behavior with any intent to die
as a result of such behavior is called suicide. It is not an ordinary act. It
is very serious act.
III. Theories of Durkheim
Durkheim’s theory of Suicide:
According to Durkheim, suicide is not a personal act. It is caused by a
power beyond the individual or the super individual. He believed that
“we know the consequences of all kinds of deaths, either directly or
indirectly, resulting from the victim‟s own positive or negative
behavior.” After defining the phenomenon, Durkheim rejected the
psychological explanation. Many doctors and psychologists theorize
that the majority of those who take their lives are in a morbid state.
However, Durkheim emphasized that the power to drive suicide is
social rather than psychological. He concluded that suicide results from
social turmoil or lack of social integration or social solidarity.

Durkheim‟s theory of suicide greatly contributes to the understanding

of the phenomenon because it emphasizes social factors rather than
biological or personal factors. However, this is also the main drawback
142 | P a g e
of Emile Durkheim‟s suicide theory. He overemphasized only social
factors and overlooked other factors. Therefore, his theory of suicide is
said to be highly flawed and unilateral.

IV. Types of suicide

In Durkheim‟s view, there are four types of suicide, based on the degree
of imbalance between the two social forces of social integration and
moral regulation. Durkheim pointed out the impact of various crises on
social groups. For example, a war that led to an increase in altruism, an
economic boom, or a catastrophe that caused anomie.

The four types of suicide as mentioned in the theory of suicide are as

follows:

1. Egoistic suicide

Egoistic suicide reflects a lasting feeling of being integrated into the

community and not belonging. It comes from suicidal ideation that an
individual doesn‟t have a chain. This absence can lead to
meaninglessness, indifference, and depression.

Durkheim calls it distant “excessive personalisation”. It is generally

seen that individuals who commit suicide are not attached to society,
are left out and receive little social support or guidance. Durkheim
found that suicide is more common among unmarried people, especially
unmarried men, as there is less need to restrain them or tie them to
stable social norms and goals.
2. Altruistic suicide

Altruistic suicide is marked by the feeling of being overwhelmed by the

group‟s goals and beliefs. It occurs in a highly integrated society where
the needs of individuals are considered less important than the needs of
society as a whole. Durkheim explained that there would not be any
significant motivation for people to commit an act as heinous as suicide
in an altruistic society, as personal interests were considered important.

143 | P a g e
However, he provided one exception-when an individual is expected to
commit suicide in the name of society, for example, in military service.

3. Anomie suicide

Anomie suicide reflects an individual‟s moral turmoil and lack of social

orientation associated with dramatic social and economic upheavals. It
is the product of a failure to define legitimate aspirations through moral
deregulation and restraint of social ethics that can impose meaning and
order on an individual‟s conscience. Anomie suicide is a sign of the
failure of economic development and the division of labor to create
organic solidarity, as mentioned by Durkheim.

In this condition, people do not know whether they are suitable for
society. Durkheim explains that anomie suicide is a state of moral
disability in which people are unaware of the limits of their desires and
are always in a state of disappointment. Anomie suicide can happen
when they experience extreme wealth changes due to economic or
natural phenomena. In either case, the expectations of the previous life
are set aside, and new expectations are needed before assessing the
situations associated with the new frontier.
4. Fatalistic suicide

Fatalistic suicide occurs when a person is over-regulated, their future is

constantly hampered, and repressive discipline causes intense choking
of passion. It is the opposite of anomie suicide, which happens in an
oppressive society where its inhabitants want to die rather than live.
For example, some prisoners may want to die rather than live in
prisons with constant abuse and over-regulation. Unlike the other
concepts he developed, Durkheim thought that fatalistic suicide was
only a theoretical concept and highly unlikely to exist in reality.

V. Main works of Durkheim

1. The division of Labor in Society 1893.
2. The Rules of Sociological Method 1895

144 | P a g e
 3. Suicide 1897
4. Collective and Individual Representation 1899.
5. Judgment of Reality vs. Judgment of values 1911.
6. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, 1912.
7. Professional Ethics.
VI. Conclusion
To sum up, that Emile Durkheim was a French philosopher. He
developed theories of social structure included the division of labor and
anomie. Suicide is one of his main works. According to Durkheim there
are four types of suicide such as Egoistic suicide, Altruistic suicide,
Anomie suicide and Fatalistic suicide.

*****

26. Discuss the any two theories from psychological school of

criminology:
a. Sigmund Freud (2020-A)
b. Erik Erikson (2020-A)
a. Sigmund Freud
Context
I. Introduction
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of
psychoanalysis. He was born on 6 May 1856. Sigmund Freud was born
to Ashkenazi Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in
the Austrian Empire the first of eight children. After getting early
education Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17. He had
planned to study law, but joined the medical faculty at the university,
where his studies included philosophy. In 1882, Freud began his
medical career at Vienna General Hospital.
II. Freud theories
145 | P a g e
There are following main theories of Freud:
Freud's Theory of Talk Therapy

One of Freud's greatest contributions to psychology was talk therapy,

the notion that simply talking about problems can help alleviate them.
It was through his association with his close friend and colleague Josef
Breuer that Freud became aware of a woman known in the case history.
The young woman's real name was Bertha Pappenheim. She became a
patient of Breuer's after suffering a bout of what was then known
as hysteria. Symptoms included blurred vision, hallucinations, and
partial paralysis. Breuer observed that discussing her experiences
provided some relief from her symptoms. It was Pappenheim herself
who began referring to the treatment as the "talking cure." Freud
concluded that her hysteria was the result of childhood sexual abuse, a
view that ended up leading to a rift in Freud and Breuer's professional
and personal relationship. Anna O. may not have actually been Freud's
patient, but her case informed much of Freud's work and later theories
on therapy and psychoanalysis.

Freud's Theory of Personality

According to Freud's theory, there are a few different factors that affect
personality. They include cathexis and anticathexis, along with life and
death instincts.

Cathexis and Anticathexis

According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, all psychic energy is

generated by libido. Freud suggested that our mental states were
influenced by two competing forces: cathexis and anticathexis.

 Cathexis was described as an investment of mental energy in a

person, idea, or object.4
 Anticathexis involves the ego blocking the socially unacceptable
needs of the id. Repressing urges and desires is one common form

146 | P a g e
 of anticathexis, but this involves a significant investment of
energy.

Life Instincts and Death Instincts

Freud also believed that much of human behavior was motivated by

two driving instincts: life instincts and death instincts.

 Life instincts (Eros) are those that relate to a basic need for
survival, reproduction, and pleasure. They include such things as
the need for food, shelter, love, and sex.
 Death instincts (Thanatos) are the result of an unconscious wish
for death, which Freud believed all humans have. Self-destructive
behavior was one expression of the death drive, according to
Freud. However, he believed that these death instincts were
largely tempered by life instincts.

Freud's Theory of the Psyche

In Freudian theory, the human mind is structured into two main parts:
the conscious and unconscious mind. The conscious mind includes all
the things we are aware of or can easily bring into awareness. The
unconscious mind, on the other hand, includes all of the things outside
of our awareness all of the wishes, desires, hopes, urges, and memories
that we aren't aware of, yet continue to influence behavior.
In addition to these two main components of the mind, Freudian theory
also divides human personality into three major components: the id,
ego, and superego.

 The id is the most primitive part of the personality that is the

source of all our most basic urges. The id is entirely unconscious
and serves as the source of all libidinal energy.
 The ego is the component of personality that deals with reality
and helps ensure that the demands of the id are satisfied in ways
that are realistic, safe, and socially acceptable.

147 | P a g e
  The superego is the part of the personality that holds all of the
internalized morals and standards that we acquire from our
parents, family, and society at large.

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development

Freudian theory suggests that as children develop, they progress

through a series of psychosexual stages. At each stage, the libido's
pleasure-seeking energy is focused on a different part of the body.
The five stages of psychosexual development are:

1. The oral stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the mouth.
2. The anal stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the anus.
3. The phallic stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the penis
or clitoris.
4. The latent stage: A period of calm in which little libidinal
interest is present.
5. The genital stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the
genitals.

The successful completion of each stage leads to a healthy personality

as an adult. If, however, a conflict remains unresolved at any particular
stage, the individual might remain fixated or stuck at that particular
point of development.

Freud's Theory of Dream Analysis

The unconscious mind played a critical role in all of Freud's theories,

and he considered dreams to be one of the key ways to take a peek into
what lies outside our conscious awareness.
He dubbed dreams "the royal road to the unconscious"9 and believed
that by examining dreams, he could see not only how the unconscious
mind works but also what it is trying to hide from conscious awareness.

148 | P a g e
Freud believed the content of dreams could be broken down into two
different types:

 The manifest content of a dream included all the actual content of

the dream—the events, images, and thoughts contained within
the dream. The manifest content is essentially what the dreamer
remembers upon waking.
 The latent content, on the other hand, is all the hidden and
symbolic meanings within the dream. Freud believed that dreams
were essentially a form of wish fulfillment. By taking unconscious
thoughts, feelings, and desires and transforming them into less
threatening forms, people are able to reduce the egos.

Freud's Theory of Religion

Freud theorized that religious beliefs are essentially delusions, and also
that turning away from these types of ideologies is preferable because
religion does not lead to happiness and fulfillment; in fact, it is a belief
structure not based on evidence.

It is believed that Freud's theory of religion was influenced by his

relationship with his own father. Freud had a Jewish upbringing, which
he said he had no desire to change, yet he also stated that he was
"completely estranged from the religion of his fathers as well as from
every other religion."

III. Conclusion
It is concluded that Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and
the founder of psychoanalysis. He gave his intention to his work. He
developed many theories which are discussed above such as theory of
personality, talk therapy, psyche, religion and psychosexual
development.
*****

149 | P a g e
 b. Erik Erikson
Context
I. Introduction
Erikson‟s theory of psychosocial development is one of the most
renowned and extensively studied theories in psychology. The theory
proposes that human beings go through eight stages of psychosocial
development. The theory was first proposed by Erik Erikson in 1950. It
is also called behavioral theory. It is second major psychological theory.
II. Erikson theory
There are stages of development in this theory. These stages are
grouped into four different time periods throughout life:

 Early childhood (ages 0-18 years)

 Adolescence (19-40)
 Adulthood (41 to 60)
 Late adulthood(61+)
Early Childhood Stage

Erikson‟s theory of psychosocial development in early childhood

is focused on trust. The child must learn to trust that the world is a safe
place and that people are good. If the child does not develop this sense
of trust, they may become mistrustful and suspicious of others.

Adolescence Stage

The adolescence stage is focused on independence. Teenagers must

learn to become independent and make their own decisions. If they are
unable to do this, they may feel ashamed of themselves and doubtful of
their abilities.

150 | P a g e
Adulthood Stage

The adulthood stage is focused on generativist. Adults should build

something that will last. Whether, this is a family or a work project, or
something else. If they are unable to do this, they may feel stagnant and
without purpose.

Late Adulthood Stage

The late adulthood stage is focused on integrity. Older adults must

accept that their life is coming to an end. They need to find a sense of
meaning and purpose. If they are unable to do this, they may feel
despair over their life‟s accomplishments.

Criticism of Erikson’s Theory

There is criticism on Erikson‟s theory, such as:
 It is much highlighted criticism that it doesn‟t take into account
race, culture, and gender.
 Additionally, his stages are not always linear, which can make
them difficult to apply in practice.
 Finally, some experts argue that his theory focuses too much on
pathology and less on positive aspects of development.
III. Conclusion
It is concluded that the theory of Erikson is also called theory of
behaviorism. It is second major psychological theory. There are four
stages under this theory. The theory developed by Erik Erikson was
also criticized. Despite criticisms, Erik Erikson‟s theory remained one
of the most popular and well-known theories of psychosocial
development.
*****
27. Define feminism and briefly explain the different school of
thoughts within feminist theory. (2018-A)

151 | P a g e
  Write a note on feminism. (2018-S) (2019-S)
 Define feminism and discuss different schools of thoughts with
feminism theory. (2019-A)
 Define „Feminism‟ and discuss the types of feminism in detail.
(2020-A)
 Write a note on Marxist Feminism. (2020-S)

Context
I. Feminism
II. Meaning of feminism
III. Concept of feminism
IV. Understanding feminism in the field of law
V. Feminism in sociological perspective
VI. Feminism at global level
VII. Development of feminism
VIII. Different school of thoughts of Feminism
IX. Feminist theory
X. Conclusion

I. Feminism
Feminism is the belief in social, economic, and political equality of the
sexes. Feminism argue that a lot of mainstream sociology has been
focused in the corns of male stream sociology and has failed to deal
with concerns of women and the unequal position they have
traditionally occupied in society.
II. Meaning of feminism
According to Merriam Webster,

152 | P a g e
“The theory of the political, economic and social equality of sexes”.
III. Concept of feminism
At its core, feminism is the belief in full social, economic, and political
equality for women. Feminism largely arose in response to Western
traditions that restricted the rights of women, but feminist thought has
global manifestations and variations.
IV. Understanding feminism in the field of law
According to Feminist Philosophy of law,
Feminist philosophy of law identifies the pervasive influence of
patriarchy on legal structures, demonstrates its effects on the material
condition of women and girls, and develops reforms to correct gender
injustice, exploitation, or restriction
V. Feminism in sociological perspective
If we study feminism from sociological perspective it is very clear that
it has never really about woman.
VI. Feminism at global level
At global level, man having wealth, white and gender and heterosexual
are in power. Hence it is a contemporary part. It is especially common
in westerns nations. They determine that it is all based on their own
perspective, experiences and interests, which more often than not serve
to create unequal and unjust systems.
VII. Development of feminism
The concept of feminism was developed from Europe in the 19 th
century. Later on, it spread over the whole world. And it is a worldwide
topic now. Early feminism includes both man and woman who
advocated equality for women in public institutions. The first was
153 | P a g e
about to the right of women such as right of vote. The second wave
focused on gender inequality. Feminism plays a vital role in the
previous centuries and still continues.
VIII. Different school of thoughts of Feminism
Liberal Feminism
Liberal feminism advocates for equality between the sexes through
social and political reforms, and legal means. Liberal feminists stress on
the importance of an individual, and believe that every woman can
assert her place in society and gain the rights she deserves. Some very
important objective of Liberal feminism are abortion rights, equal pay
for male and female employees, educational rights, voting rights,
childcare, health care, etc.

Radical Feminism
Though many see radical feminism as an undesirable type of the
concept, it is actually responsible for development of many thoughts,
ideas, and actions that would otherwise be shunned or avoided by the
other types of feminism. Radical feminism takes its name from the
Latin word, which means root. Radical feminism believes that it is the
male-dominated hierarchy which is responsible for the oppressed status
of women today.

Socialist and Marxist Feminism

This type of feminism believes that the oppressed status of women can
be attributed to the unequal treatment at both the workplace, and in the
house. Financial and personal exploitation, the institution of marriage,
childbirth and childcare, prostitution, and domestic work, according to
socialist feminists, are tools for degrading women, and the work that
they do, in a male-dominated society.

Marx was of the opinion that the capitalist system was to blame for the
inequalities faced by the working classes, and the removal of the
capitalist system would remove these inequalities, which would

154 | P a g e
ultimately reduce gender inequalities as well. This is the attitude
adopted by Marxist feminism. Many socialist and Marxist feminists put
these philosophies together to achieve gender equality in both the
professional as well as personal spheres. Socialist and Marxist feminism
often considers itself to be a sub-category of radical feminism, only
referring to a different „root of all problems‟, which is the economic
system.
Black Feminism
Black feminism believes that racism and gender discrimination are two
sides of the same coin. The liberation and freedom from oppression of
black women would ensure equality for everyone, according to Black
Feminists, who refer to themselves as „Womanists‟. Black feminism
believes that if the liberation of black women is successful, it would
mean the liberation of all women, racial discrimination, as well as
discrimination based on economic classes.

Cultural Feminism
Some experts feel that cultural feminism is a branch of radical
feminism, while others feel that the two differ considerably. Cultural
feminism believes that the society needs a female „essence‟ or a female
„nature‟. This kind of feminism believes that the qualities present in
women are not only unique, but also superior to those present in men.
These qualities, say cultural feminists, are more of a psychological and
cultural nature than biological. These feminists believe that the female
essence should be celebrated, and infused with the male dominated
world to provide the right balance to the working of society.

IX. Feminist theory

Many people incorrectly believe that feminist theory focuses

exclusively on girls and women and that it has an inherent goal of
promoting the superiority of women over men. In reality, feminist
theory has always been about viewing the social world in a way that
illuminates the forces that create and support inequality, oppression,
155 | P a g e
and injustice, and in doing so, promotes the pursuit of equality and
justice. That said, since the experiences and perspectives of women and
girls were historically excluded for years from social theory and social
science, much feminist theory has focused on their interactions and
experiences within society to ensure that half the world's population is
not left out of how we see and understand social forces, relations, and
problems. While most feminist theorists throughout history have been
women, people of all genders can be found working in the discipline
today. By shifting the focus of social theory away from the perspectives
and experiences of men, feminist theorists have created social theories
that are more inclusive and creative than those that assume the social
actor to always be a man.

X. Conclusion
In conclusion, feminism is the belief in full social, economic, and
political equality for women. The theory of feminism belongs to both
man and woman. It is very wrong concept that it only belongs to girls
and woman. The development of this theory was in last centuries and it
is still continue.

28. Write a note on following:

a. Dialectical Method (2019-A) (2019-S)
b. Labeling theory (2021-A)
a. Dialectical Method
Context
I. Introduction
The dialectical method, in the modern sense, derives from the work of
Hegel who aimed at critically synthesizing rationalism and empiricism.
Both rationalism and empiricism conceive the world in terms of a
subject objects or thought reality dualism, and both reduce the
foundation of knowledge to one of these poles.

156 | P a g e
 II. Interpretation of Dialectical
The term Dialectical is used to describe a method of philosophical
argument.
III. Explanation
Hegel's project was to transcend the one-sidedness of these
philosophies; that is, to overcome them without losing sight of them.
This aim Hegel shares with Kant. However, the latter's philosophy is
considered insufficient, in that it does not overcome dualism: it
separates the form from the content of knowledge, it poses a conceptual
patriotism and it postulates a 'thing in itself' which we cannot know.

IV. Dialectical research method

The word “dialectic” had the same meaning as “dialogue”. Thinkers at
the time believed that only dialogue was capable of assessing the
counterpoints of a theme and moving the argument forward. The
concept of “dialectics” is also related to the debate between opposing
positions.
V. Hegel’s Dialectical Method

Hegel applies the dialectical system based on the assumption that the
construction of knowledge has no end. His way of thinking opposes the
thinking of metaphysical philosophers, who believed that things have
an unchanging essence.
The structure adopted by Hegel is a triad: thesis, antithesis
and synthesis.
 Thesis: an argument that exposes itself to be questioned.
 Antithesis: argument opposite to that presented in the thesis.
 Synthesis: fusion of the two previous propositions in order to obtain
a superior point of view.

157 | P a g e
Employed in qualitative research, the dialectical method is theoretical,
that is, it does not necessarily work with concrete facts. It is based on
logical arguments that lead the researcher to certain
VI. Features of Dialectical Method

There are following main characteristics of the dialectical method:

 More theoretical content.
 Comparison of ideas.
 Debate and reasoning.
 Contradiction inherent to the phenomenon.
 Everything is related.
 Continuous construction and reconstruction of the analyzed ideas.
VII. Conclusion
To conclude it, the term Dialectical is used to describe a method of
philosophical argument. According to Hegel there are three types of
structure was adopted such as thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
Furthermore, the word “dialectic” had the same meaning as “dialogue”.
*****
b. Labeling Theory
Context
I. Introduction
II. Labeling Theory process
III. How Labeling theory helps?
IV. Deviance
V. Illustrations of deviance
VI. Primary deviance
VII. Secondary deviance
VIII. Retrospective and Projective Labeling
IX. Contributor to Labeling Theory
X. Conclusion

158 | P a g e
 I. Introduction
Labeling theory is very common in our society. It includes and when
and why people are labeled. Any action which is perceived as violating
a society‟s or groups cultural norm is called deviance. Robbing a store
and driving faster than the actual speed limit are examples of deviance
behavior.
II. Labeling Theory process
Labeling theory proposes deviance is socially constructed through
reaction instead of action. According to this theory, no behavior is
inherently deviant on its own. Instead, it is the reaction that makes it
deviant or not.
III. How Labeling theory helps?
Labeling theory helps to explain why a behavior is considered
negatively deviant to some people, groups and cultures but positively
deviant to others.
For example:
1. Think about fictional vigilantes, like Robin Hood and
Batman.
2. Another example is when a person is responsible for
the death of another. Such as murderer or killer.
IV. Deviance
Any action which is perceived as violating a society‟s or groups cultural
norm is called deviance.
V. Illustrations of Deviance
159 | P a g e
 1. Robbing a store.
2. Driving faster than the actual speed limit.
VI. Primary deviance
Initial violation of social norms is said to primary deviance. Primary
deviance includes a minor deviant act that just about everyone does
once or twice like playing hooky from school or work.
VII. Secondary deviance
Secondary deviance is when a person repeatedly violates a social norm
which leads others to make assumptions about that person and assign a
label to him or her. For example, criminal, psycho, addict, and
delinquent, etc.
VIII. Retrospective and Projective Labeling
Retrospective labeling:
The consequences of being stigmatized can be far reaching. A stigma
operates as a master status, overpowering other aspects of social
identity.
For example, people would like to discuss the past of someone who is
labeled a murderer.
Projective Labeling:
Projective labeling is using a deviant identity to predict future action.
For example, imagine that Batman is no longer considered a hero by
anyone; instead everyone thinks he is a dangerous criminal.
IX. Contributor to Labeling Theory
HOWARD BECKER

160 | P a g e
Lemert introduced the concept of labeling theory. It was Howard
Becker who became their successor. He first began describing the
process of how a person adopts a deviant role in a study of dance
musicians.
ERVING GOFFMAN
1. The most important contributor to this theory was
Erving Goffman.
2. He was also President of American Sociological
Association.
3. He was also one of the American‟s most cited
sociologists.
4. “The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life”,
“Interaction ritual” and “Frame Analysis” were the
most popular books of him.
5. His most important contribution to labeling theory
was Stigma.
6. Goffman explored the ways people managed that
identity and controlled information about it.
X. Conclusion
To sum up, labeling theory helps to explain why a behavior is
considered negatively deviant to some people, groups and cultures but
positively deviant to others. Any action which is perceived as violating
a society‟s or groups cultural norm is called deviance. Robbing a store
and driving faster than the actual speed limit are examples of deviance
behavior. In a nutshell, Erving Goffman was the most important
contributor of this theory.
*****
THE END.

161 | P a g e