DTT2 in

Effect of Transfer Function on Noise/ Device Noise
➢ Define PSD to allow many of the frequency-domain operations used with

deterministic signals to be applied to random signals as well.
➢ Noise can be modeled by a series voltage source or a parallel current source

➢ Polarity of the sources is unimportant but must be kept same throughout the
calculations
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 1
Example of Device Noise
Sketch the PSD of the noise voltage measured across the parallel RLC tank
depicted in figure below.
Modeling the noise of R1 by a current source and noting that the transfer function Vn/In1 is, in
fact, equal to the impedance of the tank, ZT , we write
At f0, L1 and C1 resonate, reducing the circuit to only R1. Thus, the output noise at f0
is simply equal to 4kTR1. At lower or higher frequencies, the impedance of the tank falls and
so does the output noise.

Can We Extract Energy from Resistor?
Suppose R2 is held at T = 0 K (No noise)
This quantity reaches a maximum if R2 = R1 :

PR2,max = kT
Available noise power

A Theorem about Lossy Circuit
➢ If the real part of the impedance seen between two terminals of a passive
(reciprocal) network is equal to Re{Zout}, then the PSD of the thermal noise
seen between these terminals is given by 4kTRe{Zout}
➢ An example of transmitting antenna, with radiation resistance Rrad

Noise in MOSFETS
➢ Thermal noise of MOS transistors operating in the saturation region is

approximated by a current source tied between the source and drain terminals,
or can be modeled by a voltage source in series with gate.

Gate-induced Noise Current
➢ At very high frequencies thermal noise

current flowing through the channel
couples to the gate capacitively

Flicker Noise and An Example
Can the flicker noise be modeled by a current source?

Yes, a MOSFET having a small-signal voltage source of magnitude V1 in series with its gate
is equivalent to a device with a current source of value gmV1 tied between drain and source.
Thus,

Noise in Bipolar Transistors
Bipolar transistors contain physical resistances in their base, emitter, and collector regions,
all of which generate thermal noise. Moreover, they also suffer from “shot noise” associated
with the transport of carriers across the base-emitter junction.
➢ In low-noise circuits, the base resistance thermal noise and the collector
current shot noise become dominant.

Representation of Noise in Circuits
Input-Referred Noise
➢ Voltage source: short the input port of models A and B and equate their output
noise voltage
➢ Current source: leave the input ports open and equate the output noise voltage

Example of Input-Referred Noise
Calculate the input-referred noise of the common-gate stage depicted in figure

below (left). Assume I1 is ideal and neglect the noise of R1.
Solution:
noise voltage noise current

Noise Figure
Noise Factor
Noise Figure
➢ Depends on not only the noise of the circuit under consideration but the SNR
provided by the preceding stage
➢ If the input signal contains no noise, NF=∞

Calculation of Noise Figure
➢ NF must be specified with respect to a source impedance-typically 50 Ω

➢ Reduce the right hand side to a simpler form:

Calculation of NF: Summary
Calculation of NF
➢ Divide total output noise ➢ Calculate the output noise

by the gain from Vin to Vout due to the amplifier, divide it
and normalize the result to by the gain, normalize it to
the noise of Rs 4kTRs and add 1 to the
result

Example of Noise Figure Calculation
Compute the noise figure of a shunt resistor RP with respect to a source

impedance RS
Solution:
Setting Vin to zero:

Another Example of Noise Figure Calculation
Determine the noise figure of the common-source stage shown in below (left) with
respect to a source impedance RS. Neglect the capacitances and flicker noise of
M1 and assume I1 is ideal.
Solution:

Noise Figure of Cascaded Stages
Called “Friis’ equation”, stage increases, implying that the first few stages in a cascade are
the most critical. this result suggests that the noise contributed by each stage decreases as
the total gain preceding that
Noise Figure of Lossy Circuits
The power loss is calculated as:

Example of Noise Figure of Lossy Circuits
The receiver shown below incorporates a front-end band-pass filter (BPF) to

suppress some of the interferers that may desensitize the LNA. If the filter has a
loss of L and the LNA a noise figure of NFLNA, calculate the overall noise figure.
For example, if L = 1.5 dB and NFLNA = 2 dB
Solution:
Denoting the noise figure of the filter by NFfilt,

we write Friis’ equation as
where NFLNA is calculated with respect to the output resistance of the filter. For example, if L
= 1.5 dB and NFLNA = 2 dB, then NFtot = 3.5 dB.

Modulation Types AM, FM, PAM
Modulation Types AM, FM, PAM 2
Modulation Types (Binary ASK, FSK,
PSK)
Modulation Types (Binary ASK, FSK,
PSK) 2
Modulation Types – 4 Level ASK, FSK,
PSK
Modulation Types – 4 Level ASK, FSK,
PSK 2
Analogue Modulation – Amplitude
Modulation
Consider a 'sine wave' carrier.
vc(t) = Vc cos(ct), peak amplitude = Vc, carrier frequency c radians per second.
Since c = 2fc, frequency = fc Hz where fc = 1/T.
Amplitude Modulation AM
In AM, the modulating signal (the message signal) m(t) is 'impressed' on to the
amplitude of the carrier.
Equations for AM
From the diagram vs (t ) = (VDC + m(t ))cos(ωc t ) where VDC is the DC voltage that can
be varied. The equation is in the form Amp cos ct and we may 'see' that the amplitude
is a function of m(t) and VDC. Expanding the equation we get:
vs (t ) = VDC cos(ωc t )+ m(t )cos(ωc t )

Equations for AM
Now let m(t) = Vm cos mt, i.e. a 'test' signal, vs (t ) = VDC cos(ωc t )+Vm cos(ωmt )cos(ωc t )
Using the trig identity cosAcosB =
1
cos( A + B )+ cos( A − B )
2
Vm V
we have v s (t ) = VDC cos(ωc t )+ cos((ωc + ωm )t )+ m cos((ωc − ωm )t )
2 2
Components: Carrier upper sideband USB lower sideband LSB
Amplitude: VDC Vm/2 Vm/2
Frequency: c c + m c – m
fc fc + fm fc + fm
This equation represents Double Amplitude Modulation – DSBAM

Spectrum and Waveforms
The following diagrams

represent the spectrum
of the input signals,
namely (VDC + m(t)),
with m(t) = Vm cos mt,
and the carrier cos ct
and corresponding
waveforms.
Spectrum and Waveforms
The above are input signals. The diagram below shows the spectrum and
corresponding waveform of the output signal, given by
Vm Vm
vs t V DC cos c t cos c m t cos c m t
2 2
Double Sideband AM, DSBAM
The component at the output at the carrier frequency fc is shown as a broken line with
amplitude VDC to show that the amplitude depends on VDC. The structure of the
waveform will now be considered in a little more detail.
Waveforms
Consider again the diagram
VDC is a variable DC offset added to the message; m(t) = Vm cos mt

This is multiplied by a carrier, cos ct. We effectively multiply (VDC + m(t)) waveform
by +1, -1, +1, -1, ...
The product gives the output signal vs t V DC m t cos c t

Modulation Depth
Consider again the equation vs (t ) = (VDC +Vm cos(ωmt ))cos(ωc t ) , which may be written as
 
vs (t ) = VDC 1+ m cos(ωm t )cos(ωc t )
V
 VDC 
Vm V
The ratio is defined as the modulation depth, m, i.e. Modulation Depth m = m
VDC VDC
From an oscilloscope display the modulation depth for Double Sideband AM may be
determined as follows:
Vm
VDC 2Emax
2Emin
Modulation Depth 2
2Emax = maximum peak-to-peak of waveform

2Emin = minimum peak-to-peak of waveform
2 E max − 2 E min
Modulation Depth m =
2 E max + 2 E min
Vm
This may be shown to equal as follows:
VDC
2 Emax 2 V DC V m 2 Emin 2 V DC V m
2VDC + 2Vm − 2VDC + 2Vm 4Vm Vm

m= = =
2VDC + 2Vm + 2VDC − 2Vm 4VDC VDC
Double Sideband Modulation 'Types'
There are 3 main types of DSB
• Double Sideband Amplitude Modulation, DSBAM – with carrier
• Double Sideband Diminished (Pilot) Carrier, DSB Dim C
• Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier, DSBSC
• The type of modulation is determined by the modulation depth,

which for a fixed m(t) depends on the DC offset, VDC. Note, when a
modulator is set up, VDC is fixed at a particular value. In the following
illustrations we will have a fixed message, Vm cos mt and vary VDC
to obtain different types of Double Sideband modulation.
Graphical Representation of Modulation
Depth and Modulation Types.
Depth and Modulation Types 2.
Depth and Modulation Types 3
Note then that VDC may be set to give

the modulation depth and modulation
type.
DSBAM VDC >> Vm, m  1

DSB Dim C 0 < VDC < Vm,
m > 1 (1 < m < )
DSBSC VDC = 0, m = 
The spectrum for the 3 main types of

amplitude modulation are summarised
Bandwidth Requirement for DSBAM
In general, the message signal m(t) will not be a single 'sine' wave, but a band of frequencies
extending up to B Hz as shown
Remember – the 'shape' is used for convenience to distinguish low frequencies from high
frequencies in the baseband signal.
Bandwidth Requirement for DSBAM
Amplitude Modulation is a linear process, hence the principle of superposition

applies. The output spectrum may be found by considering each component cosine
wave in m(t) separately and summing at the output.
Note:
• Frequency inversion of the LSB

• the modulation process has effectively shifted or frequency translated the baseband
m(t) message signal to USB and LSB signals centred on the carrier frequency fc
• the USB is a frequency shifted replica of m(t)
• the LSB is a frequency inverted/shifted replica of m(t)
• both sidebands each contain the same message information, hence either the LSB or
USB could be removed (because they both contain the same information)
• the bandwidth of the DSB signal is 2B Hz, i.e. twice the highest frequency in the
baseband signal, m(t)
• The process of multiplying (or mixing) to give frequency translation (or up-conversion)
forms the basis of radio transmitters and frequency division multiplexing which will be
discussed later.
Power Considerations in DSBAM
2
 V pk 
Remembering that Normalised Average Power = (VRMS)2 =  
 2
we may tabulate for AM components as follows:
v s (t ) = VDC cos(ωc t )+ m cos((ωc + ωm )t )+ m cos((ωc − ωm )t )

V V
2 2
Component Carrier USB LSB
Amplitude pk VDC Vm Vm
2 2
Power 2 2 2
 Vm   Vm 
2 2
VDC V V Total Power PT =
  = m   = m
2 2 2 8 2 2 8 Carrier Power Pc
Power
+ PUSB
2
VDC
2 2
m VDC
2
m 2VDC + PLSB
2 8 8
From this we may write two equivalent equations for the total power PT, in a DSBAM signal
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
V V V V V VDC m 2VDC m 2VDC
PT = DC + m + m = DC + m and PT = + +
2 8 8 2 4 2 8 8
2 m2 m2  m2 
The carrier power Pc =
VDC i.e. PT = Pc + Pc + Pc or PT = Pc 1+ 
2 4 4  2 
Either of these forms may be useful. Since both USB and LSB contain the same information a
useful ratio which shows the proportion of 'useful' power to total power is
m2
Pc
PUSB 4 m2
= =
PT  m2  4 + 2m 2
Pc 1+ 
 2 
For DSBAM (m  1), allowing for m(t) with a dynamic range, the average value of m
may be assumed to be m = 0.3
Hence,
m2
=
(0.3) = 0.0215
2
4 + 2m 2 4 + 2(0.3)2
Hence, on average only about 2.15% of the total power transmitted may be regarded
as 'useful' power. ( 95.7% of the total power is in the carrier!)
m2 1
Even for a maximum modulation depth of m = 1 for DSBAM the ratio =
4 + 2m 2 6
i.e. only 1/6th of the total power is 'useful' power (with 2/3 of the total power in the
carrier).
Example
Suppose you have a portable (for example you carry it in your ' back pack') DSBAM transmitter
which needs to transmit an average power of 10 Watts in each sideband when modulation depth
m = 0.3. Assume that the transmitter is powered by a 12 Volt battery. The total power will be
m2 m2
PT = Pc + Pc + Pc
4 4
m2 4(10) 40
where Pc = 10 Watts, i.e. Pc = = = 444.44 Watts
4 m 2
(0.3)2
Hence, total power PT = 444.44 + 10 + 10 = 464.44 Watts.

464.44 amps!
Hence, battery current (assuming ideal transmitter) = Power / Volts =
12
i.e. a large and heavy 12 Volt battery.
Suppose we could remove one sideband and the carrier, power transmitted would be
10 Watts, i.e. 0.833 amps from a 12 Volt battery, which is more reasonable for a
portable radio transmitter.
Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation
One method to produce signal sideband (SSB) amplitude modulation is to produce

DSBAM, and pass the DSBAM signal through a band pass filter, usually called a
single sideband filter, which passes one of the sidebands as illustrated in the diagram
below.
The type of SSB may be SSBAM (with a 'large' carrier component), SSBDimC or
SSBSC depending on VDC at the input. A sequence of spectral diagrams are shown
on the next page.
Note that the bandwidth of the SSB signal B Hz is half of the DSB signal bandwidth.
Note also that an ideal SSB filter response is shown. In practice the filter will not be
ideal as illustrated.
As shown, with practical filters some part of the rejected sideband (the LSB in this
case) will be present in the SSB signal. A method which eases the problem is to
produce SSBSC from DSBSC and then add the carrier to the SSB signal.
with m(t) = Vm cos mt, we may write:
v s (t ) = VDC cos(ωc t )+ cos((ωc + ωm )t )+ m cos((ωc − ωm )t )

Vm V
2 2
The SSB filter removes the LSB (say) and the output is
v s (t ) = VDC cos(ωc t )+ cos((ωc + ωm )t )

Vm
2
Again, note that the output may be For SSBSC, output signal =
SSBAM, VDC large
V
SSBDimC, VDC small v s (t ) = m cos((ωc + ωm )t )
SSBSC, VDC = 0 2
Power in SSB
 m2 
From previous discussion, the total power in the DSB signal is PT = Pc 1+ 
2 2
 2 
m m
= PT = Pc + Pc + Pc for DSBAM.
4 4
Hence, if Pc and m are known, the carrier power and power in one sideband may be
determined. Alternatively, since SSB signal =
v s (t ) = VDC cos(ωc t )+ cos((ωc + ωm )t )

Vm
2
then the power in SSB signal (Normalised Average Power) is
2
 V 
2 2 2
V V V
PSSB = DC +  m  = DC + m
2 2 2 2 8
2 2
VDC V
Power in SSB signal = + m
2 8
Direct-Conversion Receivers
➢ Absence of an image greatly simplifies the design process

➢ Channel selection is performed by on-chip low-pass filter
➢ Mixing spurs are considerably reduced in number
Chapter 4 Transceiver Architectures 1

LO Leakage
➢ LO couples to the antenna through:

(a)device capacitances between LO and RF ports of mixer and device
capacitances or resistances between the output and input of the LNA
(b)the substrate to the input pad, especially because the LO employs large on-
chip spiral inductors

Cancellation of LO Leakage
➢ LO leakage can be minimized through symmetric layout of the oscillator and

the RF signal path
➢ LO leakage arises primarily from random or deterministic asymmetries in the
circuits and the LO waveform

DC Offsets
➢ A finite amount of in-band LO leakage appears at the LNA input. Along with the
desired signal, this component is amplified and mixed with LO.
➢ May saturates baseband circuits, simply prohibiting signal detection.

Cancellation of DC Offsets
➢ Offset cancellation: high-pass filter

➢ A drawback of ac coupling stems from its slow response to transient input.

Even-Order Distortion: an Overview
Direct-conversion receivers are additionally sensitive to even-order nonlinearity in the RF

path, and so are heterodyne architectures having a second zero IF.
➢ Asymmetries in the mixer or in the LO waveform allow a fraction of the RF

input of the mixer to appear at the output without frequency translation,
corrupting the downconverted signal.
➢ The beat generated by the LNA can be removed by ac coupling, making the
input transistor of the mixer the dominant source of even-order distortion.
Second Intercept Point (IP2)
If Vin(t) = Acos ω1t + Acos ω2t, then the LNA output is given by
Beat amplitude grows with the square of the amplitude of the input tones.

Example of Calculation of IP2
Since the feedthrough of the beat depends on the mixer and LO asymmetries, the beat
amplitude measured in the baseband depends on the device dimensions and the layout and
is therefore difficult to formulate.
Suppose the attenuation factor experienced by the beat as it travels through the
mixer is equal to k whereas the gain seen by each tone as it is downconverted to
the baseband is equal to unity. Calculate the IP2.
Solution:
From equation above, the value of A that makes the output beat amplitude, kα2A2, equal to
the main tone amplitude, α1A, is given by
hence

Flicker Noise
Since the signal is centered around zero frequency, it can be substantially corrupted by
flicker noise.
We note that if S1/f = α/f, then at fc,
An 802.11g receiver exhibits a baseband flicker noise corner frequency of 200 kHz.
Determine the flicker noise penalty
We have fBW = 10 MHz, fc = 200 kHz, and hence
I/Q Mismatch: Sources
➢ Separation into quadrature phases can

be accomplished by shifting either the
RF signal or the LO waveform by 90°.
➢ Errors in the 90° phase shift circuit
and mismatches between the
quadrature mixers result in imbalances
in the amplitudes and phases of the
baseband I and Q outputs.

I/Q Mismatch in Direct-Conversion Receivers And
Heterodyne Topologies
➢ Quadrature mismatches tend to be larger in direct-conversion receivers than in

heterodyne topologies.
➢ This occurs because
(1) the propagation of a higher frequency (fin) through quadrature mixers
experiences greater mismatches;
(2) the quadrature phases of the LO itself suffer from greater mismatches at
higher frequencies;
Effect of I/Q Mismatch (Ⅰ)
Let us lump all of the gain and phase mismatches shown below:

Effect of I/Q Mismatch (Ⅱ)
We now examine the results for two special cases:
(1) ε ≠ 0, θ = 0 : the quadrature baseband symbols are scaled differently in amplitude,
(2) ε = 0, θ ≠ 0 : each baseband output is corrupted by a fraction of the data symbols in the
other output

Image-Reject Receivers: 90 °Phase Shift—Cosine
Signal
Before studying these architectures, we must define a “shift-by-90 °” operation.
➢ The impulse at +ωc is rotated clockwise

and that at –ωc counterclockwise

Image-Reject Receivers: 90 °Phase Shift—
Modulated Signal
Similarly, for a narrowband modulated signal:
➢ We write in the frequency domain:
➢ The shift-by-90 ° operation is also

called the “Hilbert transform”.

Examples of Hilbert Transform
In phasor diagrams, we simply multiply a phasor by -j to rotate it by 90°

clockwise. Is that inconsistent with the Hilbert transform?
No, it is not. A phasor is a representation of Aexp(jωct), i.e., only the positive frequency
content. That is, we implicitly assume that if Aexp(jωct) is multiplied by -j, then Aexp(-jωct) is
also multiplied by +j.
Plot the spectrum of Acos ωct + jA sinωct.
Multiplication of the spectrum of Asinωct by j rotates both impulses by 90 °
counterclockwise. Upon adding this spectrum to that Acos ωct, we obtain the one-sided
spectrum shown below (right). This is, of course, to be expected because Acos ωct + jA
sinωct = Aexp(-jωct), whose Fourier transform is a single impulse located at ω = +ωc.

Example of I + jQ
A narrowband signal I(t) with a real spectrum is shifted by 90 ° to produce Q(t).

Plot the spectrum of I(t) + jQ(t).
We first multiply I(ω) by -jsgn(ω) and then, in a manner similar to the previous example,
multiply the result by j. The spectrum of jQ(t) therefore cancels that of I(t) at negative
frequencies and enhances it at positive frequencies. The one-sided spectrum of I(t) + jQ(t)
proves useful in the
analysis of
transceivers.

Implementation of the 90° Phase Shift
The high-pass and low-pass transfer functions are respectively given by:
We can therefore consider Vout2 as the Hilbert

transform of Vout1 at frequencies close to (R1C1)-1

Another Approach to Implement the 90° Phase
Shift
➢ The RF input is mixed with the quadrature phases of the LO so as to translate

the spectrum to a non-zero IF.
➢ The IF spectrum emerging from the lower arm is the Hilbert transform of that
from the upper arm.
Low-Side Injection of the Above Implementation
The realization above assumes high-side injection for the LO. Repeat the analysis
for low-side injection.
Figures below show the spectra for mixing with cos ωLOt and sin ωLOt, respectively. In this
case, the IF component in the lower arm is the negative of the Hilbert transform of that in the
upper arm.

How Can the Image Components Cancel Each Other?
➢ Is I(t) + Q(t) free from the image? Since the image components in Q(t) are 90°
out of phase with respect to those in I(t), this summation still contains the
image.
Hartley Architecture
If we shift I(t) or Q(t) by another 90 ° before adding them, the image may be removed.
➢ The low-pass filters are inserted to remove the unwanted high-frequency

components generated by the mixers

Operation of Hartley’s Architecture
We assume low-side injection and apply a 90° phase shift to the Hilbert transforms of the
signal and the image (the Q arm)
.
➢ Multiplication of Qsig by -jsgn(ω) rotates and superimposes the spectrum of

Qsig on that of Isig, doubling the signal amplitude. On the other hand,
multiplication of Qim by –jsgn(ω) creates the opposite of Iim, canceling the
image.
Analytical Expression of Hartley’s Architecture
An eager student constructs the Hartley architecture but with high-side injection.
Explain what happens.
We note that the quadrature converter takes the Hilbert transform of the signal and the
negative Hilbert transform of the image. Thus, with another 90° phase shift, the outputs C
and A in figure above contain the signal with opposite polarities and the image with the
same polarity. The circuit therefore operates as a “signal-reject” receiver! Of course, the
design is salvaged if the addition is replaced with subtraction.
Represent the received signal and image as x(t) = Asig cos(ωct + Φsig) + Aim cos(ωimt + Φim),
obtaining the signal at point A and B:
It follows that:
Upon addition of xA(t) and xC(t), we retain the signal and reject the image.
The

Realization of 90 °Phase Shift of Hartley
Architecture
The 90 ° phase shift depicted before is typically realized as a +45 ° shift in one path and
-45 ° shift in the other.
➢ This is because it is difficult to shift a single signal by 90 ° while circuit

components vary with process and temperature.

Direct-Conversion Transmitters: Overview
The above expression of a GMSK waveform can be generalized to any narrowband
modulated signal:
We therefore define the quadrature baseband signals as
This topology directly translates the baseband spectrum to the RF carrier by means of a
“quadrature upconverter”.
Direct-Conversion Transmitters: I/Q Mismatch
The I/Q mismatch in direct-conversion receivers results in “cross-talk” between the
quadrature baseband outputs or, equivalently, distortion in the constellation.
For the four points in the constellation:

Modern Direct-Conversion Transmitters
➢ Most of today’s direct-conversion transmitters avoid an oscillator frequency

equal to the PA output frequency.
➢ This architecture is popular for two reasons:
(1) injection pulling is greatly reduced
(2) the divider readily provides quadrature phases of the carrier

Heterodyne Transmitters
Perform the signal upconversion in two steps so that the LO frequency remains far from the
PA output spectrum
➢ As with the receiver counterpart, one advantage of this architecture is that the
I/Q upconversion occurs at a significantly lower frequency than the carrier,
exhibiting smaller gain and phase mismatches.
Sliding-IF TX
In analogy with the sliding-IF receiver architecture, we eliminate the first oscillator in the
above TX and derive the required phases from the second oscillator
➢ We call the LO waveforms at ω1/2 and ω1 the first and second LOs,
respectively.

Chapter Outline
Heterodyne Direct-Conversion
Receivers Receivers
✓ Problem of Image ✓ LO Leakage and Offsets
✓ Mixing Spurs ✓ Even-Order Nonlinearity
✓ Sliding-IF RX ✓ I/Q Mismatch
Image-Reject and Transmitter

Low-IF Receivers Architecture
✓ Hartley and Weaver Receivers ✓ TX Baseband Processing
✓ Low-IF Receivers ✓ Direct-Conversion TX
✓ Polyphase Filters ✓ Heterodyne and Sliding-IF TX

General Considerations: Narrow Channel Bandwidth
➢ Narrow channel bandwidth impacts the RF design of the transceiver.

Can We Simply Filter the Interferers to Relax the
Receiver Linearity Requirement?
➢ First, the filter must provide a very high Q

➢ Second, the filter would need a variable, yet precise center frequency

Channel Selection and Band Selection
➢ All of the stages in the receiver chain that precede channel-selection filtering
must be sufficiently linear
➢ Channel selection must be deferred to some other point where center
frequency is lower and hence required Q is more reasonable
➢ Most receiver front ends do incorporate a “band-select” filter

Duplexer Characteristics
➢ The front-end band-select filter suffers from a trade-off between its selectivity
and its in-band loss because the edges of the band-pass frequency response
can be sharpened only by increasing the order of the filter.
➢ Front-end loss directly raises the NF of the entire receiver

TX-RX Feedthrough
➢ In full-duplex standards, the TX and the RX operate concurrently.

➢ With a 1-W TX power, the leakage sensed by LNA can reach -20dBm, dictating
a substantially higher RX compression point.

An Example of TX-RX Leakage
Explain how a band-pass filter following the LNA can alleviate the TX-RX leakage
in a CDMA system.
Solution:
As depicted in below, if the BPF provides additional rejection in the TX band, the linearity
required of the rest of the RX chain is proportionally relaxed. The LNA compression point,
however, must still be sufficiently high.

Basic Heterodyne Receivers
➢ “Heterodyne” receivers employ an LO frequency unequal to ωin and hence a

nonzero IF
➢ A Mixer performing downconversion.
➢ Due to its high noise, the downconversion mixer is preceded by a low-noise
amplifier
How Does a Heterodyne Receiver Cover a Given
Frequency Band?
➢ Constant LO: each RF channel is downconverted to a different IF channel
➢ Constant IF: LO frequency is variable, all RF channels within the band of

interest translated to a single value of IF.
Basic Heterodyne Receivers: Problem of Image
➢ Two spectra located symmetrically around ωLO are downconverted to the IF

An Example of Image (Ⅰ)
Suppose two channels at ω1 and ω2 have been received and ω1 < ω2. Study the
downconverted spectrum as the LO frequency varies from below ω1 to above ω2.
Solution: ωLO < ω1 ωLO slightly above ω1

An Example of Image (Ⅱ)
Suppose two channels at ω1 and ω2 have been received and ω1 < ω2. Study the
downconverted spectrum as the LO frequency varies from below ω1 to above ω2.
Solution:
ωLO midway between ω1 and ω2 ωLO > ω2

Another Example of Image
Formulate the downconversion above using expressions for the desired signal
and the image.
Solution: and
We observe that the components at ωin +ωLO and ωim +ωLO are removed by low-pass filtering,
and those at ωin - ωLO = -ωIF and ωim - ωLO = +ωIF coincide.
Image Rejection
➢ The most common approach is to precede the mixer with an “image-reject filter”
➢ A filter with high image rejection typically appears between the LNA and the
mixer so that the gain of the LNA lowers the filter’s contribution to the receiver
noise figure
➢ The linearity and selectivity required of the image-reject filter have dictated
passive, off-chip implementations.

Image Rejection versus Channel Selection
➢ A high IF allows substantial rejection of the image.
➢ A low IF helps with the suppression of in-band interferers.

An Example of Noise Figure in Receiver
An engineer is to design a receiver for space applications with no concern for

interferers. The engineer constructs the heterodyne front end shown in figure
below (left), avoiding band-select and image-select filters. Explain why this design
suffers from a relatively high noise figure.
Even in the absence of interferers, the thermal noise produced by the antenna and the LNA
in the image band arrives at the input of the mixer. Thus, the desired signal, the thermal
noise in the desired channel, and the thermal noise in the image band are downconverted to
IF, leading to a higher noise figure for the receiver (unless the LNA has such a limited
bandwidth that it suppresses the noise in the image band). An image-reject filter would
remove the noise in the image band. We return to this effect in Chapter 6.

Dual Downconversion (Ⅰ)
➢ The front-end filter selects the band while providing some image rejection as
well (Point B)
Dual Downconversion (Ⅱ)
➢ After amplification and image-reject filtering, spectrum of C obtained

➢ Sufficiently linear mixer translates desired channel and adjacent interferers to
first IF (Point D)
➢ Partial channel selection BPF3 permits the use of a second mixer with
reasonable linearity. (Point E)
➢ Spectrum is translated to second IF. (Point F)

Receiver Architectures
➢ BPF4 suppresses the interferers to acceptably low levels (Point G)

➢ An optimum design scales both the noise figure and the IP3 of each stage
according to the total gain preceding that stage.

Another Example of Image
Assuming low-side injection for both downconversion mixers in figure above,

determine the image frequencies.
Solution:
As shown below, the first image lies at 2ωLO1 -ωin. The second image is located at 2ωLO2 -
(ωin - ωLO1).

Zero Second IF
➢ To avoid secondary image, most modern heterodyne receivers employ a zero

second IF.
➢ In this case, the image is the signal itself. No interferer at other frequencies
can be downconverted as an image to a zero center frequency if ωLO2=ωIF1

Example of Zero Second IF
Suppose the desired signal in figure above is accompanied by an interferer in the

adjacent channel. Plot the spectrum at the second IF if ωLO2 = ωIF1.
As shown below, the desired channel appears at ± ωIF1 and is accompanied by the
interferer. Upon mixing in the time domain, the spectrum at negative frequencies is
convolved with the LO impulse at +ωLO2, sliding to a zero center frequency for the desired
channel. Similarly, the spectrum at positive frequencies is convolved with the impulse at
-ωLO2 and shifted down to zero. The output thus consists of two copies of the desired
channel surrounded by the interferer spectrum at both positive and negative frequencies.

Symmetrically-modulated versus Asymmetrically-
modulated Signal
AM signal generation FM signal generation
➢ AM signals are symmetric, FM signals are asymmetric.

➢ Most of today’s modulation schemes, e.g., FSK, QPSK, GMSK, and QAM,
exhibit asymmetric spectra around carrier frequency.

Corruption of the Asymmetric Signal Spectrum
➢ Downconversion to a zero IF superimposes two copies of the signal

➢ If the signal spectrum is asymmetric, the original signal spectrum will be
corrupted

An Example of Self-corruption
Downconversion to what minimum intermediate frequency avoids self-corruption

of asymmetric signals?
Solution:
To avoid self-corruption, the downconverted spectra must not overlap each other. Thus, as
shown in figure below, the signal can be downconverted to an IF equal to half of the signal
bandwidth. Of course, an interferer may now become the image.

How can downconversion to a zero IF avoid self-
corruption?
Quadrature downconversion
➢ By creating two versions of the downconverted signal that have a phase

difference of 90。

Sliding-IF Receivers
➢ Modern heterodyne receivers employ only one oscillator

➢ The second LO frequency is therefore derived from the first by “frequency
division”

Sliding-IF Receivers: Divide-by-2 Circuit
➢ Such divide-by-2 topology can produce quadrature output

➢ The second LO waveforms at a frequency of fLO1/2

Interesting Properties of Sliding-IF Receivers
Fractional bandwidth:
IF
RF input

Sliding-IF Receivers with Divide Ratio of 4
➢ May incorporate greater divide ratios, e.g., 4
➢ Second LO fin/5, slightly lower, desirable because generation of LO quadrature

phases at lower frequencies incurs smaller mismatches
➢ Reduces the frequency difference between the image and the signal, difficult to
reject image.

Analog Electronics for
Communications
Semester 20192
Lecture 6
1
Low-Pass Filter Realizations
2
Low-Pass Butterworth Filter Coefficients
3
Low-Pass Butterworth Filter Attenuation
4
Low-Pass Linear-Phase Filter
Coefficients
5
Chebyshev-Type Filters
6
Chebyshev-Type Filters
7
Chebyshev-Type Filter Response
Response for 3 dB ripple Chebyshev LPF

8
Chebyshev-Type Filter Response
Response for 0.5 dB ripple Chebyshev LPF

9
Low-Pass Chebysev Filter Coefficients –
3 dB Ripple
10
Low-Pass Chebysev Filter Coefficients –
0.5 dB Ripple
11
Standard Low-Pass Filter Design
• The normalized inductors and capacitors
(g1, g2 , ... , gN ) are denormalized using:
Cn Ln R
C= and L=
2fC R 2fC
where Cn , Ln , are the gn normalized values
from the tables
12
Low-Pass Filter Design Example
• Design a Low-Pass Filter with cut-off
frequency of 900 MHz and a stop band
attenuation of 18 dB @1.8 GHz.
• From the Butterworth Nomograph, Amax = 1
and Amin = 18. Amax = 1 since unity gain.
And the order of the filter is N = 3.
• From Butterworth Tables, g1 = g3=1.0 and
g2 = 2.
13
• De-Normalized Values For the Tee-
Configuration Low-Pass Filter Are:
g1RL
L1 = L2 = = 8.8 nH
(
2 900 106 )
g2
C1 = = 7 pF
(
2 900 10 RL 6
)
14
15
Transformation From Low-Pass Filter
16
Table of Bessel Functions
β J0(β) J1(β) J2(β) J3(β) J4(β) J5(β) J6(β) J7(β) J8(β) J9(β) J10(β)
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 0.9975 0.0499 0.0012 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.2 0.9900 0.0995 0.0050 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.3 0.9776 0.1483 0.0112 0.0006 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.4 0.9604 0.1960 0.0197 0.0013 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.5 0.9385 0.2423 0.0306 0.0026 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.6 0.9120 0.2867 0.0437 0.0044 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.7 0.8812 0.3290 0.0588 0.0069 0.0006 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.8 0.8463 0.3688 0.0758 0.0102 0.0010 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.9 0.8075 0.4059 0.0946 0.0144 0.0016 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.7652 0.4401 0.1149 0.0196 0.0025 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1.1 0.7196 0.4709 0.1366 0.0257 0.0036 0.0004 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1.2 0.6711 0.4983 0.1593 0.0329 0.0050 0.0006 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1.3 0.6201 0.5220 0.1830 0.0411 0.0068 0.0009 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1.4 0.5669 0.5419 0.2074 0.0505 0.0091 0.0013 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1.5 0.5118 0.5579 0.2321 0.0610 0.0118 0.0018 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1.6 0.4554 0.5699 0.2570 0.0725 0.0150 0.0025 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1.7 0.3980 0.5778 0.2817 0.0851 0.0188 0.0033 0.0005 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1.8 0.3400 0.5815 0.3061 0.0988 0.0232 0.0043 0.0007 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1.9 0.2818 0.5812 0.3299 0.1134 0.0283 0.0055 0.0009 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.2239 0.5767 0.3528 0.1289 0.0340 0.0070 0.0012 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2.1 0.1666 0.5683 0.3746 0.1453 0.0405 0.0088 0.0016 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2.2 0.1104 0.5560 0.3951 0.1623 0.0476 0.0109 0.0021 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2.3 0.0555 0.5399 0.4139 0.1800 0.0556 0.0134 0.0027 0.0004 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
2.4 0.0025 0.5202 0.4310 0.1981 0.0643 0.0162 0.0034 0.0006 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
2.5 -0.0484 0.4971 0.4461 0.2166 0.0738 0.0195 0.0042 0.0008 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
2.6 -0.0968 0.4708 0.4590 0.2353 0.0840 0.0232 0.0052 0.0010 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000
2.7 -0.1424 0.4416 0.4696 0.2540 0.0950 0.0274 0.0065 0.0013 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000
2.8 -0.1850 0.4097 0.4777 0.2727 0.1067 0.0321 0.0079 0.0016 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000
2.9 -0.2243 0.3754 0.4832 0.2911 0.1190 0.0373 0.0095 0.0020 0.0004 0.0001 0.0000
3 -0.2601 0.3391 0.4861 0.3091 0.1320 0.0430 0.0114 0.0025 0.0005 0.0001 0.0000
3.1 -0.2921 0.3009 0.4862 0.3264 0.1456 0.0493 0.0136 0.0031 0.0006 0.0001 0.0000
3.2 -0.3202 0.2613 0.4835 0.3431 0.1597 0.0562 0.0160 0.0038 0.0008 0.0001 0.0000
3.3 -0.3443 0.2207 0.4780 0.3588 0.1743 0.0637 0.0188 0.0047 0.0010 0.0002 0.0000
3.4 -0.3643 0.1792 0.4697 0.3734 0.1892 0.0718 0.0219 0.0056 0.0012 0.0002 0.0000
3.5 -0.3801 0.1374 0.4586 0.3868 0.2044 0.0804 0.0254 0.0067 0.0015 0.0003 0.0001
3.6 -0.3918 0.0955 0.4448 0.3988 0.2198 0.0897 0.0293 0.0080 0.0019 0.0004 0.0001
3.7 -0.3992 0.0538 0.4283 0.4092 0.2353 0.0995 0.0336 0.0095 0.0023 0.0005 0.0001
3.8 -0.4026 0.0128 0.4093 0.4180 0.2507 0.1098 0.0383 0.0112 0.0028 0.0006 0.0001
3.9 -0.4018 -0.0272 0.3879 0.4250 0.2661 0.1207 0.0435 0.0130 0.0034 0.0008 0.0002
4 -0.3971 -0.0660 0.3641 0.4302 0.2811 0.1321 0.0491 0.0152 0.0040 0.0009 0.0002
4.1 -0.3887 -0.1033 0.3383 0.4333 0.2958 0.1439 0.0552 0.0176 0.0048 0.0011 0.0002
4.2 -0.3766 -0.1386 0.3105 0.4344 0.3100 0.1561 0.0617 0.0202 0.0057 0.0014 0.0003
4.3 -0.3610 -0.1719 0.2811 0.4333 0.3236 0.1687 0.0688 0.0232 0.0067 0.0017 0.0004
4.4 -0.3423 -0.2028 0.2501 0.4301 0.3365 0.1816 0.0763 0.0264 0.0078 0.0020 0.0005
4.5 -0.3205 -0.2311 0.2178 0.4247 0.3484 0.1947 0.0843 0.0300 0.0091 0.0024 0.0006
4.6 -0.2961 -0.2566 0.1846 0.4171 0.3594 0.2080 0.0927 0.0340 0.0106 0.0029 0.0007
4.7 -0.2693 -0.2791 0.1506 0.4072 0.3693 0.2214 0.1017 0.0382 0.0122 0.0034 0.0008
4.8 -0.2404 -0.2985 0.1161 0.3952 0.3780 0.2347 0.1111 0.0429 0.0141 0.0040 0.0010
4.9 -0.2097 -0.3147 0.0813 0.3811 0.3853 0.2480 0.1209 0.0479 0.0161 0.0047 0.0012
5 -0.1776 -0.3276 0.0466 0.3648 0.3912 0.2611 0.1310 0.0534 0.0184 0.0055 0.0015

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Effect of Transfer Function on Noise/ Device Noise

➢ Define PSD to allow many of the frequency-domain operations used with

➢ Noise can be modeled by a series voltage source or a parallel current source

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 2

Suppose R2 is held at T = 0 K (No noise)

This quantity reaches a maximum if R2 = R1 :

Available noise power

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 3

➢ An example of transmitting antenna, with radiation resistance Rrad

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 4

➢ Thermal noise of MOS transistors operating in the saturation region is

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 5

➢ At very high frequencies thermal noise

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 6

Can the flicker noise be modeled by a current source?

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 7

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 8

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 9

Calculate the input-referred noise of the common-gate stage depicted in figure

noise voltage noise current

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 10

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 11

➢ NF must be specified with respect to a source impedance-typically 50 Ω

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 12

➢ Divide total output noise ➢ Calculate the output noise

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 13

Compute the noise figure of a shunt resistor RP with respect to a source

Setting Vin to zero:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 14

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 15

The power loss is calculated as:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 17

The receiver shown below incorporates a front-end band-pass filter (BPF) to

Denoting the noise figure of the filter by NFfilt,

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 18

Consider a 'sine wave' carrier.

vs (t ) = VDC cos(ωc t )+ m(t )cos(ωc t )

Components: Carrier upper sideband USB lower sideband LSB

Amplitude: VDC Vm/2 Vm/2

This equation represents Double Amplitude Modulation – DSBAM

The following diagrams

VDC is a variable DC offset added to the message; m(t) = Vm cos mt

The product gives the output signal vs t V DC m t cos c t

2Emax = maximum peak-to-peak of waveform

2VDC + 2Vm − 2VDC + 2Vm 4Vm Vm

There are 3 main types of DSB

• Double Sideband Amplitude Modulation, DSBAM – with carrier

• Double Sideband Diminished (Pilot) Carrier, DSB Dim C

• Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier, DSBSC

• The type of modulation is determined by the modulation depth,

Note then that VDC may be set to give

DSBAM VDC >> Vm, m  1

The spectrum for the 3 main types of

Amplitude Modulation is a linear process, hence the principle of superposition

• Frequency inversion of the LSB

v s (t ) = VDC cos(ωc t )+ m cos((ωc + ωm )t )+ m cos((ωc − ωm )t )

Hence, total power PT = 444.44 + 10 + 10 = 464.44 Watts.