Radiation process:

All bodies (objects) at any temperature above the absolute zeroemit thermal (heat)
radiation in form of electromagnetic waves that form a spectrum as shown below.

Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that progressively carry thermal

radiation away from the source without a need for a medium or through a
vacuum.

Electromagnetic waves usually lie in the infrared region of the spectrum but
could also be emitted in the form of visible light or other wavelengths,
depending on the temperature. The hotter object, the more infrared radiation
emitted.

Radiation is the way through which heat from the Sun or a fire reaches us.
Cameras that take pictures in darkness also take advantage of infrared
radiation. (start here)

WEEK4: (WED 11/05/2022, LESSON3 09.20 – 10.10)

OBJECTIVES:

To define radiation.
To discuss and demonstrate the effect of radiation on temperature of a body.
To discuss the effect of a surface’s colour or texture on absorption or
emission of radiation.
To briefly discuss the emission and absorption of radiation by the Earth’s
surface.

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Defining radiation:

Radiation is the transfer of heat energy from a high temperature object (region)
to a low temperature object (region) by electromagnetic waves (infra-red).

Radiation and temperature:

o During emission of radiation, the particles in the object lose energy, resulting into a
decrease in temperature and internal energy of the object.

 Therefore emission of radiation causes the emitting object to cool down.

 The object that emits (transfers or gives out) more energy than it receives,
eventually cools down.

o During absorption of infra-red radiation, the particles in the object gain energy and move
faster, resulting into an increase in temperature and internal energy of the object.

 Therefore absorption of radiation causes the absorbing object to warm up

(get hotter).
 The object that emits (transfers or gives out) less energy than it receives,
eventually warms (heats) up.
Thermal Equilibrium

 As the object absorbs thermal radiation, it becomes hotter. With time, it begins to emit
more thermal radiation than it absorbs.

 Eventually, the object reaches a point of constant temperature where it absorbs and emits
radiation at the same rate. At this point, the object is said be in thermal equilibrium.

 For an object to stay at constant (room) temperature, it must be emitting and absorbing
infra-red radiation at the same rate, since there is no overall change in the internal energy.
(start here)

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o Emitting radiation means producing (giving out) heat energy. Absorbing radiation means
taking in radiation from a hot object. Reflecting radiation means bouncing off radiation that
falls on the object’s surface.

The effect of surface colour (black or white) and texture (dull or shiny) on
the emission, absorption and reflection of infrared radiation:

The colour (texture) of the object’s surface affects how good the object emits or absorbs
thermal radiation, as summarised below:

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Shiny objects reflect most of the thermal radiation and absorb very little. They also emit very
little, and therefore take longer to cool down.

Explaining how the temperature of the Earth is affected by factors

controlling the balance between incoming radiation and radiation emitted from
the Earth’s surface:

 The Earth receives most of its heat from the Sun in form of thermal radiation. At the same
time, it emits its own thermal radiation, with a slightly longer wavelength than that of the
incoming radiation from the sun (since the Earth’s surface temperature significantly less
than the surface temperature of the Sun)

 The greenhouse gases (such as water vapour, methane, and carbon dioxide) in the
atmosphere absorb the radiation from the Earth’s surface and then remit in all directions,
including, back to the Earth’s surface.

 This process makes the Earth warmer than it would be if these gases were not available in
its atmosphere.

 The temperature of the Earth, therefore, depends on several factors, such as the rate at
which light and infrared radiationfrom the Sun is:

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 o reflected back into space
o absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere or by the Earth’s surface
o emitted from the Earth’s surface and from the Earth’s atmosphere into space

Experiments on Radiation: (start here)

1. An experiment to distinguish between good and bad emitters of infrared radiation

(comparing emitters):

o A Leslie cube whose sides are painted with different colours is filled with boiling water.

o A heat detector (sensor) is placed at the same distance from each side, in turn, and the
corresponding reading is noted.

o The side that gives the highest reading for the same time interval is the best emitter. And
this is the mat–black (just black) surface. Shiny (slivered) surface is the worst emitter.

Factors Affecting Emission of Radiation by a surface:

The amount of thermal radiation emitted by an object depends on the following factors:

o The surfacetemperature of the object (hotter object = more radiation)

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 o The colour of the object (black = more radiation)
o The surface areaof the object (greater surface area = more area for radiation to
be emitted from)
o Nature of the emitting surface (Rough surfaces = more radiation than polished
surface).

2. An experiment to to distinguish between good and bad absorbers of infrared radiation

(comparing absorbers)

o A radiant heater (infra–red lamp) is placed mid-way between two identical metal plates, but
one painted black and the other silvered.

o A drawing pin is attached to each metal plate on the surface facing the heater using
petroleum jelly.

o The heater is then switched on so that each surface is exposed to radiation for the same
time interval.

o The surface whose jelly melts to drop its pin first is a better emitter than the other, and
this is the black surface.

Note:
 Instead of metal plates, conical flasks fitted with thermometers can be used as shown
below.

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 In this case, the thermometer in a conical flask painted black will read a _______________
temperature the thermometer in a silvered conical flask.

3. An experiment to demonstrate the rate of cooling of emitting surfaces:

o Two identical beakers, but one painted black and the other silvered, and each fitted with a
thermometer, are filled with boiling water at the same temperature. The beakers are placed
on a heat resistant surface to reduce heat loss by conduction.

o A stopwatch is started and water in each beaker is allowed to cool for the same time
interval.

o The corresponding temperature drop in each beaker is recorded. It is observed that the
temperature for a black beaker is much higher than that for the silvered beaker.

o A good absorber or emitter also cools at a higher rate.

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Summary from above experiments:

Challenges:

Which nature of surface could be a good emitter of radiation, a good absorber of radiation or a
good reflector of radiation?

Applications and consequences of thermal energy transfer in real life :

1. Metals used in cooking pans, boilers and radiators because they conduct heat well.

2. Metals used for making electric cables because they are good conductors of electricity  
and heat.

3. Wood or plastic is used for handles of saucepans and electric flat irons to protect users  
from electric shocks or burning since they are poor conductors of heat.

4. In power generation, electric cables are protected from the metal of the towers that  
carry them with large glass insulators.

5. Large-capacity batteries contain electrolytes that allow electricity to travel from the  
battery's electrode to the battery's terminals.

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6. Air is a very good insulator. So if a substance contains a layer of trapped air, it can stop
the conduction of heat. For example, wool keeps you warm because it traps a lot of air.
The air trapped in and between our clothes and blankets keeps us warm.

7. In the same way, the air trapped in fur and feathers keeps animals warm. Birds fluff up  
their feathers in winter to trap more air.

8. Heated by the sun, warm air rises above the equator as it is displaced by the cooler,  
dense air sinking to north and south. The result is huge convection current in the Earth’s  
atmosphere. These cause winds across all oceans and continents to provide electrical  
energy or move the sailors.

9. Hot water system

Cold water in the storage tank sinks down to the boiler, where it is heated. The heated
water in the boiler rises to the top of the storage tank. In this way, a supply of hot water
collects in the storage tank from the top down. The storage tank is insulated to reduce
thermal energy losses by conduction and convection. The header tank provides the
pressure to push the water out of the taps. The cold water supply refills the hot water
drawn off.

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10. The refrigerator:
-Heat from the food warms the surrounding air which becomes expands, becomes less dense and
rises upwards.
-At the top, hot air is cooled by the freezer compartment, becomes denser and sinks
downwards.
-This creates a convection current which maintains a cold temperature in the refrigerator.

11. The vacuum flask:

A vacuum (thermos) flask is designed to keep hot liquids hot or cold liquids cold by minimising
(preventing) thermal energy transfer as follows:

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o The vacuum between the double–walled glass contains no particles to pass on heat by
conduction or convection. So a vacuum reduces (minimizes) heat flow (transfer) which occurs
through conduction and convection.

o Silvered surfaces on walls reflect infra-red radiation and reduce heat energy flow by
radiation.

o The stopper is an insulator (made of plastic) to reduce heat flow by conduction. It also
reduces heat flow by convection of air. Lastly, it reduces heat loss that occurs by
evaporation.

-Note that there will still be slight heat loss through conduction up to thin glass walls and
through the stopper.

Note:
The following table summarises the above heat transfers:

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12. Air conditioner

Cold air sinks below the air conditioner and hot air at the bottom of the room rises up. This sets
up a circulating current of air which cools all air in the room.

13. Room heating (radiator)

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Warm air rising above a convector heater or radiator carries thermal energy all around the
room, through uncomfortably, the coolest air is blows around your feet.

14. The solar panel:

The sun’s thermal (infra-red) radiation is absorbed by a matt black surface. The heat is then
conducted through the metal pipes to warm the water. The warm water rises to the top of the
storage tank by convection.

15. Engine water cooling system:

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o Water heated by the engine rises to the top of the engine.
o This water is pumped into the top of the radiator.
o The fan cools the water in the radiator.
o Cooled water falls from the radiator into the engine.

Some common consequences of thermal energy transfer:

 A metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because it conducts heat and may end up burning
the user.

 Convection currents create sea breezes. During the day, the land is warmer and acts as heat
source. During the night the sea acts as the heat source. At times, these breezes can be too
strong collapse buildings and trees (plants).

 A black saucepan cools faster than a white one so it may not keep its contents warm for a
long time and this may be an inconvenience.

 Houses painted white stay cooler than dark ones and this may be uncomfortable especially
during winter period.

Examples:
1. In many hot countries, it is common for houses to produce hot water using solar panels.

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 Explain the features of the solar panel that help it heat the water efficiently.

Solution:

 The thermal radiation (infrared) is able to pass through the glass sheet
 The black metal backing sheet absorbs the thermal radiation (sunlight)
 Being metal (an excellent conductor) it then conducts it into the copper pipes
 The copper pipes (also metal) then conduct the heat into the water
 The insulated material reduces the conduction of heat through the back of the panel,
decreasing heat loss
 The glass also traps air which is a good insulator, preventing heat loss due to conduction
from the front of the panel and preventing heat loss by convection (due to the air being
trapped)

2. Why are houses painted white in hot countries?

Solution:
White reflects heat radiation and keeps the house cooler.

3. Why are shiny foil blankets wrapped around marathon runners at the end of a race?

Solution:
The shiny metal reflects the heat radiation from the runner back in, this stops the runner
getting cold.

4. Explain how an insulator keeps something warm.

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Solution:

This can be explained such lines: “The object warms up the insulator which then warms the
object up”.

 The insulator contains trapped air, which is a poor conductor of heat

 Trapping the air also prevents it from transferring heat by convection
 This reduces the rate of heat loss from the object, meaning that it will stay warmer for
longer

Note:
o Heat does not rise (only hot gases or liquids rise)
o Shiny things do not reflect heat(they reflect thermal radiation)
o Black things do not absorb heat(they absorb thermal radiation)

Activity:

1. Which of the following is not a method of heat transfer?

A. Radiation B. Insulation C. Conduction D. Radiation

2. In which of the following are the particles closest together?

A. Solid B. Liquid C. Gas D. Fluid

3. How does heat energy reach the Earth from the Sun?

A. Radiation B. Conduction C. Convection D. Insulation

4. Which is the best surface for reflecting heat radiation?

A. Shiny white B. Dull white C. Shiny black D. Dull black

5. Which is the best surface for absorbing heat radiation?

A. Shiny white B. Dull white C. Shiny black D. Dull black

6.

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7.

8. Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:

Convection is a method of heat transfer that only occurs in __Fluids______ (liquids and
__gases______).
When part of a fluid is heated the molecules___________ in that region move more
__quickly____ and take up more space. The heated fluid expands and becomes less
_dense______ than the surrounding cooler fluid. The heated fluid ___rises____ on top of the
cooler fluid.
The upward path of the heated fluid is called convection____________current.

9. Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:

Thermal radiation, also known as ___heat_______ radiation, is how heat travels by

_____electromagnetic________ waves.
Radiation travels equally in all __directions______and most quickly through a
_vacum_________ where its speed is 300000___________ km/s.
All objects above absolute zero (___-273_____ oC) give off thermal radiation.
Hot, __dark_____ and rough surfaces emit radiation best.

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Bright and _smooth__________surfaces reflect radiation best.

10. Why do blue jeans feel hotter in the sun than a yellow shirt, even though they are both  
exposed to the same amount of sunlight?
The blue jean fabric absorbs more radiant energy from the sun than the yellow shirt because of its dark
color.

Reducing heat transfer at home(temperature control in buildings):

Cold weather Hot weather

•Use of loft insulation e.g. glass fibre •By painting walls and roofs white reduce
heat absorbed
•Use of air (double–wall) insulation •By using thick walls to prevent heat loss
•Use of double–glazed windows that reduce
heat loss caused by conduction and convection
•Use of lagging around water tanks and pipes

o Energy tends to escape from a hot object, spreading to its cooler surroundings by
conduction, convection and radiation. This can be a great problem. We may use a lot of
energy (and money) to heat our homes during cold weather, and the energy simply escapes.

o A well-insulated house can avoid a lot of energy wastage during cold weather. The insulation
can also help to prevent the house from becoming uncomfortably hot during warm weather.

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o Usually, our houses and offices need to be kept at comfortable temperatures without
continuously spending money in heating or cooling them. In cold winters, thermal losses to
the outside of the buildings should be reduced and, in hot summers, these heat losses must
be increased to keep the building cool. To do this, we look at controlling the amount of
conduction, convection and radiation that happens through the following:

 To reduce conduction losses, walls are made out of poor conductors such as brick and wood.
Thick walls and covering floors covered with thick carpets are good ideas.

 Although glass is a good insulator, it is much thinner than a brick wall and so conduction
through a single pane still causes heat loss. Double glazing reduces conduction, especially if
the space between the two panes of glass is filled with a low-pressure gas (air).

 Hot air in the building will rise via convection currents, so the top part of the building can
be designed to restrict this air flow. Most lofts are insulated with materials such as glass
fibres or even wool to reduce air, which consequently reduces energy loss due to convection
currents transferring energy from the bottom of the house to the roof. Loft insulation
materials also reduce the amount of heat that can be conducted through the roof.

 To reduce energy loss by radiation, the outside surface of the building may be painted in
light colours. This also reduces the rate at which the building heats up in warm climates.

 In these warm climates, the building may also be designed to allow efficient air flow which
increases cooling through convection so that expensive air-conditioning does not need to be
used.

Key points about conduction, convection and radiation:

(i) Metals are excellent conductors of heat. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat.  
Liquids and gases are very poor conductors of heat.

(ii) Trapped air is a very good insulator of heat. Air is a gas and so is a poor conductor.  
Trapping air prevents it from circulating and forming a convection current.

(iii) Heat sources placed at the bottom of things will generally create convection currents.  
Likewise, cooling units placed high up will cool any rising air, causing it to sink again.

(iv) If a piece of apparatus contains a vacuum, then radiation will be the only way heat can  
travel through that part of the apparatus.

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(v)

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