ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

ORIGIN & CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATION

Organizations have always existed in one form or the other.
Social organization was formed when human beings began to develop collective activity as a
means of improving their chances of survival and quality of life.
The emergence of factory system during the industrial revolution changed the nature of
organizational activity.
The creation of factory based system of production required different types of jobs to be
designed for the workers and the development of a new form or hierarchical management and
technical specialism.
This approach formed the basis for most modern large scale organizations.
Definition
Organization has been defined in different ways;
1) As a group of people who work together to achieve some specific purpose.
2) As a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces or two or more people.
3) As combination of various decision centres.
4) As an entity containing distribution and allocations of decision making functions.
EMERGENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Organizational Behaviour has strong link with the human relation school which emerged after
the Hawthrone studies by Elton Mayo in the 1920s and early 1930s.
It was the study that first highlighted the complexity of human behavior in an organizational
setting. This led to a recognition of the importance of the social context within which work
occurred and of group dynamics as a significant influence in individuals.
The study of Organizational Behaviour involved two distinct features.
1. Multidisciplinary- Many areas of study can be integrated into Organizational Behaviour.
Apart from some aspects of Sociology, Psychology, Anthropology, Political science,
Philosophy, Economics and the system sciences. It also involves critical theory.
Critical theory seeks to emancipate/liberate people from existing constraints and power
relationships.
2. Explanatory- Organizational Behaviour set out to offer explanations of the relationships
among variables.
The study of Organizational Behaviour involves consideration of interactions among the formal
structure of the tasks to be undertaken, the technology employed, the methods of carrying out
work, the behavior of people within the organization, the process of management and the
external environment.
 Organizational Behaviour is a branch of study that involves the integration of behavioural
science (Psychology, Sociology, and Anthropology) into the study of people’s behavior within
the organization.
It is the interaction of relevant knowledge of these areas; Psychology, Sociology and
Anthropology that has given rise to the field of study called Organizational Behaviour. The
foundation of Organizational Behaviour is therefore, the behavioural Sciences.
DEFINITION OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES
Behavioural Sciences is defined as the study of human behavior to establish generalization that
are supported by empirical evidence collected in an impersonal and objective way.
Organizational Behaviour looks at two areas namely;
1. Individual behavior
2. Group behavior
Individual behavior is affected and influenced by:
a. Values- These are abstract ideals that guide ones thinking and behavior across all
situations. Lifelong behavior patterns are dictated by values that are fairly well set by the
time people are in their early teens.
b. Attitude- An attitude is defined as a learned predisposition towards a given object.
Attitudes directly influence our behavior.
ORGANZATION AND THE SYSTEM CONCEPT
Organization may be viewed as Mechanistic systems as well as Organic systems.
Organizations are made up of different parts called subsystems. The organization itself is
concerned as a system made up of subsystems or units. The subsystems are connected by
organizational linkages. The linkage pattern between the units is what provides the structure to
the entire organizational system. The departments in the organization can be regarded as
subsystems.
The different positions in the organization are connected by linkages.

The link between units are supposed to represent the relationship that exist between units.
There are three basic pattern.
1. Serial Linkage 2. Radical Linkage 3. Circular Linkage.
A Serial Linkage pattern is one in which each unit is linked only with the adjacent units on each
side.
Serial Linkage can either be horizontal or vertical in nature.

Levels of Authority Work Flow

If they are vertical, each unit represents a different level of authority. i.e a typical unit of
command.
If the serial linkage is horizontal, then all the units are horizontal, then all the units are equal in
authority but of different function.
Both the radical or circular linkages are not common.
The organization as a system interacts with other systems like the environment where it derives
its materials or inputs (money, materials, information, man, machines). Through conversional
processes inside the organization, the inputs are converted to outputs which are pushed into the
environment as products.
The subsystems in the organizations are interdependent and interacting. What happens to one
parts or subsystems affects the entire subsystems and the functioning of the organization.
DEFINING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
1. Organizational Behaviour according to Gummings is the study of individuals and group
behavior within the organization and the application of such knowledge.
The concepts are drawn primarily from Psychological disciplines, attitudes, personality,
motivation and decision making are some of the widely used concept in Organizational
Behaviour.
2. Organizational Behaviour is defined as the manifestation of the various forces and
influences operating in the internal environment of an organization that create the ability
for, or place constraints on, the usage of resources.
Organizational Behaviour is unique in the sense that it leads to the development of a special
identity and character of an organization.
3. Organizational Behaviour refers to the multiplicity of inter-related influences on and
patterns of behavior of people within formal organizations.
Some of the important forces and influences that affect organizational behavior are;
- The quality of leadership
- Management Philosophy
- Shared values and culture
- Quality of work
- Environment and organizational climate
- Organizational politics
 - Use of power
Organizational Behaviour is dedicated to better understanding and management of people at
work.
Organizational behaviour tries to help managers not only to predict it so that they can better lead
and motivate their employees to perform productively.
NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
The present nature of Organizational Behaviour can be identified as follows:
1. A field of study not a discipline. Organizational Behaviour can be treated as a distinct
field of study and not a discipline. A discipline is an accepted science with theoretical
foundation that serves as the basis for research analysis. Organisational Behaviour,
because of its broad base and interdisciplinary orientation, is now yet accepted as a
science.
2. Interdisciplinary Approach: Organizational Behaviour is basically an interdisciplinary
approach. An interdisciplinary approach integrates the relevant knowledge drawn from
different disciplines for some specific purpose.
Organizational Behaviour draws heavily from Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology and even
from Economics and Political science. These disciplines exists separately.
3. As applied Science: The basic objective of Organizational Behaviour is to make
application of various researches to solve organizational problems especially those
related to human behaviour aspect. Organizational Behaviour on the whole can be
described as both science as well as art.
4. Normative and Value Centered: Organizational Behaviour is a normative science. A
Normative science unlike Positive science which suggests only cause-effect relationships,
prescribes how the various findings of the researches can be applied to get organizational
results which are acceptable to the society. What is acceptable by the society or
individuals engaged in an organization is a matter of value to the people concerned. The
normative nature of Organizational Behaviour is underscored by the many theories about
management styles.
5. Humanistic and Optimistic: Organizational Behaviour focuses the attention on people
from humanistic point of view. It is based on the belief that needs and motivation of
people are of high concern. There is an acceptance of the value of the individual as a
thinking, feeling organism. There is also optimism about the innate potential of man to be
independent, creative, productive and capable of contributing positively to the objectives
of the organization.
6. Oriented towards Organizational Objective: Organizational Behaviour, being an applied
science and emphasizing human aspect of the organization oriented towards
organizational objectives. Organizational Behaviour tries to integrate organizational
objectives and individual objectives so that both can be achieved simultaneously. This is
why Organizational Behaviour suggests various behavioural approaches.
7. A total Systems Approach: Organizational Behaviour is a total systems approach where
in the living systems of an organization is viewed as an enlargement of a man. The
systems approach is an integrative approach which takes into account all the variables
 affecting organizational functioning. Man’s nature is quite complex and Organisational
Behaviour by applying systems approach tries to find solution of this complexity.

DIMENSIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

- Organizational Behaviour is a branch of the Social science that seek to build theories that
can be applied to predicting, understanding and controlling behaviour in work
organizations.
- Organizational behaviour is a subject of management activities concerned with
understanding, predicting and influencing individual behaviour in organizational setting.
- Organizational behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about human
behaviour related to other elements of the organization such as structure, technology and
social system.
- Organizational Behaviour is primarily concerned with the aspect of human behaviour
which is relevant for organizational performance.
- Organizational Behaviour studies human behaviour at individual, group, and
organizational level. It applies the knowledge gained about individual, groups and the
effect of organizational structure on behaviour towards the end of making organization
work more effectively.
LEVELS OF ANALYSIS AND UNDERSTANDING HUMAN AND ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
Organizational Behaviour provides a way or means of understanding human behaviour in the
organization. To predict behaviour and in order to achieve objectives, managers must know how
the people in the organization behave. Organizational Behaviour provides a way for
understanding human behaviour in all the directions in which human beings interact. Behaviour
can be understood at the individual, interpersonal level, group level as well as inter group level.
1. Individual Level
The behaviour of human beings as a social man is the first issue in behavioural science. It
provides analyzing why and how an individual behaves in a particular way. Human beings is
a complex phenomenon (thing) and is affected by a large number of factors including
psychological, social, cultural and economics ones. Organizational Behaviour integrates
these factors to provide simplicity in understanding human behaviour.
The individual is a central feature of organizational behaviour and very critical in analysis of
organizational behaviour situation.

2. Interpersonal Level
Human behaviour can be understood at the level of interpersonal interaction. Such interpersonal
interaction is normally in a pained relationship which represents man’s natural attempt at
socialization. Influence of peers on working relationship or boss-subordinate relationship. It
supports the fact that two person relationship is inevitable in the organization. Organisational
Behaviour provides means for understanding these interpersonal relationships in the
organization.
3. Group Level
Group pressure often modifies interaction at the individual level. Hence, group level becomes a
force in shaping human behaviour. It is therefore necessary to study individuals in groups.
Research in group dynamics has contributed greatly to organizational behaviour and shows how
a group behaves in terms of group norms, cohesion, goals, communication pattern, leadership
and membership. An understanding of group structure and behaviour helps to understand
individual behaviour as well as organizational behaviour.
4. Intergroup Level
The organization is made up of many groups that develop complex relationships to build its
process and substance. Understanding the effect of group relationships is important to managers
in today’s organizations. Intergroup relationship may be in the form of cooperation or
competition. The cooperative relationships helps the organization in achieving its objectives.
Organisational Behaviour provides means to understand and achieve cooperative group
relationships through interaction, rotation of members during group.
5. The Environment
The organization functions as part of the broader external environment of which it is part. The
environment affects the organization through social, cultural and technological influences.
6. The Organization
Individuals and groups interact within the structures of the formal organization. Behaviour is
affected by patterns of organization structure, technology, styles of leadership, and systems of
management. The focus of attention is on the impact of organization structure, design and
patterns of management on the behaviour of the people within the organization.

Causes of Human Behavior

1. Inherited characteristics
2. Learned characteristics

1. Inherited characteristics
a. Physiological characteristics: Some of these characteristics relate to physical height,
slim body, vision, dexterity, stamina etc., and have some bearing on performance.
b. Intelligence. Intelligence is primarily an inherited trait even though children of some very
intelligent parents have turned out to be less intelligent and vice versa. It is also known
that intelligence can be enhanced by proper environment, or by proper motivation.
Intelligent people are easy to convince if the point is right.
c. Sex. Man is expected to be gentle. Men ‘never cry’ and women are highly ‘emotional’.
d. Age. Age may affect behavior in physiological as well as psychologically, young people
are expected to be more energetic, innovative, risk taking, and adventurous while old
people are supposed to be conservative and act In their ways. Physiologically, older
 people experience, with age, the waring of some of their faculties such as memories,
stamina etc. the related behavior change as well.
e. Religion. Religion and religiously based cultures play an important role in determining
some aspects of individual behavior that concerns moral and a code of conduct. Highly
religious people have high moral standards and usually do not talk ill of others. They are
highly contented, and thus strive for the goal of achievement and self-fulfillment.

2. Learned Characteristics
Some of the behavioral characteristics that account for enormous diversity in human behavior
are a product of our exposure to various situations both within the family and the outside
environment. These characteristics are learned, where learning is defined as a relatively
permanent change in behavior resulting from interactions with the environment. These
characteristics involve an individual’s attitudes, values and perceptions about the environment
around him.

a. Perception
Perception is the process by which information enters our minds and is interpreted.
Perception is a result of a complex interaction of various senses such as feeling, seeing,
hearing, etc.
b. Attitude: Attitude is a perception with a frame of reference. It is a tendency to act in a
certain way. Attitude has three elements. These are feelings, thoughts and behaviors. In
general, a person may have a positive attitude which is good outlook of life, or
complaining about problems in life. Organizationally speaking, an employee’s negative
attitude about work may be reflected by substandard work performance, excessive
absenteeism, excessive complaining about work environment or disobedience to rules.
These attitudes can be changed either by simple persuasions or by training and
coaching.

The three processes that act as instruments of change (according to kelman) are
1. Compliance: which is the application of subtle pressure either through reward or
punishment to change the behavior, expecting this change to be lasting?
2. Identification: with the person who is affecting the change, and is acting as a change
agent. This change agent is a close friend who wants you to change, and you respect
and love him enough to do so to please him.(e.g husband and wife)
3. Internalization: This is more permanent in nature. This means that the new attitude is
integrated with the attitudes and becomes a part of his total personality. This change
may occur through internal soul searching and the desire to change that comes from
within.

c. Personality: personality is a set of traits and characteristics, habit patterns and

conditioned responses to certain stimuli that formulate the impression an individual
makes upon others. This personality may come out as warm and friendly, or as
aggressive. Many psychologists contend that these personality traits develop in early
 childhood and very few personality changes can be made after the childhood years.
Some personality characteristics such as physical build and intelligence are biological in
nature but most traits such as patience, open mindedness, etc. are learned.

Environmental Effect on Behavior.

While behavior is a reaction to situations and the type of reaction is based upon some inherited
and some learned behavioral characteristics, the environment is an important catalyst in
determining such type of reaction. If the environment is complimentary to established behavior,
then the actions are positively reinforced. However, if the environment is hostile to the values
and skills of the workers, then negative reactions take place.

VALUE OF THEORY AND EXPERIENCE. Organisational Behaviour: A Science or an

Art
Organizational Behaviour emphasizes that human factor is not merely an instrument in the
organization but the very core/nerve of the organizational existence. Organisational Behaviour
provides opportunity for analyzing human behaviour, for understanding and prescribing means
for shaping human behaviour for desired results.
Organizational Behaviour contributes to the understanding of human behaviour, to control and
direct it and to adapt the organization to given situations.
Organizational Behaviour concepts and theories tend to have general applicability and their
understanding is important for successful management practices. Organisational Behaviour is
both science and art and therefore, a combination of both makes organizational process effective.
Its science aspects suggests that theoretical knowledge is necessary while its art aspect suggest
that perfection can be achieved through practice.
Proper utilization of Organisational Behaviour theory requires that the practitioners or managers
has both knowledge of the theory and knowledge of the situation in which the theory is to be
applied. Knowledge of its situation comes from experience. Experience contributes to better way
of doing things.
The knowledge of Organisational Behaviour theories makes experience meaningful. If a manager
has knowledge of relevant theories, he can do so much in lesser time. Experience is a valued
asset when it is used wisely.
Experience allows the comprehension of the theoretical concepts much more easily.
Experienced managers are adept in the application of knowledge.
Theory and experience are complementing to each other.
Just as all experience with no theoretical background is undesirable so also approach to
Organisational Behaviour based on only theory and no practical experience is equally
inappropriate. In summary, it is a scientific art
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOURAL PROCESS
Behaviour is what a person does. It is defined as the observable and measurable activity of
human beings.
There are two types of behaviour;
1. Observable behaviour
2. Measurable behaviour
The Measurable behaviour is known as overt behaviour e.g walking, handling of machine.
The Observable behaviour or non-measurable behaviour is known as covert behaviour e.g.
feelings, attitude, perception.
Covert behaviour is a significant part of total behaviour because it shapes and influences overt
behaviour. An individual is a combination of physiological as well as socio-physiological being.
A major characteristic feature of behaviour is the process of perception. We see things in
different ways and this affects how we behave and respond to a given situation.
The process of perception explains the manner in which information (Stimuli) from the
environment around us is logic and meaning for the individual.
Perception is the mental functioning of giving meaning and significance to stimuli,
shapes, feelings, sounds, touch, and smell.
Perception gives rise to individual Behavioural responses to particular situations.

Stimuli from Selection of Organisation Logic and Pattern of

Environment stimuli screening and arrangement meaning to the Behaviour
or filtering of stimuli individual

The Process of Perception

PROCESS OF PERCEPTION
The process of perception is based on both internal and external factors.
Internal Factors:
The internal factors involved in perceptional selection include- personality, learning.
People within the Organisation
Organization exists because people breathe life to it. Without people, organization may not exist
in the real sense. It is people who create organization as a source of income or in response to
perceived social, political or personal needs.
It is people who operate the organization, taking decision and physically arranging to produce
the products or services. It is people who regulate the organization in terms of safety and other
relevant matters. People are suppliers and customers of the organization. Within the
organization, people pursue careers to improve their living standards
Within the organization, individuals try to advance their own position and status at the expense
of others.
It is a fact also that human behavior can and does influence the perception and understanding of
organization themselves, motives. Preferences and expectations.
These factors give rise to an individual perpetual set and the readiness or inclination to respond
in certain ways to a given set of stimuli.
Evidence has shown that people are usually likely to perceive stimuli that help to satisfy their
needs or prove pleasurable. E.g. you may ignore some wild noise or shouts but when the word
time is mentioned with a shout, you are likely to jump up.
External Factors:
These refers to the nature and characteristics of the stimuli.
There is usually a tendency to give attention to stimuli that are moving, loud, novel, large,
standout from the background. Any number of these factors may be present at any given time.
It is the total pattern of the stimuli and the context in which they occur that influence perceptions
e.g. usually unfamiliar and peculiar stimuli attract or get more attention. A lion in the premises of
the organization or a big snake in the office of the managing director will attract attention.
Factors external to the individuals
There are a number of factors external to the individual that can impact on the selection of a
stimulus for attention.
1. Circumstances
Circumstances have direct impact on the selection of the stimuli to which attention will be
directed.
2. Repetition
The more often something is repeated, the more likely it is that the message gets through to the
level of consciousness. Advertising applies this principle.
3. Size
The larger a particular stimulus is, the more likely it is that it will attract attention.
4. Contrast
The relative features of the background compared with the background can influence a
perception.
5. Novelty
The presence of the unusual (in a particular context) tends to attract attention.
6. Intensity
The brighter or louder a particular stimulus, the more likely it is to attract attention.
7. Motion
Something which moves is more likely to attract attention than something which is stationary
8. Familiarity
The more familiar the stimulus the easier it is to spot or discover it even among goods.
Factors internal to the Individual
There are a number of factors which are internal to the individual which influence stimuli to be
attended to.
1. Personality- the personality characteristics of the individuals influence the way that they
predispose themselves to seek information from the environment.
2. Learning is past experience
Young children and animals become aware of relevant stimuli very early in life, e.g. a child sees
a burning candle and tries to the flame and set wondered. The child would avoid such light
forever.
3. Motivation- Both the physical and social needs that are influential for an individual at
some point will determine environmental stimuli to be given attention.
4. Objectives- stimuli which offer synergy for the achievement of value or goals and
objectives are more likely to receive attention for selection
Individual Differences
The nature of human behavior is complex and understanding the behavior of people is better
done by looking at it from a total concept.
It is important to understand that people differ in so many ways. Individual differences are
important in studying organizational behavior. Every person is unique because of background,
individual characteristics, needs, how we perceive things. Different people have different
personalities.
Different people are attracted to different careers, professions and organization.
We respond differently to situations because of who we are.
To understand individual differences, hereditary personal environment need to be understood and
considered.
The concept is essentially a combination of all factors affecting human behavior. There is need to
look at both the individual and environmental variables. This will bring out the fact that there are
1) Differences in behavior in an individual overtime (intra individual)
2) Differences in behavior among individuals given the same set of stimuli (inter-individual)
Manifestation of Individual differences/Nature of Individual differences
Individual differences may manifest in different types of behavior e.g. conformity, differences in
rate of learning and development, interaction with people having different types of personality
characteristics, productivity and many other ways.
In real life, such differences range along a continuum from desirable to undesirable.
At the work place individuals differ in the following ways.
1. Style of Supervision
People differ in the style of supervision. People respond differently to different styles of
supervision and leadership. Some may prefer to be led, hence they prefer to work under
autocratic style while others work effectively under democratic and laissez-faire style. Some
people prefer to make their own decisions and be their own boss while some people like to
depend on others for such decisions. Such people are comfortable being led.
2. Importance attached to rewards
People differ in the importance they attach to intrinsic (inward) rewards to the job. Such people
are happy when they complete an assignment or a job whether money comes from it or not.
People with different reasoning and thinking respond differently to challenging versions or
routine jobs. Some people prefer challenging jobs that afford the expression of the scope for
higher abilities. There are some people prefer job security and routine operations. Thus different
people attach different degrees of importance to rewards and kinds of jobs they would want to
perform.
3. Compensation Plan
People differ in the type of payment system want or desire. Some people like to work under
time-wage system while others prefer the piece-wage system or incentive system involving
compensation based on productivity.
4. Schedule of Work
People differ in their preferred schedule of work hour. Some people may like to work at night
while others prefer working during the day.
5. Tolerance for Stress
Some people manage work related stress very well while others are very poor in managing stress
at work. Some people in fact need stress to bring the best out of them while some people may
collapse in the face of mounting job related stress.

IMPLICATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

The understanding of individual differences is very important for the managers. Individual
differences means that managers can achieve original objectives and can achieve defined
behavior from individuals by treating them differently.
The successful manager must be able to diagnose situations facing him in teams of people’s
behavioural preferences. He must appreciate the fact that individual differences is a reality that
cannot be washed away. The manager is required to develop a range of skills and personal
flexibility necessary to vary his own behavior.
Individual differences have great importance in organisational behavior. Different individuals
with different qualities and capacities are required to carry out various functions.
It affords management the opportunity to ensure that each operation is performed by individuals
best suited for such. It helps to take the best out of employees by motivating and leading them.
Understanding individual differences may provide management with opportunity to design
organization structure adopt leadership and motivation techniques and control systems that may
meet the needs of different individuals adequately.
PERSONALITY AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Five of the most important personality trait that managers need to be aware of to understand
workplace behavior are;
1. Locus of Control
2. Self-efficacy
3. Self-esteem
4. Self -monitoring
5. Emotional Intelligence
1. Locus of Control
Indicates how much people believe they control their fate through their own efforts. If you have
an internal locus of control, you believe you control your own destiny. If you have an external
locus of control, you believe external forces control you.
2. Self-Efficacy
A belief in one’s personal ability to do as task. It is about your personal belief that you have what
it takes to succeed. Managers should assign jobs accordingly.
3. Self-esteem
How with while, capable and acceptable do you think you are? The answer to this question is an
indicator of your self-esteem, the extent to which people like or dislike themselves, their overall
self-evaluation.
4. Self-monitoring
Is the extent to which people are able to observe their own behavior and adapt it to external
situations e.g. you are late to an assignment or meeting and a colleague or friend stops you on the
way and start discussions with you. You need to break away so you start looking at your watch.
Does your friend or co-worker get?
5. Emotional Intelligence
This is the ability to cope, to empathize with others and to be able to be self-motivated. It is the
ability to carry out accurate reasoning about emotions and the ability to use emotions and
emotional knowledge to enhance thought. Emotional intelligence has four key components
(a) Self-awareness
(b) Self-management
(c) Social-awareness
(d) Relationship management
FUSTRATION AND BEHAVIOUR IN THE ORGANISATION
When a person is blocked from a desired goal at work or any place he becomes frustrated and
feels pains. When a person is frustrated, he can respond in either two ways;
a) Adaptive responses- here the person may find some new and acceptable ways of reducing
the need – find acceptable substitute
b) Maladaptive responses- the person may continue trying to reach the unattainable goal or
he may give up trying to reach any goal whatsoever. One of the resultant responses of
maladaptive responses to frustration is that of aggression.
ACTIVATION THEORY
When some workers are faced with repetitive or unchallenging jobs that are very cruel and
unrewarding, they feel frustrated.
Activation theory is an appropriate model for understanding behavior in this kind of work
environment.
Activation theory states that human organism needs stimulation and variety in its environment,
without this motivation will suffer and frustration may result. Barriers and obstacles to goals may
provide variety of stimulation to the worker. They may tend to reduce the overall frustration
experienced.
GROUP BEHAVIOURAL PROCESS
Groups are a major feature of organisational life.
The organization and its sub units are made of groups of people.
Groups exists in organisations and they affect the functioning of the organization. Groups have
been defined in various ways.
a) As a collection of individuals who regularly interact with one another who are
psychologically aware of one another and who perceive themselves to be a group.
b) As a number of people who have
- A common objective or task
- An awareness of group identity and boundary
- A minimum set of agreed values and norms which regulates their relatively exclusive
mutual interaction.
c) As consisting of individuals who perceive the existence of a group and their membership
in it.
FEATURES OF A GROUP
1. Two or more persons
To form a group, there should be at least two persons because a single individual cannot interact.
There is no specific limit on the maximum number of persons in a group but the size of a group
will be determined by rules and regulations of the organization.
2. Collective Identity
Members of a group must be aware about their membership of the group. Each member of the
group must believe that he is a member or is a participant in some specific group. It is this
awareness of each other that most clearly differentiates a group from an aggregation of
individuals. Members of a group have something in common.
3. Interaction
Members of the group interact among themselves. Interaction means that each member shares
with others through communication, and communication can take place either face to face and in
writing or telephone, across a computer network. It is not necessary for all members to interact
simultaneously but each members must interact at least occasionally with each other. Interaction
occurs when one person’s behavior affects the second person’s behaviour and the second person
respond in some way to the first. Interaction is a key group concept.
4. Shared Goal Interest
Members of the groups should subscribe to the attainment of some common objectives. However
it is not necessary that each member subscribes to or agrees with all the objectives of the group.
If the group has a variety of objective or interests each member of the group must have at least
one of the groups concerns. The shared goal interest binds the group members together.
GROUP COHESION
Group cohesiveness is an important factor which affect group behaviour.
Group cohesiveness means the degree of commitment of the members to their group. If the group
cohesion is high, the interaction between members of a group is high and the degree of
agreement in group opinion is high.
FEATURES OF A COHESIVE GROUP
- The members share the group goals and norms which are common interest and
background.
- The member is small
- The members interact among themselves quite frequently and interpersonal
communication is very effective.
- Group loyalty among members is high because the group enjoys high status.
- The members stand united against any perceived external threats to the group.
- The members keep themselves glued to the group as they feel their needs will be met
only in the group
 - The group has a history of past success.
FACTORS AFFECTING GROUP COHESIVENESS
There are many factors which determine the degree of group cohesiveness. The factors includes’
1. Degree of dependency on the group.
The more dependent a person is on a group for some results or effect the greater will be the
group attractiveness and consequently greater is its cohesiveness.
2. Size
Other things being equal, size has an inverse relationship with group cohesiveness. This is
because group cohesiveness increases through interaction among members. Thus, the larger the
group becomes the lesser the opportunity for interaction among members.
3. Homogeneity and stable membership
Group whose members have different interests and backgrounds are less effective in promoting
their interest. Stable relationships among members enhances group cohesiveness. This is because
it allows for common understanding of shared goals and values.
4. Location of the Group
Location of the group affects group cohesion in two ways.
i. It members are located close to one another, they interact frequently and freely.
Group cohesion will increase.
ii. If group is isolated from other groups, cohesion will be high because such a situation
will promote high interaction among group members.
5. Group Status
A group status with high status with success stories will be more attractive to its members.
Therefore, they show solidarity among themselves and group cohesion tends to be high.
6. Group Leadership
The qualities of group leaders determine the extent to which group members bind themselves
with the group. If the leader is dynamic and energetic, he motivates his members to work with
zeal for the attainment of common goals. He tries to build and maintain high group loyalty
among members.
7. Outside Pressures
Members of a group tend to be bound together to face challenges from outside pressures.
External pressures force members to minimize internal and personal differences in order to fght a
common enemy.
8. Competition
Type of competition affects group cohesiveness. Intra group competition affects group
cohesiveness. Competition among members of a group is usually destructive for group cohesion.
Inter group competition brings about cohesion. Success resulting from inter group competition
increases cohesion further.
GROUP BEHAVIOUR
- Each member of group affects the behaviour of other members of a group.
- The group also determines the nature and patterns of reinforcement.
- The behaviour of individual members in a group may be better than their behaviour
outside the group situation.
In understanding group behaviour, the factors that should be analyzed are:
- Group norm
- Group cohesion
- Group decision making
GROUP NORM
Functions of groups are sometimes termed normative because they cause people to behave in a
similar pattern.
The normative functions of a group is a great importance in the original behaviour because it
helps a manager to understand how and why an individual will behave according to group norm.
Group members tend to form and conform norms.
Norms are rules of behaviour or proper ways of action which are accepted as legitimate by group
members.
The kinds of behaviour expected of members of a group are specified by these norms.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUP NORMS
According to Hackman, Group norm have five characteristic;
1. Norms summarizes and simplify group influence, processes. They summarize and
highlight those things that group feels important to control.
2. Norms apply only to behaviour and not to private thoughts and feelings.
3. Norms are generally developed only for behaviours which are considered as important by
most group members.
4. Norms usually develop gradually but the process can be shortened if members so desire.
5. Not all Norms apply to everyone in the group in the same manner. High status members
enjoy moving freedom to deviate from the “Elector or the law” than do other members.
Group norm help the group accomplish its goals.
Norms help group maintains itself in a group.
Factors affecting Compliance
There are varying degrees of group compliance.
Some group members are quite conforming while others are not.
A number of personal characteristics including
a) Degree of identification with the group
b) Higher level of education- less compliance
c) When group norms conflict with organization norms and values
d) If the group is primarily reference group- the one he/she looks up to for guidance in
behaviour and attitudes.
e) Individuals with low levels of security or with fear of being different are more likely to
comply.
The degree of compliance depends on the grip the group has on members.
Group Behaviour on Performance
The group can affect a person’s level of performance success
Positive attitude to management attracts low restriction. Negative attitude to management attracts
higher level group restriction on level of performance.
Standards set by groups are discovered to be always to be different from those set by
management.
Productivity is always a measure used to judge the effectiveness of a group. Productivity refers
to the task oriented nature of a group.
Informal groups required behaviour is related to the organisational purpose – product, profit,
services etc.
In non-formal groups, the required behaviour is for the members’ purposes.
Another way of saying it that the “required behaviour” in a non-formal group in an organization
is the “emergent behaviour” in the formal group.
Cohesiveness and Productivity
One of the most important factors determining group productivity is cohesiveness. When the
work within a group is interdependent helping behaviour among members may greatly contribute
to productivity. Helping behaviour is especially important if the tasks are complex and variable
and individuals need the assistance of others to solve the problem.
Cohesiveness is critical to miners because of the work problems and hazards they face in their
work locations.
Group cohesiveness may also influence productivity when the work is independent. This
happens through control of individual output as a result of norm adherence.
The group can or may exert a positive or negative effect on productivity depending on whether
they attempt to raise the productivity of low producing individuals or attempt to decrease the
performance of high producing members.
Productivity is a means of group success or its effectiveness. It is however to be noted that
effectiveness is a broader concept than productivity.
Group effectiveness is the ability of the group to achieve its goals, whatsoever they may be.
Effective group is one that produces large numbers of units of output on schedule. Sometimes the
group’s effectiveness is determined by quality of the ideas or suggestions it produces.
The effectiveness of a group can be judged only by its purpose or goals.
Sometimes groups have multiple objectives or goals and the group’s effectiveness must be
assessed by determining the degree to which several goals are simultaneously achieved.
THEORIES OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Theories of organisational behaviour abound and they may include McGregor’s Theories X and
Y. Quchi’s theory Z, Attribution theory, Goal theory, Systems theory.
These theories can be grouped into two:
a) The Systems theories or concept
These take the view that when analysis of organisational behaviour shows that the interaction
between the human and the formal organisation has resulted in satisfaction of human needs and
goal attainment, a positive adaptation has occurred
b) The Conceptual theories or model
These indicate that organisational dynamics conflicts. Change and adaptation are some of the
manifestations of organisational behaviour.
Systems Theory of Organisational Behaviour
The system theory of organisational behaviour takes the view that the results of the interaction
between the human being and the formal organisation are organisational dynamics in the form of
groups and informal organisation. The Systems theory implies that when the human interacts
with the formal organisation, he becomes an interdependent part of the organisation himself.
Thus, other humans collectively or individually have an impact on the human being who is
placed into, and interacts with the formal organisation.
The Goal Theory
The Goal theory is based on the work of Locke. The basic premise of goal theory is that people’s
goals or intentions play an important part in determining behaviour. Locke accepts the
importance of perceived value as indicated in expectancy theories of motivation. Locke suggests
that these values give rise to the experience of emotions and desires. People strive to achieve
goals in order to satisfy their emotion and desires.
Goals guide people’s responses and actions. Goals direct work and performance and lead
to certain consequences and feedback.
The theory takes the view that people with specific quantitative goals such as defined level of
performance or a given deadline for completion of a task will perform better than people without
set goals, or only vague goals. Such as “do the best you can.” People with difficult goals will
perform than people with easier goals.
LOCKE’S THEORY OF GOAL SETTING

Goal Difficulty

Response or
Emotions & Actions
Values Desires Goals or Consequences
Intentions Work behavior or Feedback
and performance

Level of
Commitment

PRACTICAL IMPLICATION FOR THE MANAGER

Goal theory has a set of practical implications for the manager.
1. Specific performed goals should systematically be identified and set in order to direct
behavior and maintain morale.
2. Goals should be set at a challenging but realistic level. Difficult goals lead to high
performance though too high level goals may lead to poor performance.
3. 3. Complete, accurate and timely feedback knowledge of results is usually associated
with high performance. Feedback provides a means of checking progress in goal
attainment and form the basis for any revision of goals.
4. Goals can either be determined by a superior or by subordinates themselves. Goals set by
other people are more likely to be accepted when there is participation.
THE HUMAN RESOURCES ORGANIC MODEL
This model has its root on the famous Hawthrone studies carried out in the late 1920s
It is based on the important impact of a social factors and informal groups on job satisfaction and
performance. This mechanistic model/systems was seen as authoritarian unresponsive to
individual needs as well as unable to change and adapt.
The mechanistic models were seen as having an unprecedented, severe and negative effect on the
psychological level of the organizational members. The organic model emerged to remedy the
situation.
The beliefs underlying the organic models are:
1) Democratic leadership and supportive leadership are most efficient
2) Employees are most productive when they can participate in decision making
3) Openness, honesty and trust facilitates the transfer of information
4) Individuals derive their primary work satisfaction and motivation from work groups.
According to the model, these assumptions lead to organization development change efforts
which aim to achieve an organic culture in the organization. This change requires an adjustment
in the values, beliefs, and attitudes of the organisations’ members.
THE NETWORK MODEL
In this model, organisations are conceived as clusters of people joined together by a variety of
links.
These clusters transmit goods and services, raw materials, information, exchange of ideas and
knowledge among people in the organization; influences giving orders and direction both
formally and informally; affects exchange of friendship among individuals.
These clusters of people are both formally structured and informally structured (emergent)
In this model, there exists a multitude of interpersonal work arrangements which arise out of
possible types of relationships. In the model, behavioural emphasis are focused on the interface
between the organization and its members. i.e. the impact of the organization on its members in
terms of satisfaction, quality of life, and opportunity to grow. All these contribute to behavior
and therefore, to overall organizational effectiveness.
OPEN SYSTEM THEORY OF ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
One way of introducing change is through the adoption of a system’s approach. In this context,
the organization can be viewed as a system and analyzed in terms of its major interrelated
variables (sub systems). The variables include structure, tasks, people, and management
technology
The variables serve as entering points and the organizational change can be initiated by
attraction of anyone or a combination of these variables. Because it is a system, a change in one
unit/variables is likely to involve changes in the other variables.
Change can be brought about by modification of the task, the technology, the structure, the
people or the management.
The systems approach to change demands that managers understand the interrelationships among
all the major variables (sub systems) of the organization. Change programmes can fail if the
systems nature of the organization is ignored. It must be realized by managers that no one unit of
the organization is an island. Hence, changes planned for one part of an organization will no
doubt have knowledge on effects on the other parts.
It is therefore important and necessary that when planning any changes, organisations should be
aware of the possible impact such changes may have on other parts of the organization. It is
natural that if a change has an anticipated impact on a unit or people, resistance to such change
will develop. In order to reduce such unanticipated impacts of changes. It is important for proper
consultation be done before introducing such change.
MAJOR ELEMENTS OF SYSTEMS THEORY OF ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
1. Organization as an open system is in constant interaction with its environment.
2. Organization is of multipurpose function nature involves multiple interaction with the
environment.
3. Organization consists of dynamics and interacting sub systems.
4. Sub systems are mutually dependent, therefore, change in one affects the other.
5. Organization exists in dynamic system environment which places demands and
constraints on the organization and its members.
6. Because of dependability on environment organization is forced to change when changes
ideally change should minimize and disruptions in established relationships and systems
of working or customary work relationships. Arrangements must be made to reduce
uncertainty that occupy any change.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
Attribution is the process by which people interpret the perceived causes of behaviour.
Heider, the originator of attribution theory suggests that behaviour is determined by a
combination or perceived internal forces and external forces.
Internal forces relate to personal attributes such as ability, skill amount of effort or fatigue. In
Nigeria many people are now convinced that hard work does not work, since the crooked and
well-connected ones rule the day. The tendency is to join the bandwagon-more corruption less
efficiency and seriousness on duty.
External forces relates to environment factors such as organizational rules, and policies, the
manner of superiors, the general trend in the Nigerian society or any other society.
In Nigeria, selective application of policies has tremendous effect on the psyche and the totality
of behaviour of people.
According to the theory, behaviour at work may be explained by the locus of control i.e. whether
the individual perceives the outcomes as controlled by them or by external forces. Judgments
made about other people will also be influenced by whether the cause is seen as internal or
external e.g. The Niger Delta issue. The oil companies where the original targets because the
people thought they were the major cause of their problems, later they realized that the
politicians were actually the cause of their problems.
BASIC CRITERIA IN MAKING ATTRIBUTION
Three basic criteria have been established as condition for making attribution and determining
whether internal or external attribution is chosen.
The three basic criteria are
a) Disincentiveness- How disincentive or different was the behaviour or action
b) Consensus- Is the behaviour or action in keeping with that displayed by most other
people in the same situation.
 c) Consistency- Is the behaviour or action associated with an enduring personality or
motivational characteristics or a one –off situation caused by external factors.
Classification of attribution can also be based on the evaluation of task performance within an
organizational setting with regard to whether the cause of behaviour is due to “stable” or
“unstable” factors.
 Stable factors are ability or the ease or difficulty of the task
 Unstable factors, are the exertion of efforts or luck.
According to the theory, the combination of internal and external attributes and stable and
unstable characteristics results in four possible interpretations of a person’s task performance.
CLASSIFICATION FOR POSSIBLE ATTRIBUTION FOR PERFORMANCE
Internal Attributes External Attribute

Stable Factors Ability Task difficulty

Unstable factors Effort Luck

IMPLICATIONS OF ATTRIBUTION THEORY

Employees with an internal control orientation are more likely to believe that they can influence
their level of performance through their own ability, skills and efforts. Employees with an
external control orientation are more likely to believe that their level of performance is
determined by external factors beyond their influence.
Empirical evidence tends to support the idea that staff with internal orientation are generally
more satisfied with their jobs, are more likely to be in managerial positions and are satisfied with
a participatory style of management than staff with an external control orientation.
As a generalization, it might be implied that internally controlled managers are more effective
than those who are externally controlled. However this does not appear to be always the case.
EQUITY THEORY
Equity theory as put forward by Adams, focuses on people’s feelings of how fairly they have
been treated in comparison with the treatment received by others.
It is based on exchange theory. People evaluate their social relationships in the same way as
buying and selling an item. People expect certain outcomes in exchange for certain attribution or
inputs.
 Social relationships involve an exchange process. e.g. a person may expect promotion or
some rewards as an outcome of a high level of contributions (inputs) in helping to achieve an
important organizational objectives.
Peoples also compare their own position with that of others to determine the perceived equity of
their own position. The theory takes the view that feelings of equity of the exchange is affected
by the treatment people receive when compared with what happens to other people. Evidence
shows that most exchanges involves multiple of inputs and outcomes.
According to equity theory, people place a weighing on the various inputs and outcomes
according to how they perceive their importance.
When the ratio of a person’s total outcomes to total inputs equals the perceived ratio of other
people’s total outcome to total inputs there is equity.
However, when there as an unequal comparison of ratios the person experiences a sense of
inequity. The feeling of inequity might arise when an individual’s ratio of outcomes to inputs is
either less than or greater than that of other people. The theory is of the view that workers prefer
equitable treatment in pay
BEHAVIOUR AS A CONSEQUENCE OF INEQUITY
When people have a feeling of inequality, this creates tension which is not a pleasant experience.
The natural behavioural reaction is for the person to try to reduce the tension and the perceived
inequity.
This theory identifies six broad types of possible behavioural consequences of inequity.
1) Changes to inputs- A person may increase or decrease the level of inputs e.g. quality of
work, absenteeism or work attitudinal norms
2) Changes to outcomes- A person may try to change outcomes e.g. working condition pay
without changes to inputs.
3) Cognitive distortion of inputs & outcomes- People may try mentally/cognitively to distort
inputs or outcomes. Even though the theory believes that it is difficult for people to
distort facts about themselves yet within limits, it is possible to distort the utility of those
facts. E.g. belief about how hard they are really working or what they can or cannot
obtain with a given level of pay.
4) Leaving the field/location-A person may try to relocate by resigning or being absent from
the job
5) Acting on others- A person may try to influence others by e.g. pressuring them to follow
their inputs or outcomes. In extreme case, may force others to leave the organization
altogether.
6) Changing the object of comparison- This involves changing the reference group with
whom comparism is made. E.g. where another person with previously similar outcome-
input ratio receives greater outcome without any noticeable increase in contribution, that
other person may be seen as belonging to a different level in organizational structure
TRIGGERS FOR CHANGE
Many factors may cause change to take place in an organization. These factors are called
Triggers for Change.
Sometimes or at some point some core groups in the organization may feel uncomfortable with
events or certain things and may decide to respond to it and this may trigger off adjustment
process. Some of triggers include;
1) Environmental Changes
These may include competition, increased uncertainty, and environmental complexity. In
Nigeria. The GSM came out of environmental change.
2) Technological Changes
This results from new potentials to do something, new methodologies for producing existing
products and services. E.g. only few ladies wears skirts or long gown. What is in vogue is
skimpy dresses.
3) Shifts in agreement among organizational members over the means of doing the work.
Members may split in the team of the structure or production direction of the
organization.
4) Changes in people
New staff may be brought into the organization. They may differ significantly on how things are
being done e.g. more women are being given important and strategic position and they have
started changing how things are done.
Organisations are expected to carry out detail analysis of the triggers in order to be able to
manage the changes that emerge effectively. Such analysis is important to the organisation since
it creates awareness of the need for change
- It can generate motivation for change
- It enables the organisation prepare properly to handle and manage such change.

RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
Human beings naturally resist change because of several reasons both known and unknown.
Human beings resistance to change is part of the dynamics of change.
Resistance to change is a fact of organizational life and takes many forms. Some of the ways
human beings resist change in organisation include
a) Persistent reduction in output
b) Increase in the number of resignation and request for transfer
c) Chronic quarrel and subtle hostility
d) Wild cat or slowdown strikes
e) Sabotage
f) The expression of a lot of pseudological reasons why change will not work
REASONS FOR RESISTING CHANGE
Reasons abound why human beings resist change. These reasons include
 1. Insecurity- This is most obvious reason why human beings resist change. People are
generally comfortable with the status quo. Change is often viewed as a threat to their
security, hence the resistance.
2. Economics- A very practical reason why people especially in the lower levels of an
organisation oppose change is that they are afraid of possible economic loss. Being
replaced by a machine is a real threat to most workers.
3. Socio & Psychological- Although insecurity and economics are partly socio-
psychological in nature, there are also perceptual, emotional and cultural barriers to
change.
Perceptual, wrong interpretation of the change may lead to resistance. Person’s may react
emotionally to change by bringing in fear and prejudices to the surface. Persons facing change in
an organisation are influenced by their cultural values which they bring to the situation with
them.
Resistance in most cases occur when the change is viewed as a threat or barriers to the
change is not seen as endangering a person’s security or economic position and does not pose
socio-psychological barriers, there may be no resistance.
Change may be welcomed if it is seen to remove a threat or barriers or if it is in the interest of the
generality of the staff.

MANAGEMENT OF RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

In order to manage change, management must first recognize and understand change and them
systematically plan, implement and evaluate it.
In modern organisation there are four general goals to which management of change should aim.
a) To improve the means for somebody’s economic want
b) To increase profitability
c) To promote human work for human beings
d) To contribute to individual satisfaction and social wellbeing
The above aim reflect both a human and an organizational orientation to change.
CONDITION FOR IMPLEMENTING ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
In order to implement change four basic steps must be taken.
a) The organizational system in should have as complete an understanding influence,
control and trust of the change as much as possible.
b) The change effort should be as self-motivated and voluntary as possible
c) The change programme should include emotional and value as well as cognitive
(Informational) elements
d) Those introducing the change should play more role in reducing the effects change
CHARACTERISITICS OF CHANGE
Change requires exchanging something old for something old for something new. It is important
to recognize that any change requires exchange.
People have to unlearn and relearn
- Exchange power and status
- Exchange old norms and values for new norms and values.
These changes are often frightening while all the same time potentially stimulating and provides
hope.
It is necessary to recognize the nature of exchanges.
There are costs and benefits which must ultimately balance in favour of benefits. There is
therefore need that when implementing change, efforts should be made to reduce costs and
enhance expected benefits.
During implementation of change and change programs, the organisation may be in transition.
Transition is defined as a pairing from one condition, place, activity etc. to another. Because of
this transition situation, people may experience different emotional condition during the period
of change.
Such emotion may be positive or negative.
Fear-Hope
Sadness-Happiness
Anxiety-Relief
Pressure-Stimulation
Unclear-New direction
Loss of Meaning – New Meaning
Threat of Self-esteem – New sense of value
BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
Behaviour modification has been defined in different ways. These include
1) As the attempt to alter human behaviour and emotions in beneficial manner in accordance
with the law of modern learning theories.
2) As the use of experimentally established principles of learning for the purpose of
changing maladaptive behaviour.
3) As a psychological method or psychological context or therapeutic strategy to change
behaviour.
4) In general behaviour modification is the broadest team used to describe the various ways
of helping people alter or change some behavioural excesses or deficits or to acquire new
sets of behavioural patterns.
Behaviour modification control behaviour through systematic application of reinforcement.
Desirable behaviour is positively reinforced and undesirable behaviour is negatively
reinforced for dropped.
According to the law of effect, the positively reinforced behaviour will repeat itself and the
behaviour that is negatively reinforced or not be reinforced at all will be eliminated. It is
however expected that the person must perform the current response before he is reinforced.
The overall purpose of behaviour modification is to create desirable new or modified
behavioural patterns in place of behaviour that is deemed undesirable.
MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOURS
It can be reasoned from the above description that behaviour modification principles are
brought to play when the objective is to alter a maladaptive behaviour. A maladaptive
behaviour is an unacceptable and socially undesirable behaviour.
A behaviour may be maladaptive as it relates to a laid down principles, norm, law, custom or
practice. This implies that a behaviour that is regarded as maladaptive in one society may be
acceptable in another and a behaviour that is regarded as maladaptive in one culture may be
an acceptable behaviour in another. Similarly, different culture have their own ethics, rules,
norms and principles by inactions of the profession but may be regarded as maladaptive by
others.
APPLICATION OF BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION TO MANAGEMENT
There are general ways behaviour modification can be applied to management of human
resources.
Organizational behaviour modification is applied in the training of workers to the use of
certain methods to perform tasks or to increase their knowledge in certain areas.
As a technique organizational behaviour modification can be used on the new employee,
experienced employee who needs retraining.
It can also be used on the disadvantaged hardcore unemployed individual.
E.g. some trainees may be given points or monetary reward for certain types of responses
(attendance, promptness or performance). Any trainee that is absent or performing poorly is
given no points or has some points deducted. Monetary payments, gifts or public recognition
are some possible rewards that can be used as reinforcement of behaviour.
The new behaviour attained during the training period will then be transferred to the regular
job. Generalization can occur and good performance on the job can be deliberately rewarded
through carefully administered reinforcement schedules.
Organizational behaviour modification can be applied to management by objectives.
Reinforcement schedule can be linked to the attainment of specified objectives.
Organizational behaviour modification has also impact in the re-socialization process.
Behavioural Scientists generally agree that once behaviour pattern have been changed,
attitudes and opinions may follow.
 Potentially, organizational behaviour modification may lead to positive employee attitudes
towards work in general and organizational goals in a particular
Key features of Management of Change
1) Commitment of top management to an organisation culture which emphasizes hih
employee involvement.
2) Care taken to design an organizational structure which takes all of both technical and
people’s needs.
3) The emphasis on and commitment to the training and development of all employees in
the new technology and new ways of working.
4) A selection procedure which focuses on the attitudes of individuals with the
organizational culture
5) Attraction of flexible pay system and incentives.
LIMITATIONS OF POLICIES, LAWS, REGULATIONS ND THE GENERAL RULES
OF CIVIL SERVICE IN CONTROLLING BEHAVIOUR
Public service refers to the activities of Government whether Federal, State or Local which are
aimed at helping the people or improving their welfare without the objective of making profit.
The public service like any other organisation made up of people requires rules, regulations,
policies, laws and code of ethics to ensure consistency of behaviour and achievement of goals
and objectives.
These rules are put in place to ensure that people in the service or in the society live and behave
in accordance with norms of modern society.
REASONS FOR RULES, LAWS ETC IN THE PUBLIC SERVICE
The Public Service is the largest employer of labour. It therefore, contains people with different
objectives, aspiration, expectations and characters. The need to prescribe code of behaviour and
ethics by way of rules, laws and regulation behaviour and ethics by way of rules, laws and
regulations become extremely important. Rules and regulations are put in place for the following
reasons.
a) For consistency in behaviour and in accordance with public service code of ethics
b) For optimum and economic achievement of government goals and objectives.
c) To avoid anarchy and confusion by putting rules in place the public service ensures that
behaviours are moderated and controlled in orderly manner.
d) As a basis for effective and qualitative decision making and action. The rules influence
the behaviour of the workers towards defined direction and a particular way or method of
doing things
e) As a guide for evaluation of behaviour and performance. It is usual public service
practice that workers are evaluated periodically in terms of performance so there are no
standards by way of rules and regulations, favoritism will thrive while undue
admonishment and unfairness may become the order of the day. Whenever evaluation
that is done is compared with prescriptions of rules and regulations in existence. Since
people are aware of such expectations from them, their behaviour is kept in check in
order not to behave contrary to expectation
AREAS CONCERNED BY RULES, REGULATIONS, LAWS ETC.
Each person employed in the public service is expected to exhibit certain behaviours in line with
and in accordance with the public service rules and regulations. Some of the areas covered by
such rules and regulations include;
a) Discipline- The public service expects the workers to be disciplined in all ramifications,
in the way they do things, in the way they carry out their jobs, in the way they relate to
one another, and in the way they handle government business and relate with outsiders.
Indiscipline is highly frowned at. Those who have the tendency to behave in an in-
disciplined manner are forced to change their behaviour and comply with the dictates and
expectations of the service.
b) Management of Information
The public service expects its workers to manage information in accordance with the Secrets Act
of 1963. According to the 1963 law, under no circumstance should official government
information be divulged to unauthorized persons. Every worker is expected to show a high level
of self-discipline, self-control and exceptional level of sensitivity in the management of public
service information. Every worker is expected to be cautious in handling official information.
Acts of carelessness or claims of ignorance are rarely accepted as excuses for going contrary to
the rules and law.
c) Financial Embarrassment
The public service expects every worker to live within his/her financial means. Any situation that
would make a public worker start living above his/her financial income is not acceptable because
of the implications. Any situation that would make a worker start borrowing more than his
financial means is frowned at because the person may be forced to look for money in a crooked
way in order to meet such financial obligations. In the process the person may do things that are
unprofessional and sometimes unethical and contrary to the rules and regulations of the public
service.
d) Performance and progression in the service
The public service expects certain level of performance from every worker. Progression in the
service is based on established rules, procedures and regulations. Work behaviour, performance
and attitudes are influenced by these rules and worker perception of the regulations. The general
belief is that working very hard in the service does not bring about extra benefits. People are
therefore tempted to perform to the acceptable minimum level.
You do not perform or carry out jobs anyhow. You have to follow the rules. Sometimes taking
initiative which may be beneficial to the service but which may seem to fall outside laid down
rules may bring problem to the officer concerned. In total, the rules and regulations limit
initiatives, higher performance and innovations. The public service rules stall creativity, breeds
laziness because the rules are applied sometimes in a negative way by those operating the system
that progress is not facilitated.
LIMITATIONS OF THE RULES
It is one thing to make rules and regulations to control and moderate the behaviour of people and
quite another thing for such rules and regulations to achieve desired objectives. The limiting
factor’s includes the following:
1. Lack of courage and will
Those who are supposed to enforce the rules and regulations lack the will and courage to do so.
This is because they do not want to offend people or they are not interested to enforce such rules.
The consequences is that people sometimes behave in a manner contrary to expectations.
2. Systems’ Weakness
Even though the rules and regulations are made by the system, the system itself is weak to
enforce the rules. The service may be too weak and cumbersome to enforce the rules resulting in
the inability to enforce the rules.
3. Inability to interpret rules correctly
Most often those who are to interpret the rules lack the ability and competence to interpret the
rules and regulations correctly. This hinders the total enforcement of such rules and regulations.
When rules are not correctly interpreted, it can lead to misapplication which in teun could
produce bad result.

4. Inadequate reliable information and data

To interpret the rules and regulation correctly and apply them correctly there is need for
adequate, update reliable information and data to make valid and correct decisions. In the
absence of such reliable and update data and information, rules are hardly interpreted and hardly
applied.
5. Cultural Inhibitions
There is a tendency for those involved in application of the rules and regulation to be constrained
by the cultural issues. There is reluctance on the part of the officer to apply.
STATUS BASED REWARDS AND PURNISHMENTS
Rewards

Performance
Efforts or Intention Satisfaction
In many organisations the reward that a person receives is based on his/her positive efforts and
contributions to the organizational goals and objectives. The manager’s job is to administer
rewards and such rewards are always in accordance with status or positions.
However, rewards are to be motivational incentive. Rewards are what motivates people
towards right behaviour is still very difficult to understand.
Reward Style in requirement
Four criteria have been given which add to “quality of life” and which add to organizational
effectiveness.
1) Reward level- A reward level high enough to satisfy the basic needs
2) External Equity- Rewards equal to or greater than those in other organisations
3) Internal Equity- A distribution of rewards that is seen as fair by members
4) Provision of rewards that fits the needs of individuals.
Organisational Effectiveness
a) Performance motivation- Important rewards perceived to be related persons need
b) Membership- High overall satisfaction, external equity and high reward level for barrier
performance
c) Absenteeism- Important rewards related to actually coming to work/ high job satisfaction
d) Organisation structure reward- Distribution pattern and decision making approach that fir
the management style and organizational structure.
It needs to be said that there are reward systems and practices which can contribute to the high
quality of work life.
Model
Rewards are related to efforts as shown in the model. Rewards are also related to job satisfaction.
Efforts are directly related to rewards and performance. Performance is related to rewards
directly while high performance attracts rewards, low performance attracts punishment.
Rewards are based on status, the higher the reward, vice versa.
Rewards in organisation are graduated and systematized. The status and position in the
organisation determine the nature of reward.
Rewards includes tangible and intangible benefits accruable to the post holder.
Organisational Behaviour
Multi-dimensional
- The people dimension of an organisation needs to be explained in terms of the
multidimensional nature of human beings. Individual behaviour is embedded in a
contextual and family setting.
The dynamics of work environment
Power, Influence and authority
Perspectives on power
Sources of organizational Power
Power and decision-making
Power, control and resistance.

MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS
- The attainment of a given objective is the main responsibility of management
- Success and survival of an organisation rest upon the attainment of its aims and
objectives
- Effective management is important
- Managerial effectiveness as a concept is sometimes difficult to define and to measure
Effectiveness is concerned with doing the right things. It relates to the output of the job and what
the manager actually achieves.
Managerial effectiveness according to Drucker relates to essential practices such as
- The management of time
- An outward contribution in terms of results rather than work
- Building on existing strengths of people and in the situation.
- Concentration on major areas of performance and establishing priorities.
- Judgment in decision-making.
Effectiveness must be related to the achievement of some purpose, objectives and task.
- Related to the performance of the process of management and the execution of work.
Criteria for assessing the effectiveness of a manger need to be considered in terms of measuring
the results that the manager intended to achieve.
Managerial effectiveness results from a combination of personal attributes and dimensuions of a
manager’s job in meeting the demands of the situation and satisfying the requirements of the
organisation.
Efficiency according to (Reddin &Drucker; 1970&1977) is concerned with doing things right
and relates to inputs and what the manager does.
  To be efficient, managers must attend to the inputs requirements of the job. Classification
of objectives, planning, organisation, direction and control. Generally, managers are only
likely to be effective if they adopt the most appropriate style of behavior.
MOTIVATION
Motivation is a common subject matter in management, organizational behavior and in
organisations. The concept is as old as industrial organisation.
Many theories have been put forward, many definition have enunciated, yet the issue of
motivation is still controversial because of the many variables, circumstances and because of
individual differences in responding to and dealing with issues. Motivation obviously is a
complex subject. It is difficult to explain and predict behavior of employees.

Definitions:
1. Motivation is the set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways (Rao, 2010)
2. Motivation is a process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish desired goals.
3. Motivation is the process that accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction and
persistence of effort towards attaining a goal (Robbins & Judge, 2011)
Three key elements in the last definition;
- Intensity- describes how hard a person tries. This is the elements most people focus on
when they talk about motivation (Intensity without direction is a nullity)
- Direction- effort directed towards and consistent with the organisations goals is the kind
of effort we should be seeking. Therefore, consider quality efforts as well as its intensity.
- Persistence- this persistence dimension measures how long a person can maintain effort.
Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.

Motivation
This looks at the way in which drives, urges and desires explain the behavior of man. It
can be defined as the drives, factors and urges that make an in individual to behave in a
particular way or refrain from behaving in a particular way. Motivation can also be seen as those
forces operating within the individual which impel him/her to act or refrain from acting in certain
ways.
Motivation describes the prosperity or tendency for specific behavioral pattern to reduce
or satisfy certain needs which arose tension.
The force of motivation is a dynamic force setting a person into a motion or action. The
word motivation is derived from ‘motive’ which is an active from of a desire, needs which can be
satisfied. All motives are directed towards goals and the needs and desires affect or change
behavior which becomes goal oriented e.g. if a person ordinarily do not want to work overtime
but at a particular time, he/she may need money (desire) so he/she may change his/her
behavior, work overtime goal oriented behavior and satisfy his/her needs.
The Motivation Process
The following steps can be adopted I the motivation process
1. An analysis of the situation requiring motivation.
2. Preparing, selecting, and applying a set of motivating tools.
3. Following up on the results of application.

1. Analysis of situation: The situation that needs motivational inducement must be sized up
so as to ascertain the motivational needs. Since needs of different employees differ
both in nature and as well as intensity, a composite view of the collective needs of the
group is established, with appropriate recognition of differences in individual needs.
2. Selecting and applying appropriate motivators: A list of all devices of motivation is drawn
and a selection made of such motivators that motivate different types of people under
different circumstances. Proper timing and extent of motivation is also to be considered.
3. Follow up: It is important to know that the motivators selected are indeed providing the
desired motivations. This can be accomplished by getting and evaluating the feedback. If
these motivators are not showing the optimum effect, then alternative motivators should
be selected and applied.

Types of motivation

1. Positive motivation
This involves proper recognition of employee efforts and appreciation of employee
contribution towards the organizational goal advancement. Such motivations improve the
standards of performance, leads to good team spirit and pride, a sense of co-operation
and a feeling of belonging and happiness. Some of the positive motivators are
a. Praise and credit for work done.
b. A sincere interest in the welfare of subordinates.
c. Delegation of authority and responsibility to subordinates.
d. Participation of subordinates in decision making process.
2. Negative or fear motivation.
This motivation is based upon force, fear and threats. The fear of punishment or
unfavorable consequences affects the behavioral change. This includes the fear of
failing in the exam, fear of being fired or demoted etc. However, punishment creates a
hostile state of mind affecting negatively the sense of loyalty and co-operation, perhaps,
resulting in poor performance and lower productivity.
3. Extrinsic Motivation.
This motivation induced by external factors which are primarily financial in nature. These
incentives and rewards have been a subject of debate, whether they really motivate the
employees or simply move them to work and perform. These motivations include higher
pay, fringe benefits like retirement plans, profit sharing schemes, health and medical
insurance, maternity leave etc.
4. Intrinsic Motivation.
 This is concerned with the state of self-actualization, in which the satisfaction of
accomplishing something worthwhile motivates the employees further. These are
primarily non-financial rewards. Some of the intrinsic motivations are recognition,
esteem, power, status, participation etc.

Motivation: Concept and Features

Motivation is characterized by the following;
1. Motivation is an internal feeling- motivation points to energetic forces within individuals
that derive them to behave in a certain ways and to environmental forces that trigger
these drives.
2. Motivation produces goal-directed behavior. Motivation has got a profound influence on
the human behavior. It harnesses human energy to accomplish organizational
requirements.
3. Motivation contains systems orientation.
It considers those forces in the individuals and in their surroundings that give feedback to the
individuals either to reinforce the intensity of their drive and the direction of this energy or to
dissuade them from their cause of action and redirect their efforts.
4. Motivation can be either positive or negative
Positive motivation or the carrot approach offers something precious to the person in the form of
additional pay, incentives, praise etc. for satisfactory performance.
Negative motivation or stick approach emphasizes penalties while controlling performance
(reprimands, threat of demotion)
5. Motivation means bargaining- Behavior is what people do. Motivation is why they do it.
Motivation can be explained in the form of “inducement contribution “theory. It focuses on
workers and organisation endeavoring to find what payouts (inducements) to workers in
exchange for what degree of cooperation (contributions) from workers will be satisfactory to
both parties. The problem of motivation is that it becomes one of arriving at compensation to
workers that will coax them into producing output that is required.
6. Motivation is a complete process. Five reasons can support this statement:
a) Motivation is a hypothetical construct. It cannot be seen. Often we see individuals putting
a great deal of overtime. We cannot definitely say why he is doing it. Is it additional
income they receive or because they enjoy their work.
b) Individual may have a host of needs that are continuously changing and sometimes in
conflict with each other. As a result it becomes very difficult to observe or measure
motivation with certainty.
c) People satisfy their needs in many different ways. By simply observing people in action
is not easy to say what spurs them.
 d) Promoting an individual to a new and more challenging task may intensify the drive to
work harder in anticipation of the next promotion. Satisfaction of a particular need may
gradually lead to an increase in its intensity.
e) Goal-directed behavior does not always lead to need satisfaction
Importance of Motivation
The success of an organisation is ultimately depends on how effectively, managers are able to
motivate their subordinates. Evidence suggests that poorly motivated employees can nullify the
soundest original plan.
The following brings out the importance of motivation in modern organisations.
1. Productive use of resources
Modern organisations work through physical, financial and human resources. The utilization of
physical and financial resources depends largely on the willingness of people at work.
Motivation enables people to convert physical, financial resources into useful products.
2. Increased efficiency and outputs
Motivation enables people work enthusiastically. It is well known that performance is the result
of a combination of the ability to do the task and the willingness to perform it wholeheartedly.
This increases the overall efficiency and output as well as reducing the cost of operations.
3. Achievement of goals
Motivation cause goal-directed behavior. It helps people move in the desired direction and earn
rewards. If people are not properly motivated, no useful purpose can be served by planning,
organizing and staffing functions.
4. Development of friendly relationships
Motivation brings employees closer to the organisation. The needs of employees are met
attractive rewards, promotional opportunities etc. employees begin to internalize work. Morale
would improve. The interest of the organisation and their own tend to coincide. Cordial
relationship is developed between them and management.
5. Stability in workforce
Attractive motivational schemes satisfy the needs of employees. Consequently, their
commitment to original work increases. Employees do their work loyally and enthusiastically.
Desire to leave is reduced, turnover with attendant cost is reduced. The organisation is better for
it.
Determinants of Motivation
The traditional belief is that employees are motivated by opportunity to make extra money as
much as possible and will rationally act to maximize their earnings. The assumption is that
money because of its value is the most important motivator of all people. In place of this
monistic approach (man motivated by money alone) a pluralistic explanation is required.
According to the pluralistic approach, man works to fulfil a variety of needs. Three types of
forces generally influence behavior.
1. Forces operating within the individual human needs are both numerous and complex.
Some of these needs are difficult to identify because people hide their real needs under
the cover. Some of these needs may not be easy to describe because people tend to hide
their true needs.
People are different and different things tend to motivate different people depending on the
individual, the situation and the rewards the individual expects for the work.
2. Forces operating within the organisation
The climate in the organisation must be conducive for the individual to perform. Climate plays
an important role in determining workers motivation. The climate in an organisation is
determined by a number of variables including leadership style, autonomy enjoyed by members,
growth prospects, and emotional support from members.
3. Forces operating within the Environment
What happens at the workplace and outside the workplace affect and influence the individual and
his behavior.
On the job experience and off the job experience are inseparable culture, norms, customs and
attributes accorded by society to particular jobs, professions, and occupations and workers home-
life all play a strong motivational role.
Job preference arise because of individual motivations. Some people are motivated by jobs that
carry authority and power while other may prefer service job that have little or no authority
attached to them.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Theories of Motivation
A. Content theories
These theories attempt to explain those specific things that actually motivate the
individual at work. These theories are concerned with identifying people’s needs and
their relative strength, and the goals they pursue in order to satisfy these needs
content theories place emphasis on the nature of needs and what motivates.
Examples are:
i. Maslow hierarchy of needs theory.
ii. Aiderfer’s modified need hierarchy theory
iii. Herzberg’s two factor theory.
iv. Mc clelland achievement motivation theory.

B. Process theories
These theories attempt to identify the relationship among the dynamic variables that
make up motivation. These theories are concerned with how behavior is initiated,
 directed and sustained. Process theories place emphasis on he actual process of
motivation. Examples are:

*Vroom expectancy theory

*Equity theory
*Goal theory
*Attribution theory.

1. Maslow hierarchy of needs theory:

Maslow describes man as a wanting animal whose needs are organized in an
hierarchical order. He identified 5 fundamental levels of needs. These needs and
examples of how they can be satisfied are explained below.

________Actualization needs
Esteem needs

Social needs
Safety ______

_____
Physiological

1. Physiological needs: These are primary needs for sustaining life itself, and include basic
needs for food, cloth and shelter.
When these basic needs are fulfilled, other levels of needs become important and start
acting as motivation. Organizations can satisfy these needs by providing pay, benefits
and conducive working conditions to employees.
2. Safety needs: once the physiological needs are gratified, the safety or security needs
become pre-dominant. This is a need for self-preservation as against physiological
needs which are for survival. These safety and security needs involve a sense of
protection against danger and threat. Organizations can provide job security, life
insurance and other protective measures to safe guide satisfaction of physiological
needs in the future which can be unpredictable.
 3. Love and social needs. After the needs of the physiological and safety are satisfied, then
a sense of belonging and acceptance becomes prominent in motivating behavior. These
needs are for love, friendship and social interactions. Organizational should provide
friendly association, organized friendly activities etc.
4. Esteem needs: These needs give room for the attainment of recognition from others
which will induce a feeling of self-worth and self-confidence in the individual. It is an urge
for achievement, prestige, status and power. It includes a desire for self-respect and
respect from others. Self-respect is the internal recognition while respect from others is
the external recognition while respect from others is the external recognition and the
appreciation of ones individuality as well as contribution. This will result in self-
confidence, independence, status, reputation and prestige. Management should give
recognition and encouragement for performance and contribution. There is also the need
to involve subordinates in decision making as well as giving training to enhance the
efficiency.
5. Self-actualization needs. These are the needs for self-fulfillments. It involves the need to
develop fully and realize one’s capacity and potentiality to the fullest extent possible.
This is the highest level of needs in Maslow hierarchy. A self-actualized person is
creative, independent and has a good perception of reality, and the person is constantly
striving to realize his full potentials. Management should :

1 Give opportunities to employees to shape their own jobs.

2. Give employees freedom of expression. This will open the channel to communication
and give employees the opportunity to get involved.
3. Encourage and develop creativity among employees.
4. Provide meaningful opportunities that require development and use of full potentials.
Conclusively, management must be aware of motivational factors and apply them
accordingly to the demand of the situation and of the people.

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory of Motivation

This is an environmental motivation theory that/which emphasizes factors in the
environment that contribute to behavior. It seems natural to believe that people who are
satisfied with their jobs will be more dedicated to their jobs and perform it well when
compared with people who are dissatisfied with their jobs. If this logic seems justified
then it will be useful to isolate those factors and contributions that produce satisfaction
and those that produced dissatisfaction. Herzberg called these factors as motivators and
hygiene.

Hygiene factors: These factors do not motivate people. They prevent dissatisfaction and
maintain status quo. The absence of their factors will lead to job dissatisfaction. The elimination
of dissatisfaction does not mean satisfaction, and these factors maintain a zero level of
motivation. These factors are primarily extrinsic in nature and environmental oriented and also
relate to job context rather than job content. Some of the hygiene factors are
1. Wages, salaries and other types of employees’ benefits.
 2. Companies policies and administration.
3. Interpersonal relationship with peers and supervisors.
4. Working conditions and security
5. Supervision.

3. Motivators factors
These factors are related to nature of work itself (job content), and are intrinsic to the job
itself. These factors have positive job influence on morale, satisfaction, efficiency and
higher productivity. Some of the factors are:
1. The job itself: To be motivated, employees/people must like and enjoy their jobs.
They must be committed to job achievement and do not mind working late.
2. Recognition: Proper recognition of the contribution of employees by management is
highly appreciated. It gives employees the feeling of self-esteem. It is human nature
to be happy when appreciated
3. Achievement.
Goal achievement hives feelings of accomplishment. The goal must be challenging,
initiative and creative. People feel motivated and happy, having achieved their
expectations.
4. Responsibilities
It is an obligation to carry out the assigned duties satisfactorily. The higher the level
of the duties, the more responsible the employees are. It is a good feeling to know
that you are considered a person of integrity and intelligence to be given a higher
responsibility.
5. Growth and advancement
These factors are interrelated and are positively related to motivation. Job promotion,
higher responsibility, participation in central decision making and executive benefits
are all signs of growth and advancement, and they add to dedication and
commitment of employees.

AIDERFER’S modified need hierarchy model.

A modified need hierarchy model has been presented by Alderfer. This model condenses
Maslow’s five levels of needs into only three levels based on the core needs of existence,
relatedness and growth.
1. Existence needs: are concerned with sustaining human existence and survival and cover
physiological and safety needs of a material nature.
2. Relatedness needs: are concerned with relationships to the social environment and
cover love or belonging affiliation and meaningful interpersonal relationships of a safety
or esteem nature.
3. Growth needs: are concerned with the development of potential and cover self-esteem
and self-actualization.
Mc Clelland’s Achievement motivation theory
McClelland’s work originated from investigations into the relationship between hunger needs
and extent to which imagery of food dominated thought processes. From subsequent research,
Mc Clellan identified four (4) main arousal-based and socially developed motives.
1. The achievement motives
2. The power motive
3. The affiliative motive
4. The avoidance motive
The first three motives correspond with Maslow’s self –actualization, esteem and love needs.
The relative intensity of these motives varies between individuals. It also tends to vary between
different occupations. Manager appears to be higher in achievement motivation than in affiliation
motivation. Mc Clelland saw the achievement need (n-Ach) as the most critical for the country’s
economic growth and success. The need to achieve is linked to entrepreneurial spirit and the
development of available resources.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory.

Vroom was the first person to propose an expectancy theory aimed specifically at work
motivation. His model is based on three key variables: valence, instrumentality and expectancy.
This theory is founded on the idea that people prefer certain outcomes from their behavior over
others.
1. Expectancy: This is a person’s perception of the likelihood that a particular outcome will
result from a particular behavior or action. The likelihood is probabilistic in nature, and
describes the relationship between an act and an outcome. For example, if a person
works hard, he may expect to perform better and increase productivity.
2. Instrumentality: This factor relates to a person’s belief and expectation that his high
performance will lead to a particular desired rewards. If a person believes that his high
performance willnot be recognized or lead to expected rewards, he will not be motivated
to work hard for better output. Instrumentality is the performance reward relationship.
3. Valence:
Valence is the value a person assigns to his desired reward. He may not be willing to
work hard to improve performance, if the reward for such improved performance is not
what he desires. It is not the actual value of the reward but the perceptional value of the
reward in the mind of the worker.
Motivational force = ( M=Expectancy (E) x
Instrumentality (1) X Valence (V) or EXIXV
Equity Theory on Motivation
Equity theory focuses on people’s feelings of how they have been treated in comparison
with the treatment received by others. People compare their own position with that of
others. They determine the perceived equity of their own position. Their feelings about
the equity of the exchange are affected by the treatment they received when compared
with what happens to other people. When there is an unequal comparison of ratios, the
person experiences a sense of inequity. Equity theory is associated with Adam.
 Attribution Theory.
Attribution is the process by which people interpret the perceived causes of behavior.
The initiator of attribution theory is generally recognized as Heider, who suggests that
behavior is determined by a contribution of perceived internal and external forces.
*. Internal forces: relate to personal attributes such as ability, skill, and amount of effort.
*. External forces: relate to environmental factors such as organizational rules and
policies, the manner of superiors, or the weather.

ORGANISATIONAL DYNAMICS
Organisation do not exist in the real sense of the world. They might be described as legal and
financial entities on paper. It is the people within the organization that breate life into them.
The organization is made up of a number of stakeholders, the owners, the management
(managers) the employees, customers, suppliers etc. it is people who create organization as a
source of income or in response to perceived social, political or personal needs.
Owners are interested in the financial return of their investment. Employees might be interested
in a secure and interesting job that pays a realistic wage. Suppliers may be interested in the
opportunity to create long-term strategic alliances for commercial benefits, the government
interested in the tax that the organization may return and the employment it may offer, the agents
ensuring that the organization will run to justify the confidence entrusted upon them.
All these groups are essentially people oriented and provide the dynamics of the organization.
Human beings indeed are complex as individuals and even more as groups. Personalities differ,
and each has his/his own expectations, needs/wants, experiences and pursues them with vigor.
Furthermore, experiences, educational level differ and affect how each person interprets and
relates to the world around him/her.
People can be unpredictable which makes consistency of behavior in an organization
unpredictable mood, temperament and condition of health are some of the variables that can
affect how each person will behave in any given situation. Human behavior also influences the
perception and understanding of organization themselves. (Morgan, 1986)
It is such difference, interactions contradictions that make organisations unique and necessitate
the study of organizational behavior.
The people dimension of an organization needs to be explained in terms of the multi-
dimensionality of human nature as beings. Individual behavior is embedded in a contextual and
family group.
Organisations
Organisations are an important aspects of modern social experience for all human beings.
Different writers have defined organization in many ways
 - Organisations are collection of people working together in a coordinated and structured
fashion to achieve one or more goals. Barney & Griffin (1992 P.5)
- Organisations are social arrangements for the controlled performance of collective goals.
Huczynski & Buchanan (1991 P.7)
- Organisations are consciously created arrangements to achieve goals by collective means.
Thompson & Mc Hugh
- Organisation is a structural relationship by which an enterprise is bound together and the
framework in which individual effort is coordinated. Koontz & O’Donnell
- A consciously coordinated social unit composed of two or more people that functions on
a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.
Organisation and the System Concept
An organization is made up of positions or units. The units are connected by organizational
linkages.
The linkage pattern between the units is what provides the structure to the entire organizational
systems.

BEHAVIOURAL DISCIPINES THAT CONTRIBUTES TO ORGANISATIONAL

BEHAVIOUR
Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science build on contributions from a number
of behavioral disciplines such as psychology, sociology social psychology and Anthropology.
Psychology
Psychology seeks to measure, explain and sometimes change the behavioral human beings and
animals. Psychology contributions have been mainly at the individual micro level of analysis
while the other disciplines have contributed to our understanding of macro concepts such as
group processes and organization. Industrial and organizational psychologists have contributed
greatly to recent development
Social Psychology
This is generally considered a branch of psychology which blends concepts from both
psychology and sociology to focus on people’s influence on one another. One major area of
study is change- how to implement and how to reduce barriers to its acceptance. Social
psychologists also contribute to measuring, understanding and changing attitudes, identifying
communication patterns, and building trust.
The social psychologists have also contributed to our study or group behavior, power and
conflict.
Sociology
Sociology studies people in relation to their social environmental or culture. Sociologists have
contributed to organizational behavior through their study of group behavior in organisations,
especially formal and complex organisations.
Sociologists have studied original culture, formal organization theory and structure,
organizational technology, communications, power and conflicts.
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.
Anthropologists work on culture and environment has helped in the understanding of differences
in fundamental values and behavior between people in different countries and within the
different organisations.
Our current understanding of original culture, original environment and differences among
natural culture is from the work of anthropologists.
Human behavior occurs in every organization irrespective of size, location and industry.
Organizational behavior is field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and
structure have on behaviors within the organization for the purpose of applying such knowledge
towards improving an organisations effectiveness.
Organisational behavior is a field of study meaning that it is a distinct area of expertise with a
common body of knowledge
- It studies and determinants of behavior in the organization- Individuals, groups and
structure.
- Organizational behavior applies the knowledge gained about individuals, groups and the
effect of structure on behavior in order to make organization function more effectively.
- Organizational behavior is the study of what people do in an organization and how their
behavior affects organizational performance.
- Organizational behavior is concerned with employment related situations.
Everyone is a student of organizational behavior, whether we have thought about it or not, we
have been “reading” people almost all our lines watching their actions and trying to interpret
their actions and trying to interpret what we or predict what we think people will do under
different conditions.
This is common sense approach to organizational behavior. Unfortunately this common sense
approach will lead to many erroneous prediction.
There is therefore to replace common sense approach with systematic approach systematic
approach allows for more accurate predictions of behavior.
System Study of Organisational Behaviour
Behavior is generally predictable. Systematic study or organizational behavior is a means to
making reasonably accurate predictions. Systematic study in the context of Organisational
behavior means looking at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects, and basing
conclusions on scientific evidence i.e. on data gathered under controlled conditions and
measured and interpreted in a reasonably rigorous manner.