2.838 4.

Article

Regenerative Braking Applied to a

Student Team’s Electric Racing
Motorcycle Prototype: A Theoretical
Study

Nuno Rego and Rui Castro

https://doi.org/10.3390/app13063784
 applied
sciences
Article
Regenerative Braking Applied to a Student Team’s Electric
Racing Motorcycle Prototype: A Theoretical Study
Nuno Rego 1 and Rui Castro 2, *
Citation: Rego, N.; Castro, R.
Regenerative Braking Applied to
a Student Team’s Electric Racing
Motorcycle Prototype: A Theoretical
Study. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
app13063784
Academic Editor: Luisa F. Cabeza
Received: 10 February 2023
Revised: 8 March 2023
Accepted: 11 March 2023
Published: 16 March 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13063784
1 Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; nunosousarego@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
2 INESC-ID/IST, University of Lisbon, 1000-029 Lisboa, Portugal
* Correspondence: rcastro@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
Abstract: One crucial aspect in the design phase of an electric racing prototype is reducing the weight
and size of the battery energy storage system without compromising performance. Using battery
energy storage also presents range limitations. A promising solution is to implement regenerative
braking as a way to divert energy from the wheel to the accumulator, thus recuperating some of
it rather than losing it entirely as heat when only using mechanical brakes. MATLAB/Simulink
software (Matlab R2022a version) was developed to simulate in 25 different tracks the regenerative
capacity of an electric racing motorcycle developed by students for a student worldwide competition.
Results point to an average increase in available energy of 11.11% for a depth of discharge of 80%,
when applying 30% of the braking force on the rear wheel as regenerative braking. This translates
to an average increase in traveled distance of 8.8%. Sensitivity analyses on the Circuit of Barcelona–
Catalunya on the percentage of rear braking and mass allow concluding that (1) for a reduction of
5% in weight, the percentage of recuperated energy decreases from 12.21% to 12.03% and traveled
distance increases from 39.635 km to 40.527 km. For a 5% weight increase, the recuperated energy
increases to 12.45%, and the traveled distance decreases to 38.886 km; (2) if the percentage of rear
braking were to increase or decrease by 5%, the traveled distance would increase or decrease about
1.5%, respectively.
Keywords: electric racing motorcycle; battery energy storage system; regenerative braking
1. Introduction
One of the most important groups in the energy transition toward a greener and cleaner
future is academia [1,2]. It is through education that long-term societal advancements can
occur. In several academic institutions, students create teams and develop projects using
the knowledge they receive in class and by researching further on their own.
TLMoto was founded in 2012 by a group of students in Instituto Superior Técnico,
University of Lisbon. The main intent of the project is to design, build and race a mo-
torcycle prototype in a biennial competition for universities worldwide that takes place
in Spain, called MotoStudent. This competition has already gathered universities from
22 countries in 4 different continents. With an estimated EUR 5 million spent in R&D,
this is an event that moves a substantial amount of money. The competing teams are
evaluated in two phases: static tests, or MS1, and dynamic tests, or MS2. The static tests
evaluate the projects as real business project models, where teams not only explain the
engineering behind their prototypes but also the marketing, economic and financial plans
they applied. Before advancing to the MS2 phase, all prototypes are subjected to a scru-
tineering procedure that ensures safety and functionality. After obtaining approval from
the organization, motorcycles perform a series of dynamic tests and ultimately race at the
Circuit of MotorLand Aragon.
For the sixth edition of the MotoStudent competition, TLMoto built its third prototype,
the second electric one—the TLM03e. This vehicle will be used in this paper and can
achieve the performance marks displayed in Table 1.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 2 of 26

Table 1. TLM03e prototype’s performance marks.

Top Speed (km/h) 0–100 km/h (s) Max Power (kW)

180 4 42
Max Torque (Nm) Stored Energy (kWh) Battery Pack Max. Voltage (V)
95 8.5 126

When the rider accelerates, a signal is sent to the controller, where the signal is
transformed into a direct specific current request for the battery storage unit. The signal
is transformed into a specific torque request, which corresponds to a certain current that
the accumulators need to provide to the controller (seen in Figure 1), which also contains
an inverter that transforms the DC current from the batteries into an AC current that can
be used by the motor. The motor’s stator receives the alternating (3 phase) AC current
in its copper windings (seen in Figure 2), which induces a magnetic field with a flow
perpendicular to the axis of rotation—radial flux motor. The rotor (seen in Figure 3) has
permanent magnets which have a magnetic field. The induced magnetic field in the stator
interacts with the permanent magnetic field in the rotor, making it move. This movement
is transmitted to the wheel (without a gear box) and this is how the motorcycle accelerates.
Note that Figures 2 and 3 show the motor of the team’s previous prototype, the TLM02e.
The TLM03e’s motor is not equal to the one shown in this section and it was shown merely
for representational purposes.

Figure 1. TLM03e prototype’s controller Sevcon Gen4 size 6.

Figure 2. TLM02e prototype’s stator.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 3 of 26

Figure 3. TLM02e prototype’s rotor.

The reverse situation can also happen in which the wheel’s movement turns the rotor,
thus inducing an alternating current in the stator. This current can then be transformed
into a DC current in the controller and sent to the battery units where it is stored. This
situation, in which the motor acts as a generator, is what will be discussed throughout this
paper—regenerative braking. Regenerative braking is the act of recovering kinetic energy
from the vehicle rather than losing it as heat with typical brakes.
In electric vehicles (EVs) or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), the process
of regeneration is entirely automatic and occurs when the motor’s speed exceeds the
demanded speed that is requested by the controller.
However, in motorcycles, a lever needs to be triggered by the rider (similar to a con-
ventional braking system), and the motor is slowed down. This can significantly reduce
wear and tear caused by friction in a hydraulic system, and both braking systems can be
used simultaneously, combining in an improved braking performance.
As the motor is slowed down, the regenerative current is reduced, which also reduces
the available braking force. This is why mechanical braking is also required in vehicles
with regenerative braking.
Electric vehicles have to be designed in a way that minimizes weight and optimizes
autonomy. Seen as a promising solution for extended range and weight reduction, the
following work’s major contribution is to investigate the regenerative braking capacity of
a given electric racing motorcycle. What sets this work apart from other analyzed studies
is the variability in circuits, with a total of 25 different racetracks, leading to conclusions
not only on recovered energy values but also on their dependence on track variables: lap
distance, number of turns and average track speed.
To achieve said results, software was developed to simulate the motorcycle’s speed in
all circuits. The obtained values were used in a developed MATLAB/Simulink software
(Matlab R2022a version) to obtain the regenerated energy values for each track.
This report is structured as follows. In Section 2, relevant studies on the subject are
analyzed. Section 3 contains an overview of the studied system’s components and the two
developed Matlab/Simulink software (Matlab R2022a version) used to obtain lap times
and the results in Section 4. Recovered energy and distance results are further explored in
a sensitivity analysis on mass and on the percentage of regenerative braking in Section 5.
All the obtained results and possible future studies on the subject are discussed in Section 6.

2. Literature Review
Electric vehicles store energy in their accumulator, which can be composed of different
storage solutions. Batteries are not ideal for delivering energy quickly. This may be required
for load leveling, or when providing a burst of current to turn on a motor. These scenarios
may put stress on the battery and shorten its capacity and operating life.
The selection of the type of battery for a vehicle is crucial in racing scenarios. High
grades of specific energy and energy density are required to balance performance and
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 4 of 26

range. Since high power is required in a competitive situation, high specific power and
power density are required.
Lithium-ion batteries were invented a century after their lead–acid counterparts and
perform much better in terms of the chosen cradle-to-grave environmental impact cate-
gories in [3] and are techno-economically more viable than lead–acid batteries under the
considered specifications used in a MATLAB simulation in [4].
Ameli et al. [5] studied the relation between the life cycle and depth of sischarge
(DoD) of a Li-ion battery and obtained the expression in Equation (1), where a = 4000
and b = −1.632. From this relation, it is possible to conclude that the higher the depth of
discharge (DoD), the lower the life expectancy of a Li-ion battery (Ncycle) since there is
a decrease in the discharge capacity of the batteries as the cycle numbers increase:

N cycle = a × DoDb (1)

In [6], Murtiningrum et al. analyzed the public perception of electric motorcycles (EMs)
and found that environmental and economic benefits combined with incentive policies
positively affect the attitude regarding EMs. A total of 36% of the study’s participants
expressed intentions to purchase an EM as their next two-wheeled vehicle, despite the high
costs and perceived risk.
In a study conducted in 2014, Ahmadi et al. [7] stated that the benefits of the electrifi-
cation of motorized vehicles could be doubled by extending the life of EV batteries and via
a well-managed use of off-peak energy.
The authors in [8,9] investigated several types of energy storage for zero-emission mo-
torcycles and observed that lithium-ion is the most used battery storage method and offers
high grid-to-wheel energy conversion efficiency, although low energy storage density along
with low specific energy, limited range, high charging time and costs are still hindering
the public from these types of two-wheelers. Thus, lithium-ion battery two-wheelers are
affected by low-range, which deters potential customers and slows down the electrification
of the global transportation fleet.
Regenerative braking can be used in all types of electric vehicles that also have me-
chanical brakes, such as trains [10] and buses [11].
Motorsport is a great means to catch the public’s eye and increase the visibility of
new vehicular technologies and improve them. A formula SAE team in [12] developed
a regenerative braking strategy for racing scenarios and observed that recovered energy
values enable a mass reduction of the studied car.
MotoE is a competition that uses only electric motorcycles that regenerate energy by
using the motor brake in about 30% of each race, according to the competition’s official
website [13]. Regenerative braking systems are currently designed with a low fixed max-
imum regeneration rate in order not to cause the rear wheel to lose grip when using the
motor brake [14].
Cui et al. [15] simulated in MATLAB/Simulink software the regenerative potential
of a road motorcycle and found improvements in driving range and costs. The benefits
of regenerative braking were also investigated in [16] using MATLAB/Simulink software.
Results point to an increase in range of 4% to 14%.
MATLAB/Simulink software was used in [17] to simulate regenerative braking via
neural network control in a motorcycle with a boost converter. Results not only showed an
increase in driving distance and battery performance but also in the accumulator’s life cycle.

3. Methodology and Simulation Conditions

In this section, the most important components in the propulsion system of the TLM03e
prototype are presented. The overall efficiency of this system is calculated, and the devel-
oped software is explained.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 5 of 26

3.1. Tlm03e Prototype

The powertrain system, as seen in Figure 4, is a simple energy storage system directly
connected to the motor controller, which is then connected to the motor, with a direct drive
chain transmission to the rear wheel.

Figure 4. TLM03e prototype’s simplified powertrain diagram.

The team’s powertrain department researched different kinds of transmission types and
decided to use a simple direct drive transmission due to its simplicity, high maintainability
and excellent efficiency over other options. This transmission consists of a pinion directly
connected to the motor, directly connected to a sprocket on the rear wheel through a chain.
As the electric motor provides high torque in an extensive rotational speed range, the
disadvantages (high mass and introduced losses in the system) of a gearbox outweigh its
advantages (always utilizing the motor at peak power in a narrow rotational speed band).

3.1.1. Batteries
The selected accumulator has to ensure an appropriate energy capacity for the pur-
poses of the competition. If the capacity is too low, either lower power modes have to
be used, which does not bode well for a racing scenario, or there might even be a risk
of not finishing the race. If, however, the installed capacity is too high, there are a few
disadvantages to be considered: increased cost, which is a make-or-break factor in a project
with limited funding and increased volume and weight, which contribute to an inferior
on-track performance.
Since the purpose of all the team’s prototypes is to race in the MotoStudent competition
in the Aragón circuit, the team calculates the energy required to complete a race, then adds
a safety factor. A team-developed software optimizes the number of parallel and series
connections in the battery pack.
The TLM03e prototype has 754 Sony US18650VTC6 cylindrical rechargeable lithium-ion
batteries with the properties presented in Table 2, which combine into the total energy (E)
that is calculated in Equation (2) by multiplying the nominal voltage (V), the nominal
capacity (C), the number of cells in series (Nseries ) and the number of cells in parallel
(Nparallel ):
E = V × C × Nseries × Nparallel = 8.5 kWh (2)
The recommended depth of discharge given in the manufacturer’s datasheet is be-
tween 50% and 80% for long-term storage. This work uses the value of DoD = 80%, from
a state of charge (SOC) of 90% (=7650 Wh) to SOC = 10% (=850 Wh). From Equation (1),
it is concluded that a higher DoD means a lower number of cycles and a lower discharge
capacity for the batteries. This can be explained since high performance is required at all
times, which surpasses sustainability purposes.
Energy storage units can be used in significantly different ways, according to the
power mode of the motorcycle (100% power is not always the case, particularly for a better
endurance performance). Hence, manufacturer datasheets do not contain efficiency values,
as they are not constant.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 6 of 26

Table 2. Sony US18650VTC6 datasheet values [18].

Characteristics Data
Total 754
Quantity No. in series 29
No. in parallel 26
Nominal 3120 mAh (11.3 Wh)
Capacity
Rated 3000 mAh (10.8 Wh)
Maximum 4.25 V
Voltage Nominal 3.6 V
Cut-off 2.0 V
Charge 5 A maximum
Current (Continuous) 30 A with 80 ◦ C cut-off
Discharge
15 A without 80 ◦ C cut-off
Weight 46.6 ± 1.5 g

Not having the charge/discharge efficiency of the selected lithium-ion batteries would
diminish the quality of the achieved results. Therefore, this paper uses a simplified constant
efficiency of 98%, as reported by Wang et al. [19], even though in the most realistic scenario
possible, the charge/discharge efficiency values vary.

3.1.2. Motor
In MotoStudent, all the teams receive equal motors to work with about a year before
the competition. For the 2019/2020 competition in which the TLM03e took part, the 20 kg
ENGIRO-MS1920 motor was provided, whose specifications are summarized in Table 3. It
is an internal permanent magnet (magnetic anisotropy: magnetic reluctance opposing the
stator magnetic force is rotor angle-dependent) synchronous (the rotor rotates at the same
speed as the rotating magnetic field) motor (PMSM). Compared to brushless DC electric
motors (BLDC), PMSMs are more efficient and have a more linear torque response [20]. Its
simulated efficiency is provided in the manufacturer’s datasheet and presented in Figure 5,
from which a value of 92% efficiency was selected for this paper.

Table 3. Nominal and maximum values of the motor.

Nominal Torque (Nm) Nominal Power (kW) Nominal Speed (rpm)

22 13 5720
Maximum Torque (Nm) Maximum Power (kW) Maximum Speed (rpm)
95 42 8000

Figure 5. Simulated efficiency of the ENGIRO-MS1920. Source: manufacturer’s datasheet [21].

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 7 of 26

The torque that is generated by the engine must be delivered to the rear wheel through
a chain. This introduces losses into the system since the efficiency of this process is not
100%. In a study on the transmission efficiency values of racing motorcycles [22], authors
reported transmission efficiencies of over 95% for a motorcycle racing at up to 170 km/h
(the top speed of the TLM03e prototype). Therefore, this paper uses the conservative value
of 95% of the transmission efficiency.

3.1.3. Controller
A motorcycle’s controller is its brain. It brings together all components of the vehicle
by receiving inputs (from the battery, from speed or brake sensors, etc.) and translating
them into signals that dictate the behavior of the motorcycle’s components.
The selected controller unit needs to uphold the following requirements: (1) the
maximum output current needs to be at least the motor maximum current (780 Arms );
(2) the maximum input voltage must be at least the maximum voltage of the battery
pack (126 V); (3) the communication protocol should be CAN, to be compatible with the
team’s electronics department’s protocols; and (4) the maximum output frequency needs to
be at least the motor frequency at max speed (8000 rpm).
The chosen controller for the TLM03e was a Sevcon Gen4 size 6. This work uses
an empirically observed efficiency of 95% since one is not provided in the controller
manufacturer’s datasheet. This paper assumes 100% efficiency in cables due to their
relatively short length. The total efficiency of the system was calculated by multiplying the
efficiencies of the batteries, the motor, the transmission, the controller and the cables.

3.2. LapTime
3.2.1. LapTime Software
The LapTime software was created by the TLMoto team in order to mathematically
simulate a perfect lap of a given motorcycle in a given trajectory. It is a point mass model
with longitudinal weight transfer of the motorcycle and requires the input of four files
in order to run: the route, which will be discussed in Section 3.2.2; the motorcycle, by
inputting its main physical characteristics, some of which are presented in Table 4; the
tires’ characteristics; and the motor’s torque based on the rpm (rotations per minute).

Table 4. TLM03e main physical characteristics.

Characteristics Data
Wheelbase (m) 1.44
Mass (+rider) (kg) 220
Overall
Drag coefficient 0.14
Lift coefficient 0.012
Height (m) 0.5
Center of Mass
Distance to back wheel (m) 0.85
Height (m) 0.5
Center of Pressure
Distance to back wheel (m) 0.8
Rack radius (m) 0.15
Transmission
Pinion radius (m) 0.03

With these, the program had to be run twice for each track, the first with the initial
speed of 0 km/h and the second one with the initial speed equal to the speed the motorcycle
achieved in the last instant of the first lap, thus creating what is called a flying lap. The
software then creates an output with a velocity time series of the lap, which was treated
with a developed Matlab and Simulink implementation, described further in Section 3.3.
A simplified fluxogram of this process is presented in Figure 6.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 8 of 26

Figure 6. LapTime software fluxogram.

3.2.2. Simulated Racetracks

In order to simulate the energy gains with the proposed regenerative braking method,
twenty-five racetracks were simulated in MATLAB software (Matlab R2022a version). The
racetracks are simplifications of the real-life scenario since these are made up of a string of
continuous points. These points represent a fixed theoretical optimal trajectory between
the racing lines for each track, which can be seen in red in Figure 7. Each pilot can
opt for different approaches to the same track. However, the LapTime software works
with a predefined trajectory and calculates the fastest way to travel it. All the remaining
trajectories are presented in Appendix A in Figures A1–A24, in which the track limits are
seen in black and the trajectory is seen in red. The green arrow indicates the direction of
travel in the starting point of each track.

Figure 7. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Circuit de Barcelona–Catalunya, Spain.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 9 of 26

The motorcycle’s state of energy can be defined with the definition of mechanical
energy without friction losses, as a simplification, represented in Equation (3). This equation
states that mechanical energy variations (△ E M ) in an isolated system are null. Hence,
kinetic energy (EKineticinitial ) and potential energy (EPotentialinitial ) can only be transformed
from one to another or transferred to another system to form EKinetic f inal and EPotential f inal .
The body’s mass is m = 220 kg, and the gravitational acceleration is g = 9.81 m/s2 . To
create the most realistic scenario, altitude (h) has to be considered in the created tracks, as
ignoring it will affect velocity v in Equation (4). This paper does not feature height values
since the simulated tracks use two coordinates to create their plan view, as in Figure 7.
This simplification leads to errors in the speed profile, braking values and consequently
recovered energy results:

△ EM = 0 → EKineticinitial + EPotentialinitial = EKinetic f inal + EPotential f inal (3)

1
Ekinetic = m v2 ∧ E potential = m g h (4)
2

3.3. Developed MATLAB/Simulink

After obtaining a velocity time series from the LapTime algorithm, the developed
MATLAB and Simulink software (Matlab R2022a version) calculated all the remaining
values utilized in this work.
The obtained velocity over time was derived to obtain the acceleration values with
which it was possible to calculate the traction force (Ftraction ) exerted by the motorcycle on
the tarmac. This force is the vector sum of the four main forces acting on any moving body
that are seen in Figure 8: resultant force (Fres ), aerodynamic force (Faero ), gravity force (Fg )
and the rolling resistance force (Frr ). The calculations for each of the previous forces relative
to the x axis are illustrated in Equation (5), where m = 220 kg is the mass of the motorcycle
and rider (altogether), a is the acceleration of the moving system, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 is the
density of the air, A f = 0.51 m2 is the frontal area of the system (rider and motorcycle
together, this value is fixed throughout the laps as a simplification) that causes aerodynamic
drag, Cd = 0.14 is the drag coefficient, v is the velocity, g = 9.81 m/s2 is the gravity
acceleration, θ = 0◦ is the slope of the terrain, and Crr = 0.018 is the coefficient of rolling
resistance. All forces, except the rolling resistance, act on the bodies center of mass (CM),
which is equal to the center of pressure (CP).

Figure 8. Visual representation of the forces acting on a moving body.

Ftraction = Fres − Faero − Fg − 2Frr



Fres = m a




Forces acting on the system Faero = 12 ρ A f Cd v2 (5)
Fg = m g sin(θ )



Frr = 12 Crr m g cos(θ )


Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 10 of 26

The energy regeneration system was created using the Simulink model seen in Figure 9.
This model receives the velocity of the motorcycle as an input and calculates the traction
force in Equation (5) as well as the traction power by multiplying velocity and traction force.
Traction power is divided by the efficiency of the system, referenced in Table 5, thus
creating the power that needs to be exerted for the motorcycle to achieve the input velocity.
By integrating the aforementioned power, one obtains the consumed energy over time.
The consumed energy is subtracted from the initial available energy value of 90% state of
charge (SOC = 7650 Wh), which will create the available energy over time until 10% SOC
(=850 Wh) is reached, with no regeneration.

Table 5. TLM03e efficiency of main components used in this work.

Characteristics Data
Batteries 98%
Motor 92%
Efficiency Transmission 95%
Controller 95%
Cables 100%
Total 81.37%

Traction power is also multiplied by the efficiency of the system and the percentage of
rear braking, thus obtaining the energy that is recovered to the battery pack over time. This
recovered energy is multiplied by the efficiency of the system once again, simulating its
path back to the wheels. To the initial available energy value of 90% SOC (=7650 Wh), the
system now subtracts the consumed energy. However, it also adds the values of recovered
energy times the efficiency of the vehicle, thus obtaining the available energy over time
until 10% SOC (=850 Wh) is reached, with regeneration.

Figure 9. Simulink model used to calculate and manage energy over time.

The biggest “loss” factor in this work is related to how much braking is, in fact,
regenerative. Different riders use different approaches on-track. Hence, there is a variability
in the percentage of usage of the rear brake, when compared to the front caliper. This is
called the brake bias. MotoGP riders use the rear brake for about 70% of their laps to balance
the vehicle and take on a less aggressive approach than when only using the front braking
system. However, the rear braking mechanism is responsible for only about 30% of the
braking power, a 70/30 braking bias. In Section 5, a careful analysis of several values of
rear braking is applied, and the results are compared.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 11 of 26

4. Results
4.1. Recovered Energy
The obtained recuperated energy results for each of the 25 simulated tracks are repre-
sented in Table 6.

Table 6. Simulated racetracks and respective recuperated energy values.

Racetrack Location Rec. En. [%]

Circuit of the Americas USA 11.57
Brands Hatch Circuit United Kingdom 11.27
Hungaroring Hungary 13.07
Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya Spain 12.21
Hockenheimring Germany 10.89
Norisring Germany 11.28
Albert Park Circuit Australia 11.58
Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez Mexico 11.74
Circuit Gilles Villenueve Canada 11.45
Autodromo Nazionale Monza Italy 7.88
Moscow Raceway Russia 14
Nürburgring Germany 11.43
Motorsport Arena Oschersleben Germany 12.26
Bahrain International Circuit Bahrain 11.05
Autodromo Jose Carlos Pace Brazil 10.04
Sepang International Circuit Malaysia 10.94
Shanghai International Circuit China 10.29
Silverstone Circuit United Kingdom 9.94
Sochi Autodrom Russia 11.46
Spa-Francorchamps Italy 8.86
Red Bull Ring-Spielberg Austria 10.07
Suzuka Japan 9.5
Yas Marina United Arab Emirates 11.82
Zandvoort Netherlands 11.86
Motorland Aragón Spain 11.4

Recuperated or recovered energy is understood in this paper as the percentage of

energy that is added to the accumulator compared to its original available energy value of
80% of the stored energy (=6800 Wh). Hence, when energy recuperation is 10%, this means
that 10% of 6800 Wh (=680 Wh) are regenerated. It is worth mentioning that, in order to be
used again, the recuperated energy will travel all the components until at the wheel once
again, which will reduce the amount of energy that actually reaches the tarmac.
Figure 10 shows a histogram with the results of recuperated energy for all 25 studied
racetracks. An average value of 11.11% of energy was found to have been recuperated per
track, with 17 of the results within the 10% and 12% recuperated energy range.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 12 of 26

Figure 10. Recuperated energy percentage histogram.

4.2. Variation of Recovered Energy per Circuit

The obtained results vary with the racetracks’ three main characteristics: the number
of turns, lap distance and the average speed.
In Figure 11, a linear regression of the recuperated energy results over average track
speed was drawn for all the circuits. The obtained linear model explains about 80%
(R2 = 0.804) of the variability in results. Hence, there is a direct correlation between the
amount of energy that can be recuperated in a circuit and the average speed it takes a
vehicle to run said circuit.

Figure 11. Linear regression of the recuperated energy percentage over average speed.

Linear regressions of the obtained recuperated energy results over the tracks’ number
of turns and lap distances were also obtained in Figure 12 and Figure 13, respectively.
The lap distance’s linear regression with the results has a value of R2 = 0.263, which
is much lower than the value obtained for the average speed. This variable does not clearly
explain the variation in recuperated energy, although they are related to a certain extent, as
seen in Figure 13.
The variable which is the least connected with energy recuperation is the number of turns,
with a linear regression value of R2 = 0.0173. The lack of relation is best seen in Figure 12.
Figures 14 and 15 visually represent how the recuperated energy and average speed
vary with the other two track variables.
As per Figure 14, there is no clear dependence of recuperated energy and average
speed with the track’s number of turns. Recuperated energy (bubble size) increases for
lower average speeds, on the x axis, from 7.88% to a maximum of 14%. The number of turns
(y axis) does not have a connection with average speed since recuperated energy values for
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 13 of 26

tracks with the least number of turns are almost equal to those obtained for tracks with the
highest number of turns.

Figure 12. Linear regression of the recuperated energy percentage over the number of turns.

Figure 13. Linear regression of the recuperated energy percentage over lap distance.

Figure 14. Percentage of recuperated energy varying with the number of turns and average speed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 14 of 26

Figure 15. Percentage of recuperated energy varying with the lap distance and average speed.

Figure 15 shows a slight connection between recuperated energy, average speed and
lap distance. The y axis is now represented by the lap distance, and the recuperated energy
values (bubble size) seem to increase not only with decreasing average speeds but also with
decreasing lap distances.

4.3. Variation of Recovered Energy Circuit de Barcelona–Catalunya

The results obtained for the Barcelona–Catalunya circuit are examined here, in
further detail.
The LapTime performance of the TLM03e in its first lap of this circuit is visualized
in Figure 7, where the gradient of velocity is represented as a colorbar. This color scheme
facilitates the detection of regeneration zones, seen in red, with lower velocities due to
braking. These are the zones where the vehicle is able to recuperate energy.
Figure 16 is a graphical representation of the available energy with and without
regenerative braking (in green and blue, respectively), for a specific time period. Whenever
the motorcycle brakes, seen as a decrease in velocity in Figure 17, the available energy of the
system without regeneration is constant since no acceleration is required from the motor.
However, in the regenerative braking situation, there is an increase in available energy.
The cumulative recuperation of energy until 10% SOC is reached is seen in Figure 18.
The regen system gathered 812.10 Wh, an increase in energy capacity of 12.21%, which
allowed the vehicle to extend its track time in 99.7 s for an additional distance of 3.538 km
(9.80% distance increase). This increase in distance is enough for the motorcycle to complete
8 full laps instead of 7.

Figure 16. Difference of available energy with and without regeneration in a specific time period.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 15 of 26

Figure 17. Velocity of the motorcycle in a specified time period.

Figure 18. Available energy over time until a 10% SOC is reached.

5. Sensitivity Analysis
The circuit analyzed in Section 4.3, Circuit de Barcelona–Catalunya, was selected for
a sensitivity analysis in this section. First, an analysis was carried out on the percentage of
rear braking and further on the mass of the system (motorcycle plus rider).
The results are compared in Table 7 for several percentages of rear braking (R. Braking),
meaning, for different percentages of braking, which is regenerative.

Table 7. Sensitivity analysis results for several rear braking percentages and a mass of 220 kg.

R. Braking (25%) R. Braking (30%) R. Braking (35%) R. Braking (100%)

Rec. En. 9.93% 12.21% 14.63% 56.38%

The realistic values of 25 to 35% of regenerative braking show energy recovery values
of 9.93% and 14.63%, respectively. When the rear braking is responsible for 25% of the total
braking force, a distance of 39.001 km is driven by the vehicle. If, however, 35% of the total
braking force is regenerative, a distance of 40.301 km can be driven, an increase of 0.666 km
from the 39.635 km driven with 30% regenerative braking.
When the braking bias is 0%, all of the braking force is applied on the rear wheel.
This situation, represented in Figure 19, would be ideal for regenerative braking since all
braking would be regenerative. This would lead to an increase in distance from 36.097 km
traveled without regeneration to 51.169 km with regeneration.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 16 of 26

Figure 19. Recovered energy results for 100% regenerative braking.

A ±5% variation of the total mass (rider + motorcycle = 220 kg) was also performed.
For this, new lap times were calculated using the developed software and the recuperated
energy values in Table 8 were obtained.

Table 8. Sensitivity analysis results for several mass values and a percentage of rear braking of 30%.

Total Mass = 209 kg Total Mass = 220 kg Total Mass = 231 kg

Rec. En. 12.03% 12.21% 12.45%
Total Distance 40.527 km 39.635 km 38.886 km

If the total mass of the system were to decrease by 5% (=11 kg) to 209 kg, the percentage
of recuperated energy would decrease to a value of 12.03%. However, the traveled distance
would increase from 39.635 km to 40.527 km.
If the total mass of the system increases to 231 kg, the energy recuperation results
increase to a value of 12.45%, although the traveled distance decreases to 38.886 km.
To achieve the same velocity as the motorcycle with 220 kg, more energy is required in
the 231 kg scenario as kinetic energy in Equation (4) needs to increase. Hence, even though
more energy is also recuperated in the 231 kg situation, the traveled distance actually
decreases. The exact opposite occurs for the 209 kg scenario, where the energy required to
attain the same velocity decreases and although less energy is recuperated, the traveled
distance is improved.

6. Conclusions
This paper applied the methodology for determining the amount of energy recu-
perated via regenerative braking in several racetracks for a student-built electric racing
motorcycle prototype (TLM03e) for the MotoStudent competition. A developed software
MATLAB (Matlab R2022a version) simulated lap times around all of the tracks, including
initial and flying laps. With the obtained velocity time series and, using a percentage of 30%
of rear regenerative braking, a developed MATLAB/Simulink software (Matlab R2022a
version) determined the results of recuperated energy per circuit. Sensitivity analyses of
the percentage of rear braking and the mass of the prototype plus the rider were performed
to help draw more conclusions.
Results show the following:
• Recuperated energy values range from 7.88% to a maximum of 14% with an average
of 11.11% recovered per circuit, which translates into an average traveled distance
increase of 8.8%.
• Recuperated energy depends strongly on the average speed of the circuit, slightly on
the lap distance and not at all on the number of turns. If average track speeds are
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 17 of 26

lower, more braking scenarios occur and, therefore, higher regenerated energy values
are expected.
• A sensitivity analysis leads to a conclusion that increasing 5% of the percentage
of regenerative braking results in increases of 666 m in traveled distance for the
Catalunya circuit. If the percentage of rear braking were to suffer a decrease of the
same magnitude, the traveled distance would decrease by 634 m.
• A sensitivity analysis on the weight of the system revealed that diminishing the weight
from 220 kg to 209 kg (5%) leads to a 0.18% decrease in recuperated energy results.
If the mass were to increase by the same amount, recuperated energy results would
increase by 0.24%.
• Regenerative systems can provide the vehicle with significant recuperated energy
values, according to the cases studied in this paper. These allow the TLM03e proto-
type to run one more lap in almost every circuit, using 100% of its power and 30%
regenerative braking. If endurance is the sole purpose of a race, values higher than
30% regenerative braking can be used, which, combined with a lower power usage,
will result in a very good distance increase.
In a racetrack, elevation differs several meters from the starting value during a lap.
When not accounting for this variation, the velocity and, consequently, kinetic energy
are overestimated. Hence, future work can include the height (and inclination) values of
the racetracks.
Since almost 70% of the braking force is applied on the front wheel, it would be of
scientific interest to study solutions that redirect some of that energy to the regenerative
braking system as well in future work.
The validation of the theoretical results with experimental data is very interesting
and of the utmost importance. However, the utilization of regenerative braking systems
in motorcycles is quite new, and experimental results in racing scenarios are not publicly
accessible. Due to this issue’s relevance, it is certainly one that will be addressed in
future work.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.R. and R.C.; methodology, N.R.; software, N.R.; valida-
tion, N.R. and R.C.; formal analysis, N.R.; investigation, N.R.; resources, R.C.; data curation, N.R.;
writing—original draft preparation, N.R.; writing—review and editing, R.C.; visualization, R.C.;
supervision, R.C.; project administration, R.C.; funding acquisition, R.C. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by FCT-Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, grant number
UIDB/50021/2020.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 18 of 26

Appendix A

Figure A1. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Circuit of the Americas, USA.

Figure A2. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Brands Hatch Circuit, UK.

Figure A3. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Hungaroring circuit, Hungary.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 19 of 26

Figure A4. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Hockenheimring circuit, Germany.

Figure A5. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Albert Park Circuit, Australia.

Figure A6. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez circuit, Mexico.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 20 of 26

Figure A7. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve.

Figure A8. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Autodromo Nazionale Monza circuit, Italy.

Figure A9. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Moscow Raceway, Russia.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 21 of 26

Figure A10. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Norisring circuit, Germany.

Figure A11. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Nurburgring circuit, Germany.

Figure A12. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Motorsport Arena Oschersleben circuit, Germany.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 22 of 26

Figure A13. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Bahrain International Circuit, Bahrain.

Figure A14. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Autodromo Jose Carlos Pace circuit, Brazil.

Figure A15. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Sepang International Circuit, Malaysia.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 23 of 26

Figure A16. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Shanghai International Circuit, China.

Figure A17. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Silverstone circuit, UK.

Figure A18. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Sochi Autodrom, Russia.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 24 of 26

Figure A19. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Spa-Francorchamps circuit, Italy.

Figure A20. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Red Bull Ring—Spielberg circuit, Austria.

Figure A21. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Suzuka circuit, Japan.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3784 25 of 26

Figure A22. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Yas Marina circuit, UAE.

Figure A23. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Zandvoort circuit, Netherlands.

Figure A24. Plan view and trajectory defined for the Motorland Aragón circuit, Spain.

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