BIOCHEMISTRY REVIEWER
transfer of liquid from one vessel to
FOR EVAL EXAM
LAB EQUIPMENT
● BEAKER - holds solids or liquids
that will not release gasses when
reacted or are unlikely to splatter if
stirred or heated.
● BEAKER TONGS - are used to
move beakers containing hot liquids
● ERLENMEYER FLASK - hold solids
or liquids that may release gasses
during reaction or that are likely to
splatter if stirred or heated.
● FLORENCE FLASK - rarely used in
first year chemistry, it is used for the
mixing of chemicals. Narrow neck
prevents splash exposure.
● GRADUATED CYLINDER - is used
to measure volumes of liquids.
● TEST TUBE HOLDER - is useful for
holding a test tube which is too hot
to handle.
● TEST TUBE BRUSHES - are used
to clean test tubes and graduated
cylinders.
● TEST TUBE RACKS - are for
holding and organizing test tubes on
the laboratory counter.
● RUBBER STOPPERS - are used to
close containers to avoid spillage or
contamination.
● SPOT PLATES - are used when we
want to perform many small scale
reactions at one time.
● GLASS STIR ROD - is used to
manually stir solutions. It can also be
used to transfer a single drop of a
solution.
● FORCEPS (TWEEZERS) - are used
to pick up small objects.
● FUNNEL - is used to aid in the
another.
● WATCH GLASS - is used to hold a
small amount of solid, such as the
product of a reaction.
● WASH BOTTLE - has a spout that
delivers a wash solution to a specific
area. Distilled Water is the only
liquid that should be used in a wash
bottle.
● WEIGHING BOATS - are used to
weigh solids that will be transferred
to another vessel.
● BUNSEN BURNER - are used for
the heating of nonvolatile liquids and
solids.
● STRIKERS - are used to light
Bunsen Burner.
● EVAPORATING DISH - is used for
the heating of stable solid
compounds and elements.
● CRUCIBLE - are used for heating
certain solids, particularly metals, to
very high temperatures.
● CLAY TRIANGLE - used as a
support for porcelain crucibles when
being heated over a Bunsen burner.
● CRUCIBLE TONGS - also used to
pick up other hot objects.
● RING STAND - are a safe and
convenient way to perform reactions
that requires heating using a Bunsen
burner.
● UTILITY CLAMPS - are used to
secure test tubes, distillation
columns, and burets to the ring
stand.
● IRON RING - connect to a ring stand
and provide a stabe, elevated
platform for the reaction.
● WIRE GAUZE - sits on the iron ring
to provide a place to stand a beaker.
 ● DOUBLE BURET CLAMPS - are - The GHS further classifies
used to burets - long graduated hazards according to its
tubes used in titration. relative risk. Substances with
● TRIANGULAR FILES - are used the highest risk are assigned
primarily to cut glass rod, a skill that with lowest numerical value.
your instructor will share with you - The GHS also established
when it becomes useful. pictograms that are widely
● LITMUS PAPER - Red - used to used as laboratory warning
identify bases. Blue - is used to signs and chemical hazard
identify acids. labels.
● GAS COLLECTING BOTTLE - used - National Fire Protection
when large volumes of gasses are Association (NFPA)
produced, and must be collected by - The NFPA diamond is a
the displacement of water. visual representation of
● MEDICINE DROPPER - is used to health hazard, flammability,
transfer a small volume of liquid reactivity and special
(less than one mL). hazards.
● MOHR PIPET - measures and - Manufacturers used to label
delivers exact volumes of liquids. their chemicals with NFPA
● GLASS PLATES - provide a surface diamond, but it was replaced
for semi-micro scale experiments, by the GHS labeling.
such as drop reactions and testing of - Like the GHS, a numbering
acids and bases. system is also assigned in
● SPATULAS - are used to dispense the NFPA diamond to
solid chemicals from their categorize the hazard
containers. according to its potential
threat.
HAZARDS AND RISK - However, the numbering
system in the NFPA Hazard
● Hazards - refers to any potential identification system is
source of damage or harm while risk opposite with the GHS
refers to the probability that a hazard wherein, NFPA system
can cause harm. Risk refers to the assigns higher value to the
probability that a hazard can cause higher hazard class.
harm.
- Risk can, therefore, be NFPA Hazard Identification System
minimized by taking
necessary precautions BLUE RED YELLOW WHITE
against the hazards. DIAMOND DIAMOND DIAMOND DIAMOND
HEALTH FIRE REACTIVIT SPECIAL
- Hazardous chemicals are
HAZARD HAZARD Y HAZARD
labeled according to the (FLASH
classification established by POINT)
the Globally Harmonized
4 deadly 4 below 4 may ACID -
System (GHS).
 ● Corrosive a highly reactive
73 F detonate acid
substance that causes obvious
3 extreme 3 below 3 shock ALK - damage to living tissue by chemical
danger 100 F and heat alkali action. Examples of corrosive
may substances are strong acids, strong
detonate bases, and oxidizing agents.
2 2 above 2 violent COR - ● Exposure direct contact with a
hazardou 100 F not chemical corrosive hazard or chemical in a way that
s exceedin change causes injury or harm.
g 200 F ● Exposure Limit the established
concentration of a chemical that
1 slightly 1 above 1 unstable OXY -
most people could be exposed to in
hazardou 200 F if heated oxidizer
s a typical day without experiencing
adverse effects.
0 normal 0 will not 0 stable Radioacti TYPES OF EXPOSURE LIMIT
material burn ve - Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)
specifies the maximum amount or
Use No
Water concentration of a chemical to which
a worker may be exposed. It can be
established in one of two ways:
IMPORTANT LABORATORY SAFETY
Ceiling values: at no time should
TERMINOLOGIES
this exposure limit can be exceeded
● Allergen (sensitizer) is a chemical
8 hour time-weighted average
that causes an allergic reaction. That
(TWA): an average value of
is, evokes an adverse immune
exposure over the course of an
response (could be a severe rash or
8-hour work shift.
respiratory distress).
- Threshold Limit Value (TVL)
● Asphyxiant is a gas or vapor that
denotes the level of exposure that
can cause unconsciousness or
nearly all workers can experience
death by suffocation due to lack of
without an unreasonable risk of
oxygen.
disease or injury .
● Autoignition temperature The
- Immediate Danger to Life or
temperature at or above which a
Health (IDHL) specifies a level of
substance will spontaneously ignite
exposure that is immediately
or catch fire without a spark or
dangerous to life and/or health.
flame.
● Flammable a substance that easily
● Biohazard an infectious agent, or
catches fire.
part thereof, that presents a real or
● Flash point the lowest temperature
potential risk to the well-being of
at which a liquid or solid can
humans, animals or plants. It can
produce a vapor sufficient to form an
present a hazard directly through the
ignitable mixture in the air. The
disruption of the environment.
lower the flash point, the easier it is
● Carcinogen is a substance that is
to ignite the material.
capable of causing cancer.
 ● Mutagen is a substance capable of
changing genetic material in a cell
and thus increasing the frequency of
mutation.
● Runaway reaction is an
unexpected event in which the rate
of reaction increases significantly,
resulting in a significant increase in
temperature. The increase in
temperature causes the rate of
reaction to increase, further
increasing the rate and tending to
create an uncontrolled, often
heat-producing, reaction.
● Teratogen is an agent that can
cause non-inheritable genetic
mutations or malformations of an
embryo or fetus. The agent can be a
chemical substance, virus, or
ionizing radiation.
● Toxic any substance that has the
capacity to produce personal injury
or illness to humans through
ingestion, inhalation, or absorption
through any body surface, as
defined by Federal Hazardous
Substances Act (FHSA) regulation.
● Acute toxicity the adverse effects
of a substance resulting from a
single exposure or multiple
exposures over a very short time
span (less than 24 hours). Is usually
determined by exposing animals to a
given chemical to determine the
lethal dose, 50% (LD50).
TYPES OF ACUTE TOXICANT
- Asphyxiant, Irritant, Neurotoxicant,
Organ toxicant, Sensitizer/allergen,
Teratogen or fetotoxicant.
● Chronic toxicity adverse effects
resulting from long-term exposure,
usually at lower levels, to a
substance. Types of chronic
toxicant: Carcinogen, Neurotoxicant,
Organ toxicant.
ROUTES OF EXPOSURE
● INHALATION - gases, vapors, mists,
fumes and dusts enter through the
nose and mouth
● INGESTION - liquid and solid
chemicals enter the body through
the gastrointestinal tract.
● DERMAL - chemicals enter the body
when absorbed by the skin.
● INJECTION - chemicals enter the
body when sharp objects such as
used needles and broken glass
puncture the skin.
COMPOUNDS AND ELEMENTS IN THE BODY
● BIOMOLECULES
- Organic compounds made by
living things
- Biochemicals
- Some are very large
- There are thousands of
different biomolecules, but
are separated into 4
categories
- All of our biomolecules are
classified into four groups:
➔ Carbohydrate
➔ Lipids
➔ Proteins
➔ Nucleic Acids
● CARBOHYDRATE
- The simplest biomolecule
- Contain 3 elements:
➔ Carbon
➔ Hydrogen
➔ Oxygen
- Serve 2 main functions:
1. Source of chemical energy
for cells in many living things.
2. Part of the structural material
of plants
- Come in all sizes from small rings to
long chains.
- Two types of carbohydrates Simple
Carbohydrates (Sugar) and
Complex Carbohydrates (Starch,
Cellulose)
- The ratio of these elements is
roughly 1 carbon: 2 hydrogen: 1
oxygen. C6H12O6
- Monomer Monosaccharide
- Dimer Disaccharide
- Polymer Polysaccharide
● SUGAR
- Break down quickly in the
body
- Provide a quick burst of
energy or a “sugar rush”
- Glucose (blood sugar) is
the most important &
simplest sugar on Earth.
(used in cells & created by
photosynthesis) (It comes in
many forms)
- Simple Sugars: Glucose,
Fructose, Sucrose
● STARCH
- Long chains of simpler sugar
joined together
- These big molecules are
called Macromolecules
- Also called polysaccharides
or polymers
- Slower to break down in the
body & provide energy for a
longer period of time than
regular sugars.
- Examples are: Potatoes,
Wheat, Corn
● CELLULOSE
- Unlike animal cells, plant
cells have a cell wall made of
cellulose.
- The cell wall is a large part of
vegetables such as lettuce &
celery. It also is what gives
stems & wood strength.
- Made from chains of
thousands of glucose
molecules, but the difference
is in how they’re linked.
- Because of this small
difference, your body cannot
digest cellulose the same
way it can starches & sugars.
● LIPIDS
- Includes: Fats, Oik
- Most lipids are made of just
carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen.
- But unlike carbohydrates,
fats are more complex & take
much longer to break down.
- So, fats are high-energy
molecules that plants and
animals use to store energy
in reserves for longer
periods.
- Plants store energy in oils,
like olive oil, corn oil, or
peanut oil.
- An oil is a fat that is liquid at
room temperature.
- Fats & oild store energy
super efficiently, 1 gram of fat
contains about twice the
energy as 1 gram of
carbohydrate.
- A fat molecule has a 2-part
structure.
- The first part is called
glycerol.
- Attached to the glycerol are 3
long chains called fatty
acids
➔ Saturated Fats
- Only single bonds in the
carbon chain
- Most animal fats
 -“Bad” fats
-Diets high in saturated fat are
linked to heart disease
➔ Unsaturated Fats
- One or more double bonds in
the carbon chain
- Most oils from plants
- “Good” fats
➔ Cholesterol
- Is another lipid in cell
membranes
- It is also needed to make
hormones like adrenaline
- Your body makes the
cholesterol that it needs, but
it is also found in many foods
that come from animals, like
meat and eggs.
- Although you need
cholesterol, eating too much
of it can block arteries and
lead to heart disease.
● PROTEIN
- Are big molecules called
macromolecules
- Made of smaller molecules
called amino acids
- Made of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, &
some other elements
- There are at least 100,00
proteins in your body
- Each has a different structure
that gives it a specific job.
- There are 4 types of
structure, including coil &
curls.
- Major structural molecules in
living things for growth and
repair: muscles, ligaments,
tendons, bones, hair, skin,
nails.
- All cell membranes have
protein in them
- They make up antibodies in
the immune system
- They make up enzymes for
helping chemical reactions.
- They makeup non-steroid
hormones which
- PROTEINS= Membranes,
Enzymes, Antibodies,
Non-steroid hormones,
Structural molecules,
“MEANS”
- CELL MEMBRANE is made
mostly of protein and lipids.
● ANTIBODIES
- Are part of the immune
system.
● ENZYMES
- Some proteins curl up into a
shape like a ball of enzymes.
- An enzyme is a special
protein & a catalyst for a
chemical reaction in living
things.
- Catalysts speed up the rate
of a reaction.
- Enzymes are needed for
many chemical reactions in
your body.
- Without them, these
reactions would occur too
slowly to keep you alive.
● HORMONES
- Are chemical made in glands
that are in one place in the
body and then put into the
blood to be used in another
- These are where the
hormone producing glands
are located in your body.
Hypotyhalmus, Pituitary,
Thyroid, Parathyroids,
Pancreas, Adrenal, Ovaries
(female), and testes (male)
● NUCLEIC ACIDS
 - Are biomolecules that
contain the blueprints for
making proteins.
- Also transmit genetic info to
the next generation.
- Includes: DNA and RNA.
➔ DNA
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
- One of the largest molecules
- A single DNA molecule has
more than 1 million atoms.
- Twisted ladder or double
helix
- The sides of the ladder are
made of: Sugar molecules
called deoxyribose.
Phosphate group
- The “rungs” of the ladder are
made of: Nitrogen Bases
➔ 4 Nitrogen Bases
- Occur in matched sets:
Adenine (A) to Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T) to Guanine (G)
- The order of the bases in DNA is the
way in which DNA stores
instructions for making proteins.
- Each of the 20 amino acids is
represented by a series of 3 DNA
bases
- For example, the sequence T-A-C is
the code for the amino acid tyrosine
VITAMINS & MINERALS
● Vitamins are organic substances
made by plants or animals.
● Vitamins and minerals are nutrients
that your body needs to grow and
develop.
● Minerals are inorganic elements that
come from the earth.
● Animals and humans absorb mineral
from plants they eat.
VITAMINS
● Water soluble - must be replaced
each day.
- Vitamin C : citrus fruits, green
peppers, strawberries,
tomatoes, broccoli and sweer
and white potatoes (ascorbic
acid)
- Vitamin B complex (B1…
B12) : eggs, meat, poultry,
shellfish, milk and milk
products. Also added to
fortified grain products, such
as cereals.
● Fat soluble - dissolve in fat before
absorbed in the blood stream.
Excess of these vitamins are stored
in the liver.
- Vitamin A : eggs, meats, and
dairy products.
Beta-carotene, a precursor of
vitamin A, comes from green,
leafy vegetables and
intensely colored fruits and
vegetables.
- Vitamin D : body itself makes
vitamin D when it is exposed
in the sun. cheese, butter,
margarine, fortified milk, fish,
and fortified cereals.
- Vitamin E : coorn, nuts,
olives, green leafy
vegetables, vegetable oils
and wheat germ.
- Vitamin K
● VITAMIN C
- Ascorbic Acid/ Vitamin C is
needed for several important
processes in your brain &
nervous system.
- Scurvy results from a lack of
vitamin C in your diet. It
causes of spotting on nthe
skin, spongy gums, and
 bleeding membranes, and
can eventually lead to death.
● VITAMIN A
- Play an important role in
vision, bone growth,
reproduction, cell division,
and cell differentiation.
- Helps regulate the immune
system.
- Promotes healthy surface
linings of the eyes and the
respiratory, urinary, and
intestinal tracts.
- Helps the skin and mucous
membranes function as a
barrier to bacteria and
viruses.
- Found in foods that comes
from animals called
preformed vitamin A
- Sources include: liver, whole
milk, and some fortified food
products.
- Vitamin A that is found in
colorful fruits and vegetables
such as carrots, cantaloupes,
sweet potatoes, and spinach.
● VITAMIN b6
- A water soluble vitamin
- Helps with protein
metabolism
- Plays a role in cognitive
development.
- Found in fish, beef liver,
other organ meat, potatoes
and other starchy
vegetables.
● VITAMIN b12
- Helps keep the body’s nerve
and blood cells healthy.
- Helps make DNA
- Helps prevent megaloblastic
anemia.
- Vitamin B12 can be found in
fish, meat, poultry, eggs,
milk, and other dairy
products.
● VITAMIN D
- Is needed for health and to
maintain strong bones
- Helps the body absorb
calcium
- Muscles need vitamin D to
move, immune system needs
vitamin D to fight off bacteria
& viruses.
- Fatty fish such as salmon,
tuna, and mackerel are
among the best sources of
vitamin D.
● VITAMIN E
- A fat-soluble nutrient found in
many foods.
- Act as an antioxidant helping
to protect cells.
- Vitamin E boosts the immune
system to fight off invading
bacteria and viruses.
- Vitamin E can be found in:
vegetable oils, nuts, seeds,
green vegetables, some
breakfast cereals.
● VITAMIN K
- Makes proteins for healthy
bones and normal blood
clotting.
● MINERALS
- Calcium
: helps build strong bones
and healthy teeth
: body needs calcium for
muscles to move and nerves
to carry messages.
: helps move blood through
blood vessels and release
hormones and enzymes.
 : milk, cheese, yogurt,
canned salmon and sardines,
leafy green vegetables, and
calcium fortified foods.
- Chromium
- Folate
- Iron
: helps the body transports
oxygen from the lungs to the
rest of your body.
: essential for the regulation
of cell growth and
differentiation.
: A deficiency of iron can
result in fatigue, poor work
performance, and decreased
immunity.
: red meat, tuna, salmon,
eggs, beans, baked potato
with skin, dried fruit, leafy
green vegetables, whole and
enriched grains.
- Magnesium
: is important for production
of enzymes and antioxidants.
: approximately 50% of total
body magnesium is found in
bone. The other half is found
predominantly in cells of
body tissue and organs.
Helps maintain muscle and
nerve function, keeps heart
rhythm steady, supports a
healthy immune system,
keeps bones strong.
: help regulate blood sugar
levels, promote normal blood
pressure.
- Selenium
: combines with proteins to
make antioxidants and is
also essential for normal
thyroid function.
- Zinc
: supports normal growth and
development during
pregnancy, childhood, and
adolescence.
: required for the proper
sense of taste and smell.
: involved in numerous
aspects of cellular
metabolism
: beef, pork, lamb, and
legumes
- Phosphorus
- Sodium
: both an electrolyte and
mineral
Helps keep the water (the
amount of fluid inside and
outside the body’s cells) and
electrolyte balance of the
body.
: for nerves and muscles
functioning.
- Potassium
: keeps muscles and nervous
system working properly.
: an electrolyte that conducts
electricity in the body.
:bananas, broccoli, tomatoes,
potatoes with skin, leafy
green vegetables, citrus
fruits, dried fruits, and
legumes.
- Chloride
- Sulfur
- Copper
: is necessary for your body
to make connective tissue
and metabolism of iron
- Iodine
: is used to synthesize
thyroid hormones
- Cobalt
- Fluoride
 : is used for strong bones ● SMOOTH ER
and teeth. Reduces the - Lipid synthesis
number of cavities in your - Added to proteins arriving from
teeth rough ER
- Break down of drugs
CELLS ● RIBOSOMES
● The basic organizational structure of - Free floating or connected to
the human body. ER
● There are 50-100 trillion cells in the - Provide structural support
human body. and enzyme activity to amino
● Differentiation is when cells acids to form protein (protein
specialize. synthesis)
● As a result of differentiation, cells ● GOLGI APPARATUS
vary in size and shape due to their - Stack of flattened,
unique function. membranous sacs
PARTS OF CELL - Modifies, packages, and
● Cell Membrane (Plasma deliver proteins
Membrane) ● VESICLES
- Outer limit of the cell - Membranous sacs
- Controls what moves in and - Store substances
out of the cell ● MITOCHONDRIA
- Selectively permeable - Membranous sacs with inner
- Phospholipid bilayer (Water partitions
soluble “heads”” from - Generates energy
surfaces (hydrophilic)) (Water ● LYSOSOMES
insoluble “tails” from interior - Enzyme- containing sacs
(hydrophobic)(permeable to - Digest worn out cell parts or
lipid-soluble substances) unwanted substances
- Cholesterol stabilizes the ● PEROXISOMES
membrane - Enzyme-containing sacs
● CYTOPLASM - Break down organic
- Cytosol = water molecules
- Organelles = solids - Detoxifies alcohol
- Is really like a jello fruit salad ● CENTROSOME
where the Jello is the cytosol - Two rod-like centrioles
and the fruits are the - Used to produce cilia and
organelles. flagella
● ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) - Distributes chromosomes
- Connected, during cell division
membrane-bound sacs, ● CILIA
canals, and vesicles - Short-like projections
- Transport system - Propel substances on cell
● ROUGH ER surface
- Studded with ribosomes ● FLAGELLUM
 - Long tail-like projection
- Provides motility to sperm
● MICROFILAMENTS AND
MICROTUBULES
- Thin rods and tubules
- Support cytoplasm
- Allows for movement of
organelles.
● CELL NUCLEUS
- Is the control center of the
cell
- Nuclear Envelope: porous
double membrane, separates
nucleoplasm from cytoplasm
- Nucleolus: dense collection
of RNA and proteins, site of
ribosome production
- chromatin: fibers of DNA and
proteins, stores information
for synthesis of proteins.
MOVEMENTS INTO AND OUT OF THE
CELL
● Passive - mechanisms do not
require energy
- Simple diffusion
- Facilitated diffusion
- Osmosis
- Filtration
● Active - mechanisms require cells'
energy. The process that moves
particles through membranes from
regions of lower concentration to
regions of higher concentration.
Equilibrium is never reached.
- Active transport
- Endocytosis
- Exocytosis
- Transcytosis
● SIMPLE DIFFUSION
- The process by which
molecules or ions scatter or
spread spontaneously from a
higher concentration to a
lower concentration
- Oxygen and carbon dioxide
can diffuse readily through
the cell membrane
- Equilibrium is reached
● FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- Substances that are not able
to pass through the lipid
bilayer need the help of
membrane proteins to get
across
- Carrier molecules “revolving
doors” are used to carry
large molecules (transported
substance) across the
membrane (ex. Glucose and
amino acids)
● OSMOSIS
- The diffusion of water
- Water moves toward a higher
concentration of solutes
- Osmotic Pressure: ability of
osmosis to generate enough
pressure to move a volume
of water
- Osmotic pressure increases
as the concentration of
nonpermeable solutes
increases. Isotonic: same
osmotic pressure,
Hypertonic: higher osmotic
pressure (water loss), and
Hypotonic: lower osmotic
pressure (water gain)
● FILTRATION
- Smaller molecules are forced
through porous membranes
- Hydrostatic pressure
important in the body
- Molecules leaving blood
capillaries
● ACTIVE TRANSPORT:
SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
 - Active transport mechanism ● MITOSIS
- Creates balance by - Produces two
“pumping” three (3) sodium daughter cells from
(Na+) OUT and two (2) an original somatic
potassium (K+) INTO the cell cells.
- 3:2 ratio - Nucleus divides:
● ENDOCYTOSIS karyokinesis
- Cell engulfs a substance by - Cytoplasm divides:
forming a vesicle around the cytokinesis
substance - Phases of nuclear
- Three types: Pinocytosis - division:
substance is mostly water, ➔ Prophase -
phagocytosis - substance chromosomes
is a solid, form; nuclear
Receptor-mediated envelope
endocytosis - requires the dissapears
substance to bind to a ➔ Metaphase -
membrane-bound receptor chromosomes
● EXOCYTOSIS align midway
- Reverse of endocytosis between
- Substances in a vesicle fuse centrioles
with cell membrane ➔ Anaphase -
- Contents released outside chromosomes
the cell separate and
- Release of neurotransmitters move to
from nerve cells. centrioles
● TRANSCYTOSIS ➔ Telophase -
- Endocytosis followed by chromatin
exocytosis forms; nuclear
- Transports a substance envelope
rapidly through a cell forms
- HIV crossing a cell layer - Daughter cells have
The Cell Cycle - series of changes a cell the same number of
undergoes from the time it forms until the chromosomes as that
time it divides of the parent cell (46
Stages: chromosomes -
● INTERPHASE diploid)
- Very active period - Daughter cells have
- 3 phases are involved the same
1. During the G1 phase, the cell grows characteristics as with
2. During the S phase, the cell the parent cells
replicates DNA - For growth and repair
3. During the G2 phase, the cell is in
preparation for cell division. Control of Cell Division
 - Cell division capacities vary greatly
among cell types. Skin and blood
cells divide often and continually.
Neuron cells divide a specific
number of times then cease
- Chromosome tips (telomeres) that
shorten with each mitosis provide a
mitotic clock
- Cells divide to provide a more
favorable surface area to volume
relationship
- Growth factors and hormones
stimulate cell division. Hormones
stimulate mitosis of smooth muscle
cells in uterus. Epidermal growth
factor stimulates growth of new skin
- Contact (density dependent)
inhibition.
- Tumors are the consequence of a
loss of cell cycle control.
● TUMORS
Two types of tumors:
- Benign: usually remains localized
- Malignant: invasive and can
metastasize; cancerous
Two major types of genes cause cancer:
- Oncogenes: activate other genes
that increease cell division
- Tumor suppressor genes: normally
regulate mitosis; if inactive they are
unable to regulate mitosis. Cells are
now known as “immortal”
● TEM AND PROGENITOR CELLS
- Stem cell: can divide to form
two new stem cells. Self-
renewal. Can divide to form a
stem call and a progenitor
➔ Totipotent: can give
rise to every cell type
➔ Pluripotent: can give
rise to a restricted
number of cell types.
- Progenitor cell: committed cell.
Can divide to become any of a
restricted number of cells.
pluripotent.
● MEIOSIS
- The form of cell division by
which gametes, with half the
number of chromosomes, are
produced
- Diploid (2n) - haploid (n)
- Is sexual reproduction
- Two disions (meiosis I and
meiosis II
- Sex cells divide to produce
gametes (sperm or egg)
- Gametes have half the # of
chromosomes.
- Occurs only in gonads
(testes or ovaries) male:
spermatogenesis female:
oogenesis
- Meiosis is similar to mitosis
with some chromosomal
differences.
● FERTILIZATION
- The fusion of sperm and egg
to form a zygote
- A zygote is a fertilized egg
- 23 egg + 23 sperm = 46
zygote
● CELL DEATH
- Apoptosis: programmed cell
death. Act as a protective
mechanism. Is a continuous
process.
● FERMENTATION
- Occurs when O2 not present
(anaerobic)
- Called Lactic Acid
fermentation in muscle cells (
makes muscles tired)
- Called Alcoholic fermenttion
in yeast (produces ethanol)
- Nets only 2 ATP
CENTRAL DOGMA, REPLICATION,
TRANSCRIPTIOON, TRANSLATION
● DNA contains the complete genetic
information that defines the structure
and function of an organism.
● Proteins are formed using the
genetic code of the DNA.
● Conversion of DNA encoded
information to RNA is essential to
form proteins.
● Thus, within most cells, the genetic
information flowss from DNA to RNA
to protein.
● The flow of information is followed
through three different processes
which are responsible for the
inheritance of genetic information
and for its conversion from one form
to another:
● Replication: a double stranded
nucleic acid is duplicated to give
identical copies. This process
perpetuates the gentic information.
● Transcription: a DNA segment that
constitutes a gene is read and
transcribed into a single stranded
sequence of RNA. the RNA moves
from the nucleus into the cytoplasm.
● Translation: the RNA sequence is
translated into a sequence of amino
acids as the protein is formed.
During translation, the ribosome
reads three bases (a codon) at a
time from the RNA and the
translates them into one amino acid.
● This flow of information is
unidirectional and irreversible.
PROTEINS
● Peptide bonds
- are covalent bonds formed
by the nucleophilic
addition-elimination reaction
between the carboxylic group
of one amino acid and the
amino group of another
amino acid; this reaction
releases a molecule of water
as the by product.
- Nucleophilic addition -
elimination reaction
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF
PROTEINS
● Primary Structure
•The primary level of organization is simply
the order of amino acids in the peptide
chain
•The primary structure of protein (order of
amino acids) determines how the protein
folds and interacts at the other levels of
interaction
•Peptide bond has partial double bond
characteristics therefore it is rigid
•α -carbon bonds are flexible
● Secondary Structure
α-helix – it is a spiral structure consisting of
a tightly packed, coiled polypeptide
backbone core, with the side chains of the
component amino acids extending outward
from the central axis to avoid interfering
sterically with each other
–Extensive hydrogen bonding
–3.6aa per turn
β-sheets– all of the peptide bond
components are involved in hydrogen
bonding
–Surfaces are “pleated”
The alpha helix and beta sheet structures
provide maximal hydrogen bonding for
peptide bond components within the interior
of polypeptides and stability to the
secondary structure.
β-bends (reverse turns/β-turns)– reverse
the direction of the polypeptide chain,
helping it form a compact globular shape
–Generally composed of 4aa
–Usually contain many polar and charged
amino acids
Nonrepetitive secondary structures
-Described as having a loop or coil
conformation
-Less regular structures
–“random coil”
Supersecondary structures (MOTIFS)
-Combination of secondary structural
elements producing a specific geometric
pattern or motifs
–Primarily form the core region of the
molecule
–Connected by loop regions
● Tertiary Structure
-Refers to both the folding of domains and
to the final arrangement (3D)
-Usually determined by X-ray
crystallography and NMR (Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance) Spectroscopy
Domains
- fundamental functional and 3D
structural units of polypeptides
Stabilized by;
- Disulfide bonds
- Hydrophobic interactions
- Hydrogen bonds
- Ionic interactions (electrostatic
attractions)
Protein folding
- Results from the formation of
secondary structures driven by the
hydrophobic effect
- Occurs in seconds to minutes
Protein denaturation
- Results in the unfolding and
disorganization of a protein’s
secondary and tertiary structure
without hydrolysis of the peptide
- Often insoluble and precipitate from
solution
Role of chaperones
- Molecular chaperones, also known
as Heat Shock Proteins (Hsp)
- Interact with the polypeptide by
binding hydrophobic regions
- Helps proteins fold properly
Fibrous proteins
- A-helices and B-sheets tend to make
the polypeptide rigid
- Tend to be long and thin
- Are usually structural proteins
- Examples: cytoskeleton proteins,
elastin, collagen
Globular proteins
- Contain only short a-helices and
b-sheets interspersed with randomly
coiled regions
- compact , spherical, and flexible
- These usually have enzymatic
activity
Denaturing agents:
- SDS (Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate)
- Urea
- Guanidium hydrochloride - disrupts
hydrophobic interactions, if
 detergent is charged, it can disrupt
electrostatic interactions
- B-mercaptoethanol
(HS-CH2-CH2-OH) - reduce
disulfide bridges to 2 sulfhydryl
groups
Denaturing processes:
- Heat
- Mechanical disruption
- Drastic pH changes

● Quaternary
- Multimeric units of the
polypeptide chain
- Commonly occurring
examples are dimers,
trimers, tetramers