Basics of Control Engineering

Lecturer: Dr.- Ing. John P.
John
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering
Mbeya University
Course Outline
Types of Control Systems
➢Basic concept of automation and control system
➢Classification of control system;
✓ Manual
✓Semi automated control system
✓Full automated control system
➢Elements of automatic control system
✓Basic characteristics of control system and its connections
Meaning, types , characteristics, application of:

➢Transducers
➢Sensors
➢Actuators
➢Synchros
➢Controllers
Course Objectives
 To familiarize students´ with basic control principles
and general methods of system´s design and assembly
 To differentiate types of control systems
 To study types of sensors, transducers and actuators
 To study synchros and their applications
 To study servo systems
Text Books
1. Control Systems Engineering, (6th Edition) By: Norman S. Nise.
2. Modern Control Systems, (12th Edition) By: Richard C. Dorf and Robert H.
Bishop.
3. Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, (2nd Edition)
By: Joseph J. Distefano, Allen R. Stubberud, and Ivan J. Willaims.
Reference Books
1. Modern Control Engineering, (5th Edition)
By: Katsuhiko Ogata.
2. Basic Feedback Controls in Biomedicine.
By: Charles S. Lessard.
3. Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems, (6th Edition)
By: Gene Franklin, J.D. Powell, and Abbas Emami-Naeini
4. Feedback Systems: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers, by Karl J.
Åström and Richard M. Murray.
5. Physiological Control Systems: Analysis, Simulation and Estimation, by:
Michael C. K. Khoo.
What is Control System?
 Control means to regulate, direct, command, or govern. In
general it is the process of causing a system variable to
conform to some desired value.
 A system is a collection, set, or arrangement of elements
(subsystems).
 A control system is an interconnection of components
forming a system configuration that will provide a desired
system response.
 Hence, a control system is an arrangement of physical
components connected or related in such a manner as to
command, regulate, direct, or govern itself or another
system.
Basic Terminology
The controlled variable is the quantity or condition that is
measured and controlled.
The manipulated variable is the quantity or condition that is

varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the controlled
variable.
Control means measuring the value of the controlled variable of

the system and applying the manipulated variable to the system to
correct or limit deviation of the measured value from a desired
value.
More Terminology
A plant performs a particular operation. It is the physical object
to be controlled
A process is any operation to be controlled. Processes can be

chemical, economic, biological, etc.
A system is a combination of components that act together and

perform a certain objective.
A disturbance is a signal that adversely affects the value of the

output of a system. May be internal or external.
Feedback control refers to an operation that, in the presence of

disturbances, tends to reduce the difference between the output
of a system and some reference input and does so on the basis of
the difference.
Point of View
Control systems are made up of components each of which
• Have input and output signal(s) (Examples of signals:

position, velocity, acceleration, temperature, voltage, current,
concentration, etc.)
• Process their inputs to produce their outputs (outputs are

caused by the interaction of the input and the component)
• Are described by differential equations
• Engineers produce mathematical models of the components so

they can design controllers.
 The interaction is defined in terms of variables.
i. System input
ii. System output
iii. Environmental disturbances
History
18th Century James Watt’s centrifugal governor for the speed control of a steam
engine.
1920s Minorsky worked on automatic controllers for steering ships.
1930s Nyquist developed a method for analyzing the stability of controlled
systems
1940s Frequency response methods made it possible to design linear closed-loop
control systems
1950s Root-locus method due to Evans was fully developed
1960s State space methods, optimal control, adaptive control and
1980s Learning controls are begun to be investigated and developed.
Present and on-going research fields. Recent application of modern control
theory includes such non-engineering systems such as biological, biomedical,
economic and socio-economic systems
Why Control Theory
 Systematic approach to analysis and design
 Transient response
 Consider sampling times, control frequency
 Taxonomy of basic controls
 Select controller based on desired characteristics
 Predict system response to some input
 Speed of response (e.g., adjust to workload changes)
 Oscillations (variability)
 Approaches to assessing stability and limit cycles
12
Control System Goals
 Regulation
 thermostat, target service levels
 Tracking
 robot movement, adjust TCP window to network
bandwidth
 Optimization
 best mix of chemicals, minimize response times
13
Control System Goals
i. Power Amplification (Gain)
 Positioning of a large radar antenna by low-power rotation of
a knob
ii. Remote Control
 Robotic arm used to pick up radioactive materials
iii. Convenience of Input Form
 Changing room temperature by thermostat position
iv. Compensation for Disturbances
 Controlling antenna position in the presence of large wind
disturbance torque
Control System Components
i. System, plant or process
 To be controlled
ii. Actuators
 Converts the control signal to a power signal
iii. Sensors
 Provides measurement of the system output
iv. Reference input
 Represents the desired output
General Control System
Disturbance
Controlled Manipulated
Set-point Error Signal Variable
or
Reference Actual
input + + Output
+
+ Controller Actuator + Process
-
Sensor
Feedback Signal
Different types of systems
• All our tools and machines need appropriate control to work, otherwise it will
be difficult to finish their designated tasks accurately. Therefore, we need
control systems to guide, instruct and regulate our tools and machines.
Common control systems include:
➢ Mechanical system
➢ Electronic system
➢ Computer control system
➢ Pneumatic (hydraulic) system
➢ Electrical system
A system usually contains three main parts: input, process and output.
17
Mechanical system
• A mechanical system is a device made up of various
mechanical parts.
• A system of elements that interact on mechanical principles
• The force applied to the load is the output of the mechanical
system.
• Examples of mechanical systems include levers, gears and
shafts.
18
Electronic system
• An electronic system is a system that employs electronic signals to control
devices, such as radios, calculators, video game machines, mobile phones,
portable computers, etc .
• The input of an electronic system is provided by electronic signals. After they
are processed, they can generate output signals, which control the operation
of various devices, such as amplifiers
• Electronic systems can carry out many different tasks, such as generating
sound, transmitting information, displaying video, measuring, memorizing,
calculating, etc.
• Common examples of electronic devices include semi-conducting diode,
transistors, capacitors that they are usually welded onto electronic circuit
boards
19
Computer control system
• A computer control system uses a computer to control its output
devices according to different input signals.
• Its function is similar to that of an electronic system.
• Yet a computer control system can use high speed calculation to
process large volume of input signals within a very short time, and
then generates appropriate outputs with the help of preset
programs.
• Examples of computer control systems include computer
numerical control press brakes, computer controlled home
appliances, computer controlled underground railway systems, etc
Pneumatic system
• A pneumatic system is a system that uses compressed air to
transport and control energy.
• Air is first pressurized to give energy in the cylinder.
• Then signals are input into the system through the use of switches.
• Next, air is transferred through sealed pipes to the pneumatic parts
for processing.
• Finally, the force produced by the pneumatic parts is utilized to
finish the designated task.
• The use of pneumatic systems is very extensive, for example, in
controlling the movement of train doors, the operation of automatic
production lines and mechanical clamps, etc
Types of Control System
 Broadly speaking, there are three basic types of control
systems:
(a) Man-made control systems
(b) Natural, including biological-control systems
(c) Control systems whose components are both man-
made and natural.
Control Systems
Natural Man-made
Manual Automatic
Open-loop Closed-loop
Non-linear linear
Non-linear linear
Time variant Time invariant

Time variant Time invariant
Classification of Systems
Classes of Systems
Distributed Parameter (Partial Lumped Parameter

Differential Equations,
Transmission line example)
Deterministic Stochastic
Continuous Time Discrete Time
Linear Nonlinear
Constant Coefficient
Time Varying
Non-homogeneous Homogeneous (No External

Input; system behavior depends
on initial conditions)
 Manual Control Systems
 Room Temperature regulation Via Electric Fan
 Water Level Control
 Automatic Control System

 Room Temperature regulation Via A.C
 Human Body Temperature Control
Open-Loop Control Systems utilize a controller or control actuator to
obtain the desired response.
• Output has no effect on the control action. No feedback – no
correction of disturbances
• In other words output is neither measured nor fed back.
Input Output
Controller Process
Examples:- Washing Machine, Toaster, Electric Fan

Closed-loop vs Open-loop
Control
A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the
output and the reference input by comparing them and using the
difference as a means of control is called a feedback control
system.
Closed-loop control system = feedback control system.

Block diagrams have loops.
Those systems in which the output has no effect on the control

action are called open-loop control systems.
Block diagrams do not have loops.
Advantages of Open Loop Control
System
 Advantages
 Simple in construction and design

 Economic
 Easy maintenance
 Not much problems with stability
Disadvantages of Open Loop Control
System
 Disadvantages:
 Inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy is
dependent on accuracy of calibration
 Inaccurate results are obtained with parameter
variations, internal disturbances
 To maintain the quality and accuracy, recalibration of
the system is necessary from time to time.
• Since in open loop control systems reference input is not compared with
measured output, for each reference input there is fixed operating
condition.
• Therefore, the accuracy of the system depends on calibration.
• The performance of open loop system is severely affected by the presence

of disturbances, or variation in operating/ environmental conditions.
Closed-Loop Control Systems utilizes feedback to compare the actual
output to the desired output response.
Input Output
Comparator Controller Process
Measurement
Examples:- Refrigerator, Iron

Closed loop controller
setpoint error signal output
controller system
measured quantity
• closed loop because it has feedback

• output is measured at a certain frequency
• signal is generated at a certain frequency
32
Advantages of Closed Loop
Control System
 Advantages:
 High accuracy
 It senses change in output and corrects it
 Reduced effect of non linearities
 Facilitates automation
Disadvantages of Closed Loop
Control System
 Disadvantages
 Complicated in design
 Costly maintenance
 System may become unstable
Multivariable Control System
Temp Outputs
Humidity Comparator Controller Process
Pressure
Measurements
Feedback Control System
• A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output and
some reference input by comparing them and using the difference (i.e.
error) as a means of control is called a feedback control system.
Input + error Controller Output

Process
-
Feedback
• Feedback can be positive or negative.

Servo System
• A Servo System (or servomechanism) is a feedback control system in
which the output is some mechanical position, velocity or
acceleration.
Antenna Positioning System Modular Servo System (MS150)

Linear vs. Nonlinear Control System
• A Control System in which output varies linearly with the input is called a
linear control system.
u(t) Process y(t)
y(t )  2u(t )  1 y(t )  3u(t )  5

y=3*u(t)+5
y=-2*u(t)+1
35
5
30
0
25
-5
y(t)
y(t)
20
-10
15
-15
10
-20 5
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
u(t)
u(t)
• When the input and output has nonlinear relationship the system is said to
be nonlinear.
Adhesion Characteristics of Road
0.4
Adhesion Coefficient
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Creep
• Linear control System Does not

Adhesion Characteristics of Road
exist in practice.
0.4
• Linear control systems are
Adhesion Coefficient
idealized models fabricated by 0.3
the analyst purely for the
simplicity of analysis and design. 0.2
• When the magnitude of signals in 0.1

a control system are limited to
range in which system
0
components exhibit linear 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Creep
characteristics the system is
essentially linear.
Time invariant vs. Time variant
• When the characteristics of the system do not depend upon time itself
then the system is said to be time invariant control system.
y(t )  2u(t )  1
• Time varying control system is a system in which one or more parameters

vary with time.
y(t )  2u(t )  3t
Lumped parameter vs. Distributed Parameter
• Control system that can be described by ordinary differential equations are

lumped-parameter control systems.
2
d x dx
M 2
C  kx
dt dt
• Whereas the distributed parameter control systems are described by partial

differential equations.
2
x x  x
f1  f2 g 2
dy dz dz
Continuous Data vs. Discrete Data System
• In continuous data control system all system variables are function of a

continuous time t.
x(t)
• A discrete time control system involves one or more variables that are
known only at discrete time intervals.
X[n]
n
Deterministic vs. Stochastic Control System
• A control System is deterministic if the response to input is predictable and
repeatable.
x(t) y(t)
t t
• If not, the control system is a stochastic control system.
z(t)
t
Adaptive Control System
 The dynamic characteristics of most control systems are not constant

for several reasons.
 The effect of small changes on the system parameters is attenuated in a

feedback control system.
 An adaptive control system is required when the changes in the system

parameters are significant.
Learning Control System
 A control system that can learn from the environment it is operating is

called a learning control system.
Manual and automatic control systems
Manual
Semi automated control system
Full automated control system
➢Control is a process of causing a system variable such as temperature to
conform to some desired value or trajectory, called reference value or
trajectory.
➢For example, driving a car implies controlling the vehicle to follow the
desired path to arrive safely at a planned destination.
i. If you are driving the car yourself, you are performing manual control
of the car.
ii. If you use design a machine, or use a computer to do it, then you have
built an automatic control system.
47
Cont..
 Automation: is the technology by which a process or
procedure is accomplished without human assistance.
Basic elements of an automated system
i. Power - to accomplish the process and operate the automated
system
ii. Program of instructions – to direct the process
48
Cont..
Power Source
➢ Widely available at moderate cost
➢ Can be readily converted to alternative forms, e.g., mechanical, thermal,
light, etc.
➢ Low level power can be used for signal transmission, data processing, and
communication
A.Power for the process
➢ To drive the process itself
➢ To load and unload the work unit
➢ Transport between operations
B.Power for automation
➢ Controller unit
➢ Power to actuate the control signals
➢ Data acquisition and information processing
49
Cont..
Program of Instructions
Set of commands that specify the steps in the work cycle
and the details of each step
➢During each step, there are one or more activities
involving changes in one or more process parameters
Examples:
➢Temperature setting of a furnace
➢Motor on or off
50
Special applications of the control systems
• There are many household and industrial application

examples of the control systems, such as:
• washing machine,
• air conditioner,
• security alarm system and
• automatic ticket selling machine, etc.
51
Question
a)Outline different types of manually, semi-automatic and
full automatic operated systems you may know. Explain
how does one of them (from each category, works)
b)Give the advantages and disadvantages of each category
c)Differentiate electronic system from mechanical and
computer systems. State how control mechanisms do
take place in either system
52
Example Control Systems
 Mechanical and Electo-mechanical (e.g. Turntable) Control Systems
 Thermal (e.g. Temperature) Control System
 Pneumatic Control System
 Fluid (Hydraulic) Control Systems
 Complex Control Systems
 Industrial Controllers
 On-off Controllers
 Proportional Controllers
 Integral Controllers
 Proportional-plus-Integral Controllers
 Proportional-plus-Derivative Controllers
 Proportional-plus-Integral-plus-Derivative Controllers
Example 1: Liquid Level System
(input flow) Goal: Design the input
qi valve control to maintain a
constant height regardless
Input valve of the setting of the
control output valve
float
R
(resistance)
(height) H
(output flow)
V qo
(volume) Output
valve
54
Smart Energy Grid
Intelligent Energy Network
Source IPS
energy
subnet
Load IPS
Intelligent
Power Switch
Generation
Transmission
Distribution
Load
Conventional Electric Grid
Conventional Internet
55
Speed
Turntable
Adjustable
Battery
DC
DC motor
Speed setting Amplifier
(a)
Control Device Actuator Process

Actual speed
Amplifier DC motor Turntable
Desired speed (b)

(voltage)
Turntable speed control: open-loop

Speed
Turntable
Adjustable
battery
DC DC motor
Speed setting +_ Amplifier
Tachometer
(a)
Error
Actual
Control Device Actuator Process speed
+_ Amplifier DC motor Turntable
Sensor
Measured speed Tachometer

(voltage)
(b)
Turntable speed control: closed-loop
Generation Frequency Control
 Example control command
Controller
sensor measurements
Turbine /Generator
disturbance
Load
58
AGC Control Example
 AGC = Automated Generation Control
 AGC frequency control
generation command AGC
frequency measurement
disturbance
Load
59
Examples of Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
(a) Automobile steering

control system.
(b) The driver uses the
difference between the
actual and the desired
direction of travel
to generate a controlled
adjustment of the
steering wheel.
(c) Typical direction-
of-travel response.
Open-loop & Closed-loop Models of Blood Glucose Control System
A Model of Heart Rate Control System
Effects of Feedback on Sensitivity
For the open-loop system shown below, if K2 is
halved, then the system gain is also halved (i.e., the
overall system gain reduces to 50% of its original
gain)
R K1 K2 C
C
Gain = K1K2=
Controller Plant R
‡ Note that for simplicity, we assume that K1 and K2 are

constant. In general, they are frequency dependent.
Consider the closed-loop system shown below:
R-C K1(R-C) K1K2(R-C)
R + K1 K2 C
-
K1K2(R-C) = C
C K1 K2
=
Assume that K1K2 = 1 R 1+K1K2
If K2 is halved, then the overall system gain reduces to 67% of the

original gain.
Assume that K1K2 = 9
If K2 is halved, then the overall system gain becomes 91% of the
original gain.
Conclusion
The sensitivity is reduced as the loop gain (i.e.,

K1K2) is increased.
Obvious advantage of using feedback

Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity (Cont’d)
-- Sensitivity to Plant Parameter Variations and

Model Uncertainty --
Controller Plant
R + Gc G C
-
Sensor
Closed-loop transfer function:
C GG C
T= =
R 1+G GH C
If GcGH >> 1
C GcG 1
T = ≈
~ =
R GcGH H
Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity (Cont’d)
If the loop gain GcGH >> 1, C/R depends almost
entirely on the feedback H alone, and is virtually
independent of the plant G and other elements in
the forward path and of the variations of their
parameters.
The sensitivity of the system performance to the
elements in the forward path reduces as the loop
gain is increased.
Effect of Feedback on External Disturbance
D (disturbance)
(command input)
+
R + C
+ Gc G1 G2
- (output)
controller plant
H
sensor
C G2 C GcG1G2
= =
D 1+GcG1G2H R 1+GcG1G2H
For loop gain GcG1G2 >> 1,
C 1 C 1
≈ ≈
D GcG1H R H
If the loop gain GcG1G2 >> 1, then feedback reduces

the effect of disturbance D on C if GcG1H >> 1 (i.e., the
high gain is in the feedback path between C and D).
To ensure a good response to input R as well, the
location of the high gain should be further restricted to
GcG1, between the points where R and D enter the loop.
The sensitivity to disturbances reduces as this gain is
increased.
Motivations for Feedback
The main reasons of using feedback are the following:
Reducing the sensitivity of the performance to parameter
variations of the plant and imperfections of the plant model
used for design
Reducing the effects of external disturbances and sensor
noises
Feedback can also

Improve transient response characteristics
Reduce steady-state error
Sensors
 Goals of the Chapter :
 Define classification of sensors and some
terminologies
 Introduce various types of sensors for measurement
purpose and their applications
 Example: Displacement, motion, level, pressure,
temperature, …
Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
80
Sensors: Introduction
 (Generally) A sensor is often defined as a device that receives and
responds to a signal or stimulus.
 A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus and responds with an
electrical signal.
 The stimulus (measurand) is the quantity, property, or condition that is
sensed and converted into electrical signal.
 The purpose of a sensor is to respond to some kind of an input physical
property (stimulus) and to convert it into an electrical signal which is
compatible with electronic circuits.
 We may say that a sensor is a translator of a generally nonelectrical
value into an electrical value.
 When we say “electrical,” we mean a signal which can be channeled,
amplified, and modified by electronic devices. The sensor’s output
signal may be in the form of voltage, current, or charge.
Introduction cont...
 These may be further described in terms of amplitude,
frequency, phase, or digital code.
 This set of characteristics is called the output signal
format.
 Therefore, a sensor has input properties (of any kind)
and electrical output properties.
 Any sensor is an energy converter. No matter what you try to measure, you
always deal with energy transfer from the object of measurement to the sensor.
 The process of sensing is a particular case of information transfer, and any
transmission of information requires transmission of energy.
 Of course, one should not be confused by an obvious fact that transmission of
energy can flow both ways—it may be with a positive sign as well as with a
negative sign; that is, energy can flow either from an object to the sensor or
from the sensor to the object.
 For example, a thermopile infrared radiation sensor will produce a positive
voltage when the object is warmer than the sensor (infrared flux is flowing to
the sensor) or the voltage is negative when the object is cooler than the sensor
(infrared flux flows from the sensor to the object).
 When both the sensor and the object are at the same temperature, the flux is
zero and the output voltage is zero. This carries a message that the
temperatures are the same.
 This world is divided into natural and man-made objects
 The natural sensors, like those found in living organisms, usually
respond with signals, having an electrochemical character; that is, their
physical nature is based on ion transport, like in the nerve fibers (such
as an optic nerve in the fluid tank operator).
 In man-made devices, information is also transmitted and processed in
electrical form—however, through the transport of electrons.
 Sensors that are used in artificial systems must speak the same
language as the devices with which they are interfaced
 This language is electrical in its nature and a man-made sensor should
be capable of responding with signals where information is carried by
displacement of electrons, rather than ions.
 Thus, it should be possible to connect a sensor to an electronic system
through electrical wires, rather than through an electrochemical
solution or a nerve fiber.
 The term sensor should be distinguished from transducer. The
latter is a converter of one type of energy into another, whereas
the former converts any type of energy into electrical. (All
sensors are transducers, but however, not all transducers are
sensors!!!)
 An example of a transducer is a loudspeaker which converts an
electrical signal into a variable magnetic field and, subsequently,
into acoustic waves.
 This is nothing to do with perception or sensing. Transducers
may be used as actuators in various systems.
 An actuator may be described as opposite to a sensor—it
converts electrical signal into generally nonelectrical energy. For
example, an electric motor is an actuator—it converts electric
energy into mechanical action.
 Transducers may be parts of complex sensors . For example, a chemical sensor
may have a part which converts the energy of a chemical reaction into heat
(transducer) and another part, a thermopile, which converts heat into an
electrical signal.
 The combination of the two makes a chemical sensor—a device which
produces an electrical signal in response to a chemical reaction.
 Note that in the above example, a chemical sensor is a complex sensor; it is
comprised of a transducer and another sensor (heat). This suggests that many
sensors incorporate at least one direct-type sensor and a number of
transducers.
 The direct sensors are those that employ such physical effects that make a
direct energy conversion into electrical signal generation or modification.
Examples of such physical effects are photoeffect.
 In summary, there are two types of sensors: direct and complex. A direct sensor
converts a stimulus into an electrical signal or modifies an electrical signal by
using an appropriate physical effect, whereas a complex sensor in addition
needs one or more transducers of energy before a direct sensor can be
employed to generate an electrical output.
 A sensor does not function by itself; it is always a part of a larger
system that may incorporate many other detectors, signal
conditioners, signal processors, memory devices, data recorders,
and actuators.
 The sensor’s place in a device is either intrinsic or extrinsic. It
may be positioned at the input of a device to perceive the outside
effects and to signal the system about variations in the outside
stimuli.
 Also, it may be an internal part of a device that monitors the
devices’ own state to cause the appropriate performance.
 A sensor is always a part of some kind of a data acquisition
system.
 Often, such a system may be a part of a larger control system that
includes various feedback mechanisms.
 To illustrate the place of sensors in a larger system, Fig. below shows a
block diagram of a data acquisition and control device.
 An object can be anything: a car, space ship, animal or human, liquid,
or gas.
 Any material object may become a subject of some kind of a
measurement.
 Data are collected from an object by a number of sensors. Some of
them (2, 3, and 4) are positioned directly on or inside the object.
 Sensor 1 is noncontact, sensors 2 and 3 are passive, sensor 4 is active,
and sensor 5 is internal to a data acquisition system.
 Sensor 1 perceives the object without a physical contact and, therefore,
is called a noncontact sensor. Examples of such a sensor is a radiation
detector and a TV camera.
 Even if we say “noncontact”, we remember that energy transfer always
occurs between any sensor and an object.
 Sensor 5 serves a different purpose. It monitors internal conditions of a
data acquisition system itself.
 Some sensors (1 and 3) cannot be directly connected to standard
electronic circuits because of inappropriate output signal formats.
They require the use of interface devices (signal conditioners).
 Sensors 1, 2, 3, and 5 are passive. They generate electric signals without
energy consumption from the electronic circuits.
 Sensor 4 is active. It requires an operating signal, which is provided by
an excitation circuit. This signal is modified by the sensor in
accordance with the converted information. An example of an active
sensor is a thermistor, which is a temperature-sensitive resistor.
 It may operate with a constant-current source, which is an excitation
circuit.
 Depending on the complexity of the system, the total number of
sensors may vary from as little as one (a home thermostat) to many
thousands (a space shuttle).
 Electrical signals from the sensors are fed into a multiplexer
(MUX), which is a switch or a gate. Its function is to connect
sensors one at a time to an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter if a
sensor produces an analog signal, or directly to a computer if a
sensor produces signals in a digital format.
 The computer controls a multiplexer and an A/D converter for
the appropriate timing.
 Also, it may send control signals to the actuator, which acts on
the object. Examples of actuators are an electric motor, a
solenoid, a relay, and a pneumatic valve.
 The system contains some peripheral devices (for instance, a
data recorder, a display, an alarm, etc.) and a number of
components, which are not shown in the block diagram.
 These may be filters, sample-and-hold circuits, amplifiers, and
so forth.
Introduction …
 Advantages of using sensors include
1. Mechanical effects such as friction is reduced to the
minimum possibility
2. Very small power is required for controlling the
electrical system
3. The electrical output can be amplified to any desired
level
4. The electrical output can be detected and recorded
remotely at a distance from the sensing medium and
use modern digital computers
92
Introduction - Use of Sensors
1. Information gathering: Provide data for display
purpose
 This gives an understanding of the current status of the
system parameters .Example: Car speed sensor and
speedometer, which records the speed of a car against
time
2. System control: Signal from the sensor is an input to a
controller
System
Desires signal Controller under Output signal
control
Sensor
93
Sensor Requirements
• The main function of a sensor is to respond only for
the measurement under specified limits for which it is
designed
• Sensors should meet the following basic requirements
1. Ruggedness: Capable of withstanding overload
• Some safety arrangements should be provided for overload
protection
2. Linearity: Its input-output characteristics must be linear
3. Repeatability: It should reproduce the same output signal when
the same input is applied again and again
4. High output signal quality
5. High reliability and stability
6. Good dynamic response
94
Classification of Sensors
 Sensors can be divided on the basis of
 Method of applications
 Method of energy conversion used
 Nature of output signals
 Electrical principle
 In general, the classification of sensors is given by

 Primary and secondary sensors
 Active and passive sensors
 Analog and Digital sensors
95
Primary and Secondary Sensors
 Classification is based on the method of application
 Primary sensor
 The input is directly sensed by the sensor
 The physical phenomenon is converted into another
signal
 Secondary sensor
 The output of the primary sensor is fed to another
(secondary) sensor that converts it to output
96
Active and Passive Sensor
 Classification based on the basis of energy conversion
 Active sensor
 Generates voltage/current in response to input variation
 Are also called self-generating sensors
 Normally, the output of active sensors is in V or mV
 Examples
 Thermocouples: A change in temperature produces output
voltage
 Photovoltaic cell: Change solar energy into voltage
97
Active and Passive ….
 Passive sensors
 Sensors that does not generate voltage or current, but
produce element variation in R, L, or C
 Need an additional circuit to produce voltage or current
variation
 Examples
 Thermistor: Change in temperature leads to change in
resistance
 Photo resistor: Change in light leads to change in
resistance
 Straingauge: Change in length or position into change in
resistance)
98
Analog and Digital Sensors
• Classification based on the nature of the output signal
• Analog sensor
• Gives an output that varies continuously as the input
changes
• Output can have infinite number of values within the
sensor’s range
• Digital sensor
• Has an output that varies in discrete steps or pulses or
sampled form and so can have a finite number of values
• E.g., Revolution counter: A cam, attached to a revolving
body whose motion is being measured, opens and closes
a switch
• The switching operations are counted by an electronic counter
99
Sensor Classification
 Sensors can also be classified according to the
application
 Example
 Measurement of displacement, motion, temperature,
intensity, sensors
100
Resistive Sensors - Potentiometer
 Examples: Displacement, liquid level (in petrol-tank
level indicator) using potentiometer or rheostat
 Convert s linear (translatory) or angular (rotary)
displacement into a change of resistance in the
resistive element provided with a movable contact
• Petrol-tank level indicator

• Change in petrol level moves a
potentiometer arm
• Output signal is proportion to the
external voltage source applied across
the potentiometer
• The energy in the output signal comes
from the external power source
101
Resistive Sensors – Potentiometer …
 A linear or rotary movement of a moving contact on a
slide wire indicates the magnitude of the variable as a
change in resistance which can easily be converted by a
proper electrical circuit into measurements of volt or
current
102
Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent Resistors
 Two classes of thermal resistors are
 Metallic element
 Semiconductor
 For most metals, the resistance increases with increase in temperature
R(T )  R0 [1  1T   2T 2  ...]  R0[1  T ]
 Where  is the temperature coefficient of resistance and given as

 Example: Platinum
 Has a linear temperature-resistance characteristics
 Reproducible over a wide range of temperature
 Platinum Thermometers are used for temperature measurement
103
104
Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent…
 Semiconductor based resistance thermometers elements
 The resistance of such elements decreases with increasing
temperature
 Example: Thermistor
 The resistance-temperature relationship is non-linear and governed by
1 1
(  )

R (T )  R0e T T0
; T0  300 K 0
 Where R0 is the resistance at absolute temp (in Kelvin) and  is

material constant expressed in degree Kelvin
 Most semiconductor materials used for thermometry possess high

resistivity and high negative temperature coefficients
105
106
strain gauge
 If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will
become skinnier and longer, both changes
resulting in an increase of electrical resistance
end-to-end.
 Conversely, if a strip of conductive metal is placed
under compressive force (without buckling), it will
broaden and shorten. Such a device is called a
strain gauge.
Resistive Sensors – Strain Gauges
 Is a secondary transducer that senses tensile or compressive strain in a
particular direction at a point on the surface of a body or structure
 Used to measure force, pressure, displacement
R  R ( e)
 Where e=l/l is the strain
 The resistance of an unstrained conductor is given as
l
R
A
 Under strained condition, resistance of conductor changes by R
because of l, A, and/or 
108
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor
 Piezoresistivity is a strain dependent resistivity in a single crystal
semiconductor
 When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, it causes a strain in the
resistor
 Resistance change is proportional to this strain, and hence change
in pressure
109
Resistive Sensors – Photoconductor
 Are light sensitive resistors with non-linear negative temperature
coefficient
 Are resistive optical radiation transducers
 Photoconductors have resistance variation that depends on
illumination
 The resistance illumination characteristics is given by
R  RD e E
 Where RD is Dark Resistance and E is illumination level in Lux
 Photoconductors are used in

 Cameras, light sensors in spectrophotometer
 Counting systems where an object interrupts a light beam hitting
the photoconductor, etc.
110
Concluding Remarks:Detectable Phenomenon
Stimulus Quantity
Acoustic Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization), Spectrum, Wave
Velocity
Biological & Chemical Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)
Electric Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field (amplitude,

phase,
polarization), Conductivity, Permittivity
Magnetic Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Flux,

Permeability
Optical Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption
Thermal Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity
Mechanical Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Strain, Stress,

Pressure, Torque
Concluding Remarks: Physical Principles
 Amperes’s Law
 A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force (e.g.
galvanometer)
 Faraday’s Law of Induction

 A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an opposing
voltage/current (e.g. transformer)
 Photoconductive Effect
 When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the resistance of the
material decreases (e.g. photoresistor)
Concluding Remarks: Need for Sensors
 Sensors are omnipresent. They embedded in our
bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular
telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial
plants and countless other applications.
 Without the use of sensors, there would be no

automation !!
Concluding Remarks: Choosing a Sensor
Implementation and Words of Warning
 Sensors may be affected by temperature variation.
 Some sensors incorporate circuitry to reduce this error.
 Sensors may be directional:
 Care must be taken with respect to orientations of sensor
and magnet
 Some Hall Effect sensors detect presence of
ferromagnetic materials, not magnetic fields
Assignment 2 Carry 10 marks (In 16 Groups):
Submission date-02 May 2017 at 9:00am
Qn 1. Discuss input characteristics of sensor interface electronic circuits.
Qn 2. List any seven sensor interface electronic circuits. Discuss
functions of three among them.
Qn 3. What is noise in sensors? What are the possible causes of noise in
sensors circuit? List effects of noise in sensors. Discuss what you
understand about inherent and transmitted noise in sensors and circuit.
Qn 4. Discuss concepts, x-tics and applications of the following sensors:
(One for @ group)
Occupancy and motion detectors:
a) Ultrasonic Sensors
b) Capacitive sensors
c) Microwave Sensors
Assignment 2 Carry 10 marks (In 16 Groups )
 Occupancy and motion detectors:
d).Triboelectric detectors
e). Optoelectonic motion detectors i.e. Visible and near-
infrared as well as far-infrared (PIR) motion detectors
f). Optical sensors including proximity detectors with
polarized light and fiber-optic sensors
g. Ultrasonic sensors
h. Radar sensors
i. Thickness and level sensors
Assignment 2 Carry 10 marks (In 16 Groups)
j. Force, strain and tactilesensors
k. Flow sensors
l. Acaustic sensors
m. Chemical sensors
n. Humidity and moisture sensors
o. Radiaition detectors
p.Temperature sensors
Transducers
 Goals of the Chapter :
 Define classification of transducers and some
terminologies
 Introduce various types of transducers for
measurement purpose and their applications
 Example: Displacement, motion, level, pressure,
temperature, …
Introduction
 Basically transducer is defined as a device, which
converts energy or information from one form to
another.
 These are widely used in measurement work because
not all quantities that need to be measured can be
displayed as easily as others.
 A better measurement of a quantity can usually be
made if it may be converted to another form, which is
more conveniently or accurately displayed.
Introduction(cont’d)
 For example, the common mercury thermometer
converts variations in temperature into variations in
the length of a column of mercury.
 Since the variation in the length of the mercury
column is rather simple to measure, the mercury
thermometer becomes a convenient device for
measuring temperature.
 On the other hand, the actual temperature variation is
not as easy to display directly.
 Another example is manometer, which detects pressure
and indicates it directly on a scale calibrated in actual
units of pressure.
 Thus the transducer is a device, which provides a
usable output in response to specific input measured,
which may be physical or mechanical quantity,
property or condition.
 The transducer may be mechanical, electrical,
magnetic, optical, chemical, acoustic, thermal nuclear,
or a combination of any two or more of these.
Mechanical transducers
 are simple and rugged in construction, cheaper in cost,
accurate and operate without external power supplies
but are not advantageous for many of the modern
scientific experiments and process control
instrumentation owing to their poor frequency
response, requirement of large forces to overcome
mechanical friction, in compatibility when remote
control or indication is required, and a lot of other
limitations.
 All these drawbacks have been overcome with the
introduction of electrical transducers.
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
 Mostly quantities to be measured are non-electrical
such as temperature, pressure, displacement,
humidity, fluid flow, speed etc., but these quantities
cannot be measured directly. Hence such quantities
are required to be sensed and changed into some other
form for easy measurement.
 Electrical quantities such as current, voltage,
resistance, inductance and capacitance etc. can be
conveniently measured, transferred and stored, and
therefore, for measurement of non-electrical
quantities these are to be converted into electrical
quantities first and then measured.
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS(cont’d)
 The function of converting non-electrical quantity
into electrical one is accomplished by a device called
the electrical transducer.
 Basically an electrical transducer is a sensing device by
which a physical, mechanical or optical quantity to be
measured is transformed directly, with a suitable
mechanism, into an electrical signal (current, voltage
or frequency). The production of these signals is based
upon electrical effects which may be resistive,
inductive, capacitive etc in nature.
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS(cont’d)
 The input versus output energy relationship takes a
definite reproducible function. The output to input
and the output to time behavior is predictable to a
known degree of accuracy, sensitivity and response,
within the specified environmental conditions.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A TRANSDUCER
 The main function of a transducer is to respond only
for the measurement under specified limits for which
it is designed.
 It is, therefore, necessary to know the relationship
between the input and output quantities and it should
be fixed. Transducers should meet the following basic
requirements.
Basic Requirements Of a Transducer (cont’d)
 Ruggedness. It should be capable of withstanding

overload and some safety arrangement should be
provided for overload protection.
 Linearity. Its input-output characteristics should be
linear and it should produce these characteristics in
symmetrical way.
 Repeatability. It should reproduce same output signal
when the same input signal is applied again and again
under fixed environmental conditions e.g.
temperature, pressure, humidity etc.
Basic Requirements Of a
Transducer (cont’d)
 No Hysteretic. It should not give any hysteretic during
measurement while input signal is varied from its low
value to high value and vice-versa.
 Residual Deformation. There should be no
deformation on removal of local after long period of
application.
Classification Of Transducers
 The transducers may be classified in various ways such
as on the basis of electrical principles involved,
methods of application, methods of energy conversion
used, nature of output signal etc.
Classification Of
Transducers(cont’d)
 Primary and Secondary Transducers:Transducers,
on the basis of methods of applications, may be
classified into primary and secondary transducers.
When the input signal is directly sensed by the
transducer and physical phenomenon is converted
into the electrical form directly then such a transducer
is called the primary transducer.
1-Primary and Secondary Transducers(cont’d)
 For example a thermistor used for the measurement of
temperature fall in this category. The thermistor
senses the temperature directly and causes the change
in resistance with the change in temperature.
 When the input signal is sensed first by some detector
or sensor and then its output being of some form other
than input signals is given as input to a transducer for
conversion into electrical form, then such a transducer
falls in the category of secondary transducers.
Primary and Secondary Transducers(cont’d)
 For example, in case of pressure measurement,
bourdon tube is a primary sensor which converts
pressure first into displacement, and then the
displacement is converted into an output voltage by an
LVDT. In this case LVDT is secondary transducer.
2-Active and Passive
Transducers.
 . Transducers, on the basis of methods of energy
conversion used, may be classified into active and
passive transducers. Self-generating type transducers
i.e. the transducers, which develop their output in the
form of electrical voltage or current without any
auxiliary source, are called the active transducers.
 Such transducers draw energy from the system under
measurement.
 Normally such transducers give very small output and,
therefore, use of amplifier becomes essential.
Active and Passive
 Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e. resistance,
inductance or capacitance changes with the change in
input signal, are called the passive transducers.
 These transducers require external power source for energy
conversion.
 In such transducer electrical parameters i.e. resistance,
inductance or capacitance causes a change in voltages
current or frequency of the external power source.
 These transducers may draw source energy from the system
under measurement. Resistive, inductive and capacitive
transducer falls in this category.
Passive Transducers/sensors
 Resistive
 Capacitive
 Inductive
Inductive Transducers/Sensors
 For a coil of n turns, the inductance L is given by
N2 N2
L  A 
 Where l R
 N: Number: of turns of the coil
 l: Mean length of the magnetic path
 A: Area of the magnetic path
 : Permeability of the magnetic material
 R: Magnetic reluctance of the circuit
 Application of inductive sensors
 Force, displacement, pressure, …
 Inductance variation can be in the form of
 Self inductance or
 Mutual inductance: e.g., differential transformer
138
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• Input voltage (alternating current): One primary coil
• There will be a magnetic coupling between the core and the coils
• Output voltage: Two secondary coils connected in series
• Operates using the principle of variation of mutual inductance
• The output voltage is a

function of the core’s
displacement
• Widely used for

translating linear motion
into an electrical signal
Schematic diagram of a differential transformer
139
LVDT - Output Characteristics
Output characteristics of an LVDT
140
LVDT – Applications
 Measure linear mechanical displacement

 Provides resolution about 0.05mm, operating range
from  0.1mm to  300 mm, accuracy of  0.5% of full-
scale reading
 The input ac excitation of LVDT can range in frequency
from 50 Hz to 20kHz
 Used to measure position in control systems and
precision manufacturing
 Can also be used to measure force, pressure,
acceleration, etc..
141
LVDT – Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
 LVDT can be combined
with a Bourdon tube
 LVDT converts
displacement into an
electrical signal
 The signal can be
displayed on an electrical
device calibrated in terms
of pressure
142
Active Transducers/sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators
Active Sensors - Thermocouple
 Thermoelectric transducers provide electrical signal in response to
change in temperature
 Example: Thermocouple
 Thermocouple: Converts thermal energy into electrical energy
 Application: To measure temperature
 Contains a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined together at one end
(sensing or hot junction) and terminated at the other end (reference or
cold junction)
 When a temperature difference exists b/n the sensing junction and the
reference, an emf is produced
Induced emf  E   (T1  T2 )   (T12  T22 )  ....   (T1  T2 )
144
145
Active Sensors – Thermocouple
Typical material combinations used as thermocouples
…
Type Materials Temp. Range Output voltage
(mV)
T Copper-Constantan -2000C to 3500C -5.6 to 17.82
J Iron-Constantan 0 to 7500C 0 to 42.28
E Chromel-Constantan -200 to 9000C -8.82 to 68.78
K Chromel-Alumel -200 to 12500C -5.97 to 50.63
R Platinum = 13% 0 to 14500C 0 to 16.74
Rhodium = 87%
 To get higher output emf
 Connect two or more Thermocouples in series
 For measurement of average temperature
 Connect Thermocouples in parallel
146
147
Active Sensors – Thermocouple …
 Applications
 Temperature measurement
 Voltage measurement
 Rectifier based rms indications are waveform dependent
 They are normally designed for sinusoidal signals
 Hence, error for non-sinusoidal signals
 Use thermocouple based voltmeters
 Here, temperature of a hot junction is proportional to the true
rms value of the current
148
Active Sensors – Thermocouple Meter
 The measured a.c. voltage signal is applied
to a heater element
 A thermocouple senses the temperature of
2
the heater due to heat generated (I rms)
 The d.c. voltage generated in the
thermocouple is applied to a moving-coil
meter
 The thermocouple will be calibrated to read
current (Irms)
 AC with frequencies up to 100 MHz may be
measured with thermocouple meters
 One may also measure high frequency
current by first rectifying the signal to DC
Schematic of a
and then measuring the DC
thermocouple meter.
149
Photoelectric Transducers
• Versatile tools for detecting radiant energy or light
• Are extensively used in instrumentation
• Most known photosensitive devices include
1. Photovoltaic cells
• Semiconductor junction devices used to convert
radiation energy into electrical energy
150
Photoelectric Transducers …
2. Photo diode
• A diode that is normally reverse-biased=> Current is
very low
• When a photon is absorbed, electrons are freed so
current starts to flow, i.e., the diode is forward biased
• Has an opening in its case containing a lens which
focuses incident light on the PN junction
3. Photo transistor
• Also operate in reverse-biased
• Responds to light intensity on its lens instead of base
current
151
Piezoelelectric Transducers
 Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
 If any crystal is subject to an external force F, there will be an atomic
displacement, x
 The displacement is related to the applied force in exactly the same
way as elastic sensor such as spring
 Asymmetric crystalline material such as Quartz, Rochelle Salt and

Barium Tantalite produce an emf when they are placed under stress
 An externally force, entering the sensor through its pressure port,

applies pressure to the top of a crystal
 This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the
magnitude of the applied pressure
152
Piezoelelectric Transducers
 A piezoelectric crystal is placed between two plate electrodes
 Application of force on such a plate will develop a stress and a
corresponding deformation
• With certain crystals,
this deformation will
produce a potential
difference at the surface
of the crystal
• This effect is called
piezoelectric effect
The piezoelectric effect
153
Piezoelelectric Transducers …
 Induced charge is proportional to the impressed force
Q=dF
 d= charge sensitivity (C/m2)/(N/m2) = proportionality constant
 Output voltage E= g t P
 t= crystal thickness
 P = impressed pressure
 g=voltage sensitivity (V/m)/(N/m2)
 Shear stress can also produce piezoelectric effect
 Widely used as inexpensive pressure transducers for dynamic
measurements
154
Piezoelelectric Transducers ….
 Piezoelelectric sensors have good frequency response
 Example: Accelerometer
Piezoelectric accelerometer
155
Piezoelelectric Transducers …
 Example: Pressure Sensors
 Detect pressure changes by
the displacement of a thin
metal or semiconductor
diaphragm
 A pressure applied on the
diaphragm causes a strain
on the piezoelectric crystal
 The crystal generates
voltage at the output
 This voltage is proportional
to the applied pressure
156
Tachometric Generators
 Tachometer – any device used to measure shaft’s rotation
 Tachometric generator
 A machine, when driven by a rotating mechanical force, produces
an electric output proportional to the speed of rotation
 Essentially a small generators
 Tachometric generators connect to the rotating shaft, whose

displacement is to be measured, by, e.g.,
 Direct coupling or
 Means of belts or gears
 They produce an output which primarily relates to speed
 Displacement can be obtained by integrating speed
 Types of Tachometric generators: Generally a.c. or d.c.
157
Tachometric Generators
 Voltage generated is proportional to rotation of the shaft
A.C. tachometric generator
D.C. tachometric generator
158
Ultrasonic Transducer
 Ultrasonic transducer (piezoelectric transducer) is
device that converts electrical energy into
ultrasound
 Upon receiving sound echo (pressure wave) back

from surface, ultrasound transducer will turn
sound waves into electrical energy which can be
measured and displayed
 Ultrasound are sound waves above normal range of

human hearing (greater than 20K hertz).
▪Since piezoelectric crystal generates voltage when force is
applied to it, same crystal can be used as an ultrasonic
generator and detector
▪ Some systems use separate transmitter and receiver
components while others combine both in single
piezoelectric transceiver
▪Alternative methods for creating and detecting ultrasound
include magnetostriction and capacitive actuation.
Pulse echo
sensor
Transmit-Receive
sensor
 Sound is transmitted through propagation of
pressure in air
 Speed of sound in air is normally 331 m/sec at 0oC
and 343 m/sec at 20oC for dry air
 Digital signal processor embedded in sensor
calculates distance between sensor and object
▪ X = vsound . t
▪ Where:
▪ Vsound is known
▪ t = 0.5 (time of flight)
▪ X is distance between sensor head and object
▪ Range of sensor varies between 5 cm to 20 m
▪ Sensor is not appropriate for very short distance
measurements
▪ Frequency response (distance measurement
update rate) varies with distance measured
 In general, it is about 100 Hz
 Piezoelectric crystals have property of changing size
when voltage is applied
 Applying alternating current (AC) across them
causes them to oscillate at very high frequencies
 Producing very high frequency sound waves
 Ultrasonic sensors work on principle similar to radar
or sonar
Radar and Sonar evaluate attributes of target
Interpreting echoes from radio or sound waves respectively
Applications
Medical:
▪ Medical ultrasonic transducers (probes):
▪ Come in variety of different shapes and sizes for
use in making pictures of different parts of body
▪ Transducer may be:
▪ Passed over surface of body or
▪ Inserted into body opening such as rectum or
woman’s reproductive organ
▪ Clinicians who perform ultrasound-guided procedures
often use probe positioning system to hold the
ultrasonic transducer.
▪ Technology can be used for measuring:
 wind speed and direction (anemometer),
 speed through air or water
 fullness of tank
 amount of liquid in tank
 sensor measures distance to surface of fluid.
 Other applications include:
 in robots for obstacle avoidance
 burglar alarms
 non-destructive testing, and etc
Laser Ultrasound System
 Nd:YAG pulsed laser:
▪ Repetition rate: 20 Hz
▪ Pulse Width: 10 ns
▪ Pulse Energy: 45-450 mJ/pulse Control
Box
▪ Beam Diameter: 6 mm Nd:YAG
 Positioning Stage: Laser
▪ Resolution: 50 μm
 Electro-Magnetic Acoustic
Transducer (EMAT):
▪ Bandwidth: 200 kHz-2.5 MHz
 Data Acquisition Card: EMAT and
▪ Resolution: 14 bit Preamp
Positioning
▪ Sampling Rate: 125 MHz Data Acquisition
Axis-lead screw
and User Interface
3-Analog and Digital
Transducers
 Transducers, on the basis of nature of output signal,
may be classified into analog and digital transducers.
 Analog transducer converts input signal into output
signal, which is a continuous function of time such as
thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermo-couple etc.
 Digital transducer converts input signal into the
output signal of the form of pulse e.g. it gives discrete
output.
Analog and Digital
 These transducers are becoming more and more
popular now-a-days because of advantages associated
with digital measuring instruments and also due to the
effect that digital signals can be transmitted over a
long distance without causing much distortion due to
amplitude variation and phase shift.
 Sometimes an analog transducer combined with an
ADC (analog-digital convector) is called a digital
transducer.
Transducers and Inverse
Transducers.
 Transducer, as already defined, is a device that converts a
non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
 Normally a transducer and associated circuit has a non-
electrical input and an electrical output, for example a
thermo-couple, photoconductive cell, pressure gauge,
strain gauge etc.
 An inverse transducer is a device that converts an electrical
quantity into a non-electrical quantity.
 It is a precision actuator having an electrical input and a
low-power non-electrical output.
Transducers and Inverse Transducers(cont’d)
 For examples a piezoelectric crystal and transnational and
angular moving-coil elements can be employed as inverse
transducers.
 Many data-indicating and recording devices are basically
inverse transducers.
 An ammeter or voltmeter converts electric current into
mechanical movement and the characteristics of such an
instrument placed at the output of a measuring system are
important.
 A most useful application of inverse transducers is in
feedback measuring systems.
Selection Of Transducers
 In a measurement system the transducer (or a
combination of transducers) is the input element with
the critical function of transforming some physical
quantity to a proportional electrical signal. So
selection of an appropriate transducer is most
important for having accurate results.
Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)
 The first step in the selection procedure is to clearly
define the nature of quantity under measurement
(measurand) and know the range of magnitudes and
frequencies that the measurand is expected to exhibit.
 Next step will be to examine the available transducer
principles for measurement of desired quantity.
 The type of transducer selected must be compatible
with the type and range of the quantity to be measured
and the output device.
Selection Of
 In case one or more transducer principles are capable
of generating a satisfactory signal, decision is to be
taken whether to employ a commercially available
transducer or build a suitable transducer.
 If the transducers are available in the market at a
suitable price, the choice will probably be to purchase
one of them, otherwise own transducer will have to be
designed, built and calibrated.
Selection Of
 The points to be considered in determining a transducer
suitable for a specific measurement are as follows:
 Range. The range of the transducer should be large enough
to encompass all the expected magnitudes of the
measurand.
 Sensitivity. The transducer should give a sufficient output
signal per unit of measured input in order to yield
meaningful data.
 Electrical Output Characteristics. The electrical
characteristics-the output impedance, the frequency
response, and the response time of the transducer output
signal should be compatible with the recording device and
the rest of the measuring system equipment.
Selection Of
 Physical Environment. The transducer selected
should be able to withstand the environmental
conditions to which it is likely to be subjected while
carrying out measurements and tests.
 Such parameters are temperature, acceleration, shock
and vibration, moisture, and corrosive chemicals
might damage some transducers but not others.
Selection Of
 Errors. The errors inherent in the operation of the
transducer itself, or those errors caused by
environmental conditions of the measurement, should
be small enough or controllable enough that they
allow meaningful data to be taken.
 However the total measurement error in a transducer-
activated system may be reduced to fall within the
required accuracy range by adopting the following
techniques.
Errors(cont’d)
 Calibrating the transducer output against some known
standards while in use under actual test conditions. This
calibration should be performed regularly as the
measurement proceeds.
 Continuous monitoring of variations in the environmental
conditions of the transducer and correcting the data
accordingly.
 Controlling the measurement environment artificially in
order to reduce possible transducer errors. Artificial
environmental control includes the enclosing of the
transducer in a temperature-controlled housing and
isolating the device from external shocks and vibrations.
Actuators
 An actuator is a device that actuates or moves something. An actuator
uses energy to provide motion. Therefore, an actuator is a specific type
of a transducer. These are devices that converts one form of energy
into mechanical energy so as to perform the desired output.
Therefore, an actuator is the device that brings about the mechanical
movement required for any physical process in the factory
Are devices that convert a controller command signal into a change in a
physical parameter
➢ The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or velocity)
➢ An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type of
physical quantity into some alternative form
➢ An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command signal, so an
amplifier may be required to provide sufficient power to drive the
actuator
178
Classification
They can be classified mainly into the following main groups
Hydraulic
Pneumatic
Thermal
Mechanical
Electrical
Hydraulic actuators
This system uses liquid (hydraulic oil) at relatively low speed at a high
pressure to supply power. It is used where the mechanism require
large forces and precise control which mostly used in a mechanical
activity
e.g vehicle power steering, brakes, jacks, etc
Hydraulic actuators suffer from maintenance problems like leakages of
fluids, dirty (contamination of fluids).
Hydraulic actuators may be linear or rotary
179
Cont..
Pneumatic actuators
➢ These actuators work in principle similar to
hydraulic actuators. The most pneumatic controls
are linear actuators, which are basically a piston-
cylinder assembly connected to a supply tube of
compressed air.
➢ Since air is highly compressed, pneumatic drives
are frequently not used for high force transmission,
but are much good for accurate position control
➢ Pneumatic actuators are used for fixed motion of
small object that are very common on assembly and
transfer lines
180
Cont..
Advantages of Pneumatic actuators
a)Weight
✓ Cylinders much lighter than motors
b)Simple
✓ Much easier to mount than motors
✓ Much simpler and more durable than rack and pinion for linear
motion
c)Fast on/off type tasks
d)No burnout
✓ Cylinders can be stalled indefinitely without damage
181
Cont..
The disadvantage of Pneumatic Actuators

a)All the components are quite expensive
b)A properly designed system is more complex than
an equivalent electromechanical system (electric
motors, power screws, linear actuators, etc.).
c)All these components take up quite a bit of valuable
space within a robot.
d)No weight advantage if only one cylinder used (still
need compressor, reservoir, pressure sensors,
regulator)
182
Cont..
Thermal Actuators
➢ One type of thermal actuator is a bimetallic strip. This device directly
converts thermal energy into motion. This is accomplished by
utilizing an effect called thermal expansion.
➢ Thermal expansion is the manifestation of a change in thermal
energy in a material. When a material is heated, the average distance
between atoms (or molecules) increases. The amount of distance
differs for different types of material.
➢ The opposite reaction occurs for a decrease in temperature when
most materials contract. When exposed to the elements, a material
constantly expands and contracts with ambient temperature changes
L=aLoT
➢ Where L is the change in length, a is the coefficient of linear
expansion, Lo is the original length, and  T is the change in
temperature in Celsius.
183
Cont..
Mechanical Actuators
➢ Mechanical actuators convert a mechanical input
(usually rotary) into linear motion. A common
example of a mechanical actuator is a screw jack.
➢ Rotation of the screw causes the legs of the jack to
move apart or move together. Inspecting the motion
of the top point of the jack, this mechanical
rotational input is clearly converted into linear
mechanical motion
➢ Mechanical actuators can produce a rotational
output with the proper gearing mechanism.
184
Cont..
Electrical actuators
➢ All electric motors are electromagnetic induction to
generate a force on a rotational element called a
rotor. The torque required to rotate the rotor is
created due to the interaction of magnetic fields
generated by the rotor and the part surrounding it
which is fixed , ie stator
➢ Electrically actuated systems are very widely used
in control systems because they are easy to interface
with the control system which are also electric, and
also electricity is easily available unlike fluid power
which require pumps and compressor
185
Cont..
Advantages of Electric Systems
a) Electricity is easily routed to the actuators, ie cable are simpler than
pipe work
b) Electricity is easily controlled by electronic units
c) Electricity is clean
d) Electrical faults are often easier to diagnose
The disadvantage of Electric Actuators
a) Electrical equipment are more of fire hazard than other system unless
made intrinsically safe, in which case it becomes expensive
b) Electric actuators have a poor torque – speed characteristic at low
speed
c) Electric actuators are all about rotary motion and complicated
mechanisms are needed to convert rotation into other forms of
motion
d) The power to weight ratio is inferior to hydraulic motors
186
Cont..
There are three types of motors used in control application,
A.C Motors
D.C Motors
Stepper Motors
A.C Motors (Alternating Current)

Are mainly used for producing large power output at a fixed speed.
Typically, these are 1420 or 2900rev/min. Increasingly, speed control is
being used with these motors on application such as pumps, where it is
found to be more economical to control the flow rate by changing the
speed rather than by opening or closing a pipe line valve. Speed control
is achieved electronically by varying the frequency or by chopping the
power system
A.C motors are commonly used in machine tools in labs, and
workshop, since the A.C power source are available everywhere.
187
Cont..
The table below summarizes the main type of
A.C motors, their characteristics and typical
application
Motor Type Speed Power Application
1 ~ Phase A.C Nearly constant in ~3kW or Almost all medium

Induction operational range, slightly less power pumps, fans,
less than the synchronous blowers machines
speed
3 ~ Phase A.C Nearly constant over large High, High power pumps
Induction range of loads >1.5kW machinery
188
Cont..
D.C Motors (Direct Current)
➢ These motors are more widely used in control application and
are usually referred to as SERVO MOTORS
➢ Servo motors have high torque capabilities. Unlike large
industrial motors, these are not used for continuous energy
conversion, but only for precise speed and precise position
control at high torque
➢ Their power ratings vary from fraction of a watt up to few
100W. They find wide application in radar, tracking and
guidance systems, process controllers, computers and machine
tools
➢ The D.C servo motors are either separately - excited D.C
motors or permanent – magnetic D.C motors
189
Cont..
➢ There are several types of D.C motors depending on how the D.C
source is connected to the stator and rotor coils, namely; in series, in
parallel or in compound
The table below summarizes basic characteristics and uses of some of
these
Motor Type Speed Regulation Starting Application

Torque
D.C series Very high Very high Hoists, Gates, Trains,

Bridges
D.C shunt Low Medium Printing press, machine
190
tools, conveyors
D.C compound Medium High Punch press, shears,

crushers
Cont..
Stepper motors
➢ A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which
converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical
movements.
➢ The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in
discrete step increments when electrical command
pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence.
➢ The motors rotation has several direct relationships to
these applied input pulses.
➢ The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to
the direction of motor shafts rotation.
➢ The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related
to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of
rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses
applied.
191
Cont..
➢ A stepper motor is a brushless, synchronous electric
motor that converts digital pulses into mechanical shaft
rotations. Each rotation of a stepper motor is divided
into a set number of steps, sometimes as many as 200
steps. The stepper motor must be sent a separate pulse
for each step.
➢ A stepper motor can be a good choice whenever
controlled movement is required. They can be used to
advantage in applications where you need to control
rotation angle, speed, position and synchronism
➢ The name stepper is used because these motors rotate
through a fixed angular step in response to each input
current pulse received by its controller. Basically, a
stepper motor rotates a precise – angle according to the
number of pulse of electricity sent to it.
192
cont..
Open Loop Operation

• One of the most significant advantages of a stepper
motor is its ability to be accurately controlled in an
open loop system.
• Open loop control means no feedback information
about position is needed.
• This type of control eliminates the need for expensive
sensing and feedback devices such as optical encoders.
Your position is known simply by keeping track of the
input step pulses.
193
Cont..
Advantages
a)The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input
pulse.
b)The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are
energized)
c)Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good
stepper motors have an accuracy of 3 – 5% of a step and this
error is non cumulative from one step to the next.
d)Excellent response to starting/ stopping/reversing.
e)Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor.
Therefore the life of the motor is simply dependant on the life
of the bearing.
194
Cont..
f)The motors response to digital input pulses
provides open-loop control, making the motor
simpler and less costly to control.
g)It is possible to achieve very low speed
synchronous rotation with a load that is directly
coupled to the shaft.
h)A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized
as the speed is proportional to the frequency of the
input pulses.
Disadvantages
a)Resonances can occur if not properly controlled.
b)Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.
Cont..
• There are three types of stepper motor commonly in use:
The permanent magnetic type
The variable reluctance type
The hybrid type
Permanent Magnetic (PM) Stepper motor

• The rotor is permanently magnetized with a north and south
poles.
• Two pairs of poles are placed on the stator and energized to
produce a pattern of N-S-N-S.
• The rotor will take up a position in between the poles due to
equal and opposite torques being exerted on it
196
Cont..
197
Cont..
Variable Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motor

➢ The rotor is constructed of soft iron (ferromagnetic
materials) with a number of teeth which are
unequal in number to the number of poles on the
stator.
➢ When the stator windings are energized with DC
current the poles become magnetized. Rotation
occurs when the rotor teeth are attracted to the
energized stator poles.
➢ The direction of the motor rotation is independent
of the polarity of the stator current. It is called
variable – reluctance motor because the reluctance
of the magnetic circuit formed by the rotor and
stator teeth varies with angular position of the rotor
198
Cont..
199
Cont..
Hybrid Stepper motor
➢ The hybrid stepper motor is more expensive than the
PM stepper motor but provides better performance with
respect to step resolution, torque and speed. Typical
step angles for the HB stepper motor range from 3.6° to
0.9° (100 – 400 steps per revolution).
➢ The hybrid stepper motor combines the best features of
both the PM and VR type stepper motors. The rotor is
multi-toothed like the VR motor and contains an axially
magnetized concentric magnet around its shaft. The
teeth on the rotor provide an even better path which
helps guide the magnetic flux to preferred locations in
the air gap. This further increases the detent, holding
and dynamic torque characteristics of the motor when
compared with both the VR and PM types.
200
Cont..
➢ It has wound stator poles and permanently –
magnetized rotor poles.
201
Input Characteristics of Interface Circuits
 A system designer is rarely able to connect a sensor directly to
processing, monitoring, or recording instruments, unless a sensor has a
built-in electronic circuit with an appropriate output format.
 When a sensor generates an electric signal, that signal often is either
too weak or too noisy, or it contains undesirable components.
 In addition, the sensor output may be not compatible with the input
requirements of a data acquisition system, that is, it may have a wrong
format.
 To mate a sensor and a processing device, they either must share a
“common value” or some kind of a “mating” device is required in
between. In other words, the signal from a sensor usually has to be
conditioned before it is fed into a processing device (a load).
Controllers
Introduction
➢ A system can either be described as MIMO system ie having
multiple inputs and outputs, therefore requiring more than one
controller; or SISO system ie consisting of a single input and single
output, hence having only a single controller
➢ Depending on the set – up of the physical or non-physical system,
adjusting the system’s input variable assuming it is SISO will affect
the system (operating parameters)
➢ Upon receiving the error signal that marks the disparity between
the desired value (set point) and the actual 203
output value, the
controller will then attempt to regulate controlled output behaviour.
Cont..
➢ The controller achieves this by either attenuating
or amplifying the input signal to the plant so that
the output is returned to the set-point
204
➢ A simple feedback control loop illustrates that

the error signal is received by the controller C,
which then either attenuate or amplify the input
signal to the plant
Cont..
➢ This signal describes the magnitude by which the
output value deviates from the set-point. The
signal is subsequently sent to the controller C
which interprets and adjust for the discrepancy.
If the plant is physical one, the inputs to the
system are regulated by means of actuators
205
Types of Controllers
➢ Most modern industrial control systems now rely
on computers for the industrial controllers.
Obviously it is much easier to implement complex
control algorithm on computer than using a
mechanical system (on-off control)
The following are the common controllers, ie
➢ Proportional Controllers (P)
➢ Proportional Integral Controllers206(PI)
➢ Proportional Derivatives (PD) and
➢ Proportional and Integral and Derivatives
Controllers (PID)
Cont..
Proportional Controllers (P)
➢ With this type of controller, the controlled output (control action) is
proportional to the error in the measured variable. The main usage of the P
controller is to decrease the steady state error of the system. As the
proportional gain factor K increases, the steady state error of the system
decreases. P controller is used only when system is able to tolerate to constant
steady state error as it is impossible to eliminate the steady state error
➢A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and
will reduce, but never eliminate, the steady-state error.
207
Proportional Integral Controllers (PI)
PI controller is mainly used to eliminate the steady state error resulting from P
controllers. However in terms of the speed of the response and overall stability
of the system, it has negative impact. This controller is mostly used in areas
where speed of the system is not an issue.
Cont..
Since PI controller has no ability to predict the future errors of the
system it cannot decrease the rise time and eliminate the oscillation
An integral control (KI) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-
state error, but it may make the transient response worse.
Proportional Derivatives (PD)

The aim of using PD controllers is to increase the stability of the system
by improving control since it has an ability to predict the future error of
the system response. In order to avoid effect of the208 sudden change in
the value of the error signal, the derivatives is taken from the output
response of the system variable instead of the error signal.
Therefore, D mode is designed to be proportional to the change of the
output variable to prevent the sudden changes occurring in the control
output resulting from the sudden changes in the error signal
Cont..
A derivative control (KD) will have the effect of increasing the stability
of the system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient
response.
Proportional, Integral and Derivatives Controllers (PID)

➢ PID controllers has the optimum control dynamics including zero
steady state error, fast response (short rise-time), no oscillations and
higher stability.
➢ The necessity of using a derivate gain component209in addition to the PI
controller is to eliminate the overshoot and the oscillation occurring
in the output response of the system
➢ One of the main advantage of the PID controllers is that it can be used
with higher order process including more than single energy storage
Cont..
U ( s )  A[ E ( s )]
210
Synchros
➢ Synchro is a general name for self-synchronizing
machines which when electrically energized and
electrically interconnected exert torque which cause
two mechanically independent shaft either to run in
synchronism or to make the rotor of one unit follow
the rotor of the other
➢ Synchros are special machines that are commonly
used in servo-mechanisms and other related
purposes such as positioning control and
sometimes computing
➢ Synchros always work in pair, means that one part
is transmitters and the other is for receivers
Cont..
➢ A Synchro system is an electrical system used for
transmitting information from one point to another.
➢ Synchros are used primarily for the rapid and
accurate transmission of information between
equipment and stations.
➢ Their two most common uses are for shaft angle
measurement or to position a system or dial in a
servo loop system.
➢ The mechanical input or shaft rotation is converted
to a unique set of output voltages, or when driving
a receiver a set of input voltages is used to turn the
rotor to the desired position.
Cont..
Advantages of Synchros
i. They have good reliability, requiring minimum
maintenance
ii.They are small in size, providing a significant
saving in space and weight
iii.They have a wide adaptability without sacrificing
precision
iv.They provide continuous, accurate and visual
reproduction of important information to remote
locations.
v.The synchros system uses very little electrical
power and eliminate the necessity of mechanical
linkage between widely separated unity
Synchro classification
➢ Synchros work in teams. Two or more synchros
interconnected electrically form a synchro system.
There are two general classifications of synchro systems:—
i. Torque systems
ii. Control systems
➢ Torque-synchro systems use torque synchros and control-
synchro systems use control synchros. The load dictates the
type of synchro system, and thus the type of synchro.
➢ Torque-synchro systems are classified "torque" because they
are mainly concerned with the torque or turning force
required to move light loads such as dials (clocks), pointers,
or similar indicators. The positioning of these devices
requires a relatively low amount of torque.
Cont..
➢ Control synchros are used in systems that are designed to move
heavy loads such as gun directors, radar antennas, and missile
launchers.
Control synchros system

➢ There are many types of control synchros, but the four basic types
are used for position and error-voltage application are:
Control Transmitter (CX)
Control Receiver (CR)
Control Transformer (CT)
Control Differential (CD)
➢ The Control Differential (CD) may be further subdivided into
Control Differential Transmitter (CDX) and Control Differential
Receiver (CDR)
Cont..
Control Transmitter (CX)
➢ It has three-phase stator winding similar to that of a
three-phase synchronous generators. The rotor is of
projecting pole type using dumbell construction
and has a single-phase winding
➢ When a single phase AC voltage is applied to the
rotor through a pair of slip rings, it produces an
alternating flux field along the axes of the rotor.
This alternating flux induces three unbalanced
single phase/voltage in the three stator windings
by transformation. If the rotor is aligned with the
axis of stator winding S2, flux linkage of this stator
winding is maximum and this rotor position is
defined as electrical zero as shown below:
Cont..
217
Cont..
➢ The magnitude of the induced phase-voltage depends on the
angle between the rotor field and the resultant axis of the coils
forming that stator phase. Since the axes of the three stator
phases are 120° apart, the magnitudes of the stator output
voltages can be written as:
VS 13  kVr 2 1 sin 
VS 32  kVr 21 sin(  120 )
VS 21  kVr 21 sin(  240 )
Vout (max)
TR 
Vin
➢ k is the maximum coupling transformation ratio (TR), which is
further defined as ;
➢ θ is the rotor position angle.
➢ Vs1-3 is the voltage from the S1 terminal to the S3 terminal
Cont..
Control Transformer (CT)
➢ The constructional features of synchro control
transformer are similar to that of synchro transmitter,
except the shape of rotor. The rotor of the control
transformer is made cylindrical so that the air gap is
practically uniform. This feature of the control
transformer minimizes the changes in the rotor
impedance with the rotation of the shaft.
➢ Therefor, a CT has three windings in its stator and single
phase winding in its cylindrical rotor. The electrical
zero is defined as that position of the rotor that makes
the flux linkage with two windings of the stator to be
zero contrary to that of CX, which makes electrical zero
with only one stator windings
Cont..
➢ The generated emf of the synchro transmitter is applied as

input to the stator coils of control transformer. The rotor shaft
is connected to the load whose position has to be maintained
at the desired value.
➢ Depending on the current position of the rotor and the
applied emf on the stator, an emf is induced on the rotor
winding. This emf can be measured and used to drive a motor
so that the position of the load is corrected.
Cont..
➢ As the transmitter rotor turns with the CT rotor stationary, the
magnitude of the CT stator field remains constant, and its direction
exactly matches that of the transmitter. The field cutting across the CT
rotor induces a voltage in the rotor. The magnitude of this voltage
depends on the sine of the angle between the axis of the rotor winding
and the stator flux vector; the time phase of the CT output voltage is
either approximately in time-phase or 180° out-of-time-phase with the
exciting voltage on the transmitter rotor. Since the angle of the CT
stator flux field depends upon the transmitter rotor angle, the CT
output voltage can be used to obtain information about the transmitter
rotor angle.
221
Cont..
➢ The CT compares two signals, the electrical signal
applied to its stator and the mechanical signal
applied to its rotor. Its output is a difference signal
that controls a power amplifying device and thus
the movement of heavy equipment.
➢ The unit construction and physical characteristics
of a control transformer are similar to those of a
control transmitter or torque receiver, except that
there is no damper and the rotor is a drum or
wound rotor rather than a salient-pole rotor .
Cont..
Control Receiver (CR)
➢ Its construction is essentially the same as that of
the control transmitter. It has three stator
windings and a single-phase salient pole rotor.
➢ Unlike CX, CR has a mechanical viscous damper
on the shaft which permits CR rotor to respond
without overshooting its marks. In normal use,
both the rotor and stator windings are excited
with single phase current. When the field of the
rotor conductors interacts with the field of the
stator conductor, a torque is developed which
produces rotation.
Cont..
➢ At the instant the system is energized, if the rotors of each unit are
not at the exact same angle relative to the stator phases, voltage
differences exist across each pair of stator windings causing current
to flow in both stators. This stator current produces a torque on
each rotor
Cont..
➢ Since the CX rotor is constrained from turning,
the resultant torque acts on the CR rotor in such
a direction as to align itself with the transmitter.
➢ When alignment occurs, the voltages at each
stator terminal are equal and opposite, and no
current flows. Perfect synchronization is never
achieved in practice because of the internal
friction (due to bearings and brushes) of the
receiver.
Cont..
Control Differential (CD)
➢ The differential synchros has a balanced three-
phase distributed windings in both the stator and
the rotor. It has a cylindrical rotor.
➢ Although three-phase windings are involved, it
must be kept in mind that these units deals solely
with single phase voltages. The three winding
voltages are not poly-phase voltages.
➢ Normally, the three phase voltages are identical in
magnitude but separated in phase by 120 degree.
➢ In synchros, these voltages are in phase but differ in
magnitude because of their physical orientation
Cont..
227
Cont..
➢ The differential stator is three-phase, Y-connected and is
usually the primary element; the rotor is cylindrical and is
also wound with three Y-connected phases. The output
voltages of the CD depend not only on the input voltages but
also on the rotor shaft position.
➢ As shown in figure, the differential stator is normally excited
from a transmitter stator, and the differential rotor is
connected to the receiver stator. The output voltages of the
differential are dependent now on both the transmitter rotor
position (θCX) and its own rotor position (θCD). The receiver
rotor will seek a position (θCR) which is either the sum or
difference of the transmitter and differential rotor angles (θCR
= θCX ± θCD), depending on how the CX and CD stators are
interconnected.
Torque synchro system
➢ A Torque Transmitter (TX) and a Torque Receiver
(TR) make up a simple torque-synchro system.
➢ Basically, the electrical construction of synchro
transmitters and receivers is similar, but their
intended functions are different.
➢ The rotor of a synchro transmitter is usually geared
to a manual or mechanical input. This gearing may
drive a visual indicator showing the value or
quantity being transmitted. The rotor of the
receiver synchronizes itself electrically with the
position of the rotor of the transmitter and thus
responds to the quantity being transmitted.
Basic synchro system operation
➢ A simple synchro transmission system consisting of a torque
transmitter connected to a torque receiver (TX-TR)
➢ In this system the rotors are connected in parallel across the ac line.
The stators of both synchros have their leads connected S1 to S1, S2
to S2, and S3 to S3, so the voltage in each of the transmitter stator
coils opposes the voltage in the corresponding coils of the receiver.
The voltage directions are indicated by arrows for the instant of time
shown by the dot on the ac line voltage.
➢ When both transmitter and receiver rotors in a synchro system are
on zero or displaced from zero by the same angle, a condition known
as correspondence exists
Cont..
Cont..
➢ In this condition, the rotor of the TR induces
voltages in its stator coils (say; S2 = 52V; S1 and S3 =
26V) that are equal to and opposite the voltages
induced into the TX stator coils (S2 = 52V; S1 and S3
= 26V). This causes the voltages to cancel and
reduces the stator currents to zero. With zero
current through the coils, the receiver torque is zero
and the system remains in correspondence.
➢ The angle through which a transmitter rotor is
mechanically rotated is called a Signal. In view B of
figure above, the signal is 60º. Now, consider what
happens to the two synchros in correspondence
when this signal is generated
Cont..
➢ When the transmitter rotor is turned, the rotor field follows
and the magnetic coupling between the rotor and stator
windings changes. This results in the transmitter S2 coil
voltage decreasing to 26 volts, the S3 coil voltage reversing
direction, and the S1 coil voltage increasing to 52 volts. This
imbalance in voltages, between the transmitter and receiver,
causes current to flow in the stator coils in the direction of the
stronger voltages. The current flow in the receiver produces a
resultant magnetic field in the receiver stator in the same
direction as the rotor field in the transmitter. A force (torque)
is now exerted on the receiver rotor by the interaction
between its resultant stator field and the magnetic field
around its rotor
Cont..
➢ This force causes the rotor to turn through the same
angle as the rotor of the transmitter. As the receiver
approaches correspondence, the stator voltages of the
transmitter and receiver approach equality. This action
decreases the stator currents and produces a decreasing
torque on the receiver. When the receiver and the
transmitter are again in correspondence, as shown in
view C, the stator voltages between the two synchros are
equal and opposite (S1 = 52V; S2 and S3 = 26V), the rotor
torque is zero, and the rotors are displaced from zero by
the same angle (60º). This sequence of events causes the
transmitter and receiver to stay in correspondence.
Voltage Relation
➢ Consider the control transmitter shown below. Suppose that the
rotor winding is excited by a single-phase sinusoidal AC voltage of
r.m.s value Er and that rotor is held in its displaced position from the
electrical zero.
➢ If K = stator turns/rotor turns, the r.m.s voltage induced in the
stator winding is E = KEr
➢ However, if we assume K = 1, then E = Er
➢ The rms value of the induced emf in stator windind 2 when the rotor
displacement is α is given by:
E2 S  Er c os 
Cont..
236
E1S  Er cos( 120 )

➢ Since the axis of the stator winding 1 is located 120 degrees ahead of
the axis of winding 2, the rms value of the induced emf in this
winding is;
Cont..
In the same way, since the winding 3 is located
behind the axis of winding 2 by 120 degrees, the
expression for induced emf in winding 3
becomes;
The value of terminal voltages induced can also
be found as:
E3S  Er cos(  120 )
E12  E 1S  E2 S
 Er cos(  120 )  Er cos 
 Er cos  cos120  Er sin  sin120  Er cos 
Cont..
3 3
  Er cos   Er sin 
2 2
3 1
 Er 3( cos   sin  )
2 2
E12  3Er cos(  150 )
E23  E 2S  E3 S
 Er cos   Er cos(  120 )
 Er cos   Er cos  cos120  Er sin  sin120

Cont..
3 3
 Er ( cos   sin  )
2 2
3 1
 3Er ( cos   sin  )
2 2
E23  3Er cos(  30 )
E31  E 3 S  E1S
 Er cos(  120 )  Er cos( 120 )

Cont..
 Er cos cos120  Er sin  sin120  Er cos  cos120  Er sin  sin120
3
 2 Er sin  sin120  2  sin    3 sin 
2
E31  3Er cos(  90 )

Application of Synchros
Synchros are extensively used in servo-
mechanisms for:
torque transmission, and
error detection
Torque transmission
Synchros are used to transmit torque over a long distance
without the use of a rigid mechanical connection. The figure
below represents an arrangement for maintaining alignment of
two distantly-located shafts. The arrangement requires a control
transmitter (CX) and a control receiver (CR) which acts as
torque receiver. As CX is rotated by an angle α, CR also rotates
through the same angle α.
Cont..
The stator windings of the two synchros are
connected together and their rotors are
connected to the same single-phase AC supply
242
Cont..
Error detection
➢ Synchros are used for error detection in a servo control system. In
this case a command in the form of a mechanical displacement of the
CX rotor is converted to an electrical voltage which appears at the
CT rotor winding terminals, which can be further amplified by an
amplifier
➢ Only the CX rotor is energized from the single-phase AC voltage
supply which produces an alternating air-gap flux field. This time
varying flux field induces voltage in the stator windings whose
values for
➢ The CX stator voltage supply magnetizing currents in the CT stator
windings which in turn creates an alternating flux field in their own
air-gap
  30
Cont..
➢ The value of the CT stator phase currents are such that the air-gap
flux produced by them induces voltages that are equal and opposite
to those existing in the CX stator. Hence, the direction of the resultant
flux produced by CX stator phase currents is forced to take a position
who is exactly identical to that of the rotor axis of the CT
E  Emax sin 
➢ If the rotor is assumed to be held in its electrical zero position, then
the rms of the voltage induced in the rotor is given by:
;
E max
Where:
 is the maximum voltage induced by CT air-gap flux when
coupling with the rotor windings is maximum and is the displacement angle
of the CT.
Cont..
➢ In general, the value of the rms voltage induced in
CT rotor winding when displacement of CX is
 Xand that of the CT rotor is T is given by:
E  Emax sin( X  T )

Basics of Control Engineering

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Basics of Control Engineering

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Lecturer: Dr.- Ing. John P.

Meaning, types , characteristics, application of:

The manipulated variable is the quantity or condition that is

Control means measuring the value of the controlled variable of

A process is any operation to be controlled. Processes can be

A system is a combination of components that act together and

A disturbance is a signal that adversely affects the value of the

Feedback control refers to an operation that, in the presence of

• Have input and output signal(s) (Examples of signals:

• Process their inputs to produce their outputs (outputs are

• Are described by differential equations

• Engineers produce mathematical models of the components so

➢ Computer control system

➢ Pneumatic (hydraulic) system

Time variant Time invariant

Distributed Parameter (Partial Lumped Parameter

Continuous Time Discrete Time

Non-homogeneous Homogeneous (No External

 Automatic Control System

Examples:- Washing Machine, Toaster, Electric Fan

Closed-loop control system = feedback control system.

Those systems in which the output has no effect on the control

 Simple in construction and design

• Therefore, the accuracy of the system depends on calibration.

• The performance of open loop system is severely affected by the presence

Examples:- Refrigerator, Iron

• closed loop because it has feedback

Multivariable Control System

Input + error Controller Output

• Feedback can be positive or negative.

Antenna Positioning System Modular Servo System (MS150)

u(t) Process y(t)

y(t )  2u(t )  1 y(t )  3u(t )  5

Adhesion Characteristics of Road

• Linear control System Does not

• When the magnitude of signals in 0.1

• Time varying control system is a system in which one or more parameters

• Control system that can be described by ordinary differential equations are

• Whereas the distributed parameter control systems are described by partial

• In continuous data control system all system variables are function of a

• If not, the control system is a stochastic control system.

 The dynamic characteristics of most control systems are not constant

 The effect of small changes on the system parameters is attenuated in a

 An adaptive control system is required when the changes in the system

 A control system that can learn from the environment it is operating is

• There are many household and industrial application

Control Device Actuator Process

Amplifier DC motor Turntable

Desired speed (b)

Turntable speed control: open-loop

Measured speed Tachometer

(a) Automobile steering

‡ Note that for simplicity, we assume that K1 and K2 are

If K2 is halved, then the overall system gain reduces to 67% of the

The sensitivity is reduced as the loop gain (i.e.,

Obvious advantage of using feedback

-- Sensitivity to Plant Parameter Variations and

If the loop gain GcG1G2 >> 1, then feedback reduces

Feedback can also

 In general, the classification of sensors is given by

• Petrol-tank level indicator

R(T )  R0 [1  1T   2T 2  ...]  R0[1  T ]

 Where  is the temperature coefficient of resistance and given as